German occupation of north-east France during World War I

475: 576: 146: 75: 387: 329: 657: 707: 718:, created at the start of the occupation, requisitioned supplies, leading to the cessation of industrial activity. This material was then systematically transferred to Germany. Factories emptied of their equipment were sometimes transformed for other uses: hospitals, prisons, stockyards, stables, etc. From the end of 1916, the equipment that remained in place and the buildings themselves were systematically destroyed to suppress competition from French industry after the war. During the retreat of the German army in September and October 1918, the mining installations were dynamited and the galleries flooded. The dismantling of all the breweries in the occupied areas to recover the copper is described in the 897: 876: 816: 584: 784: 836: 800: 888:

Lille and 4,399 in Tourcoing; in total 20,000 in the area, in the proportion of three women for every man. The health inspection imposed on young girls, similar to that imposed on prostitutes, was particularly traumatizing. The deportees were most often employed in agricultural work. Indeed, unlike the cities suffering from massive unemployment following the closure of factories, agriculture lacked manpower due to the departure of the mobilized men. In most cases, the workers (mostly women workers) were taken to the fields and watched by armed soldiers; they were subjected to exhausting work and suffered from malnutrition.

1995: 749: 483: 852: 768: 972: 954:. Economic collaboration was more widespread: voluntary or industrial work accepting orders for the army, mayors diverting food intended for civilians for soldiers, etc. The collaboration also took the form of denunciations, whether of concealed French soldiers, hiding places of weapons, food or objects withdrawn from requisitions. Most of these were motivated by local jealousy and the secret German military police (Geheime Feldpolizei) employed French informants. 572:, France contributed to this aid by making payments to the Belgian government in exile (so that this indirect aid would be officially ignored by German authorities who actually knew about it). The financing of the CRB for a total amount of $ 700,000,000 throughout the war was provided at the level of $ 205,000,000 by the French Treasury $ 386,000,000 by the United States Treasury, $ 109,000,000 by the UK Treasury, and $ 52,000,000 of donations, mainly American). 600:

municipalities paid for the supplies and passed on part of it to the inhabitants. The foodstuffs were transported from Belgium to depots mostly by river, due to rail transport being reserved for the German army. The aid of the CRB alleviated the shortage: its share in the supply is dominant in 1916, 1917 and 1918. The perception among prefects, the returnees, and in the general public was that "without American aid the population would have starved to death."

917:

situation, the requisitions and the abuses led a large number of inhabitants to escape from the suffering. In December 1915, a convoy of 750 only included five forced evacuees. Subsequently, when the number of desired departures began to outnumber the available spots in the convoys, the German authorities refused some of the requests. Some town hall officials who participated in the preparation of the lists were bribed by applicants to obtain a place.

87: 316: 549:, the Senior Commander of the German Army in Belgium. This convention extended the food aid of the CRB, from which Belgium had benefited since October 22, 1914, to the populations of occupied France. The German army gave assurances that the goods would not be requisitioned. As in Belgium, the German authorities were interested in this aid, which avoided hunger riots and made it possible to continue levies on local agricultural production. 942: 929:

provision of food aid to prisoners. All such acts were punishable with imprisonment. It also included the most active and risky actions of resistance, such as sabotage of railway tracks, aid to soldiers, organization of escape networks, publishing and distributing the underground press (with low circulation, in the best of cases several hundred, the press was sometimes limited to a few copies; the most notable was the newspaper

531:

duration of the war. The Germans seized 80% of the 1915 wheat crop, and 75% of the potato crop. They also took the majority of the eggs and cattle. At the end of 1918, the livestock in the territories was reduced to a quarter compared to before the war. Famine loomed in the fall of 1914 and the question of food supplies was the main concern for the authorities in seeking aid from neutral countries.

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wire, and finally the wool of mattresses and pillows, including those of the hospitals. This last confiscation particularly traumatized a starving population, including many patients, who were already deprived of heating and now of bedding, with the use of straw as a replacement being prohibited as well. These requisitions were accompanied by incessant excavations. Many

423:, each published by the respective municipalities under German control. Even this was limited to practical and commercial information. Hence, news from the front could only filter through via underground newspapers with very low circulation or rumors. In practice, the majority of the population remained completely in the dark about external events. 963:

of supplies. Although it is impossible to assess them, illegitimate births resulting from these unions appear to be quite numerous. Some marriages between soldiers and French women have been accepted by the authorities. Such women were generally stigmatized by part of the occupied population. These "Boche women" were often decried upon liberation.

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got their supplies in Belgium; this was a very risky activity, which explains the high prices they charged. At first, some German soldiers and officers helped civilians, which was officially prohibited; but even this source of supply dried up from 1917 on, when the army itself began suffering from a shortage.

697:

The closure of textile factories, the largest employer in the Lille-Roubaix-Tourcoing agglomeration, and metallurgical industries, caused a high rate of unemployment. In 1918, 46,300 inhabitants of Lille received unemployment benefit (36% of the total population), 24,977 in Tourcoing (38%), 23,484 in

668:

Atrocities were committed by the German troops on their entry into France in August and September 1914, which included the destruction of buildings and executions in retaliation for alleged resistance. Approximately 10,000 civilians, who were repatriated in February 1915, were deported to Germany, in

628:

Malnutrition led to epidemics of typhoid in late 1915-early 1916, bacillary dysentery, increased deaths from tuberculosis and contributed to the general excess mortality. The mortality rate in Lille fluctuated according to the supply of food. In December 1915, it stood at 20‰, close to the average of

398:

Within the occupied territory, travel from one municipality to another required authorization from the German authorities and the issuing of a pass. Violations of these traffic rules could be punished with imprisonment or a fine. Such obstacles predictably increased the feeling of confinement for the

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Relations between occupiers and occupied, however, were not uniformly hostile. Cohabitation with soldiers in requisitioned housing was often cordial or even supportive and created bonds of friendship as well as romantic relationships, which could be genuine or motivated to facilitate the requisition

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Work camps were organized for which young girls and young women, torn from their families, were transported and loaded into cattle wagons for distant destinations; for example, from Lille to the Ardennes. The deportations of April 1916, which might be described as round-ups, affected 9,300 people in

730:

As soon as the Germans arrived, all cars had to be handed over to the occupiers. Various products and objects of daily life were requisitioned, such as bicycles, household items, including copper, tin and alloys (essentially all metal objects), rubber (including bicycle tires), skins, oils, leather,

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blockade of her ports, suffered from a lack of food and refused to support the populations of the occupied territories. This included almost all of Belgium, whose population totaled more than 10 million inhabitants. The Germans seized stocks as soon as they arrived and then made requisitions for the

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The memory of the First World War prompted the majority of the population of the northern regions to flee to the south in June 1940. During the occupation of 1940–44, acts of resistance multiplied, collaboration was much weaker than in the rest of France, and the Vichy government was very unpopular

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According to the 1923 censuses of the Ministry of Liberated Regions, out of all the municipalities in the affected areas (including in addition to the occupied areas, that of the front), 620 were completely destroyed; 1,334 were destroyed to a degree of more than 50%; 2,349 were partially damaged;

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The Germans evacuated the women, children and old people from their homes towards other parts of France, not to feed them, but to recover lodgings to house their own troops. After the inhabitants of Lille, whose homes were destroyed by the bombardments of the siege of October 11 and 12, 1914, were

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Heavy monetary contributions were imposed on the municipalities as well. A first contribution of 1,300,000 F was requisitioned from the city of Lille on November 1, 1914 by the German authorities, which was raised to 1,500,000 F per month from January 1915. In total, 184 million F were paid by the

619:

Although subjected to the levies of the enemy, the farmers, who managed to hide part of their production, suffered less from famine. Minors were also relatively privileged in the supply chain. The situation, very difficult in the towns, was particularly dramatic in Lille, which suffered throughout

615:

Trade and catering remained free, but the prohibitive prices of the foodstuffs available made them accessible only to a privileged minority. The development of allotment gardens helped to alleviate the shortage somewhat. Complements were also provided by "go-getters" or "supply men", smugglers who

503:

The Germans requisitioned most of the public buildings for their administration, the "Kommandantur" and for their troops; high schools and colleges were transformed into hospitals. Individual homes could at any time be requisitioned for soldiers. Large restaurants and places to relax were reserved

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As soon as they arrived, the Germans hindered the movement of French residents and prevented the flow of information. Automobiles were requisitioned on October 15, 1914; next, bicycles, telephones and radio telegraphs were confiscated. Even pigeons had to be slaughtered for fear of transmission of

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The birth rate, meanwhile, collapsed. The number of births in Lille dropped from 4885 in 1913 to 2154 in 1915, 602 in 1917, and 609 in 1918. Thus the demographic deficit, the excess of deaths over births, amounted to 14317 from October 1914 to February 1917. In 1918, 80% of adolescents were below

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and the difficult living situation were chronicled by Yves Congar who was only a child at the time. In his notebooks he describes the high inflation of food prices as well as the shortages affecting the territories occupied by the German army. Congar wrote on November 4, 1914, that "we don't have

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The food situation fluctuated; it deteriorated from October 1914 to April 1915; improved from the arrival of aid from the CRB in the spring of 1915; then deteriorated again from 1916. In Lille, the per capita daily rations fell to 1300 calories in 1917, then rose to 1400 in 1918 (intake in normal

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According to economist Alfred Sauvy, the cost of lost property and its restoration is estimated at 34 billion gold francs. Some of the equipment brought to Germany was recovered and the industry restarted fairly quickly in the early 1920s, but the slower reconstruction lasted into the mid-1930s.

916:

The first of these "repatriations" were imposed because the inhabitants preferred, initially, to undergo the difficulties of the occupation than to leave their place of life. Thus, the 450 people evacuated by train in March 1915 included only 47 volunteers. As early as 1915, the difficult supply

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CANF included seven districts, in Lille, Valenciennes, Saint-Quentin, Marle, Tergnier, Fourmies and Longwy. Each commune had a local committee, warehouses and distribution offices. Lille had 60 offices, most of which were set up in schools, with the whole being managed by 800 civil servants. The

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The resistance to the German occupation was evident but varied in degree. It included both passive resistance, such as indifference displayed towards the occupier or refusal to come into contact, and small forms of daily resistance such as opposition to requisitions and forced labor as well as

883:

The inhabitants were subjected to forced labor imposed not only on men but also on women and children starting at the age of 9. Workers were assigned to various jobs such as washing uniforms, earthworks, unloading wagons, and, just as France required for German prisoners, digging trenches and

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It would be hard to find war maps with captions to indicate occupied areas. During the duration of the hostilities, the combatants alone commanded the attention of the world. Considered as stolen and usurped, the occupied territories did not give rise to any particular graphic representation.

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The Food Committee of Northern France (CANF) was created under the patronage of the CRB and the National Relief and Food Committee (Belgian) for the distribution of food. Its administrative headquarters were in Brussels, and its executive committee chaired by Louis Guérin, a member of the

933:, which changed its name several times and whose group was dismantled by the Germans in 1916). It also entailed the collection of military intelligence communicated to the allies, activity organized in networks, with the best known being that of Jacquet, Trulin and Louise de Bettignies. 552:

The CRB, funded by donations and grants from the United States Government, purchased food from the United States (42%), the British colonies (25%), Great Britain (24%), the Netherlands (9%) and a small quantity from France itself. Food imported into Belgium remained the property of the

673:. In most localities, major personalities were taken hostage. Thus, upon their arrival in Lille, the Germans took 19 hostages, the Mayor, the Prefect, the Bishop, and 8 municipal councilors, who were summoned daily to the Kommandantur and forced to report every 6 days to the Citadel. 504:

exclusively for German troops, and military parades and concerts were organized. The proximity of the front (Lille was only fifteen kilometers away) generated constant troop movements. The larger cities became places of relaxation for soldiers on leave and, in Lille, those of the

545:, at first contacted Switzerland, on the advice of the Commander of the place, General von Heinrich. After this unsuccessful attempt, further steps led to an agreement signed on April 13, 1915 in Brussels between the Commission for Relief in Belgium, or CRB, and General 402:

Connections with unoccupied France were prohibited until April 1916. Only correspondence with relatives who were prisoners of war was authorized. It was limited to one card per month, and was also subject to censorship. Only half of the cards that passed through the

308:

For the whole of the occupied territory, the statistics of the Food Committee of the North of France indicate 2,235,467 inhabitants in 1915, but only 1,663,340 as of June 30, 1918; the decrease over the entire period beginning in the autumn of 1914 was even higher.

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Active collaboration was more limited than that experienced in occupied France during World War II. Collaboration inspired by intellectual or ideological support was practically non-existent except for correspondents of the propaganda periodical

305:'s population fell from 82,644 to 58,674. Some localities near the front and some towns in the Ardennes were emptied of the majority of their population. At the end of the war, Rethel had only 1,600 inhabitants, compared to 5,187 in 1911. 486:

Leisure and entertainment at the Front: German troops relax outside their billet between Lens and Arras on the Western Front. Two are amusing themselves with a piano while a third is preparing food. In the background, a sentry keeps

462:. Partly because of its proximity to the front, occupied north-east France was ruled by the military, rather than by a civilian occupation administration. Economic exploitation of the occupied zone increased throughout the war. 289:. The population of this area greatly decreased during this period due to both the excessive mortality relative to births as well as deportations and voluntary migration to unoccupied France. Thus, the department of the 604:

periods is on average of the order of 2800, a state of undernourishment is reached at below 2000). This insufficient amount of food was, moreover, unbalanced with severe deficiencies, particularly in vitamins.

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Roubaix (38%). In 1916, only 35,000 inhabitants of Lille out of 150,000 could support themselves; three-quarters of the inhabitants of Tourcoing subsisted on relief; 80% of those in Valenciennes alone.

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Perceived as an area of the front, nothing designated them as occupied. This "unthinkable" has been perpetuated in memory. Hence physical violence has been erased from both physical and mental maps.

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the pre-war period, during one of the very rare periods when the supply is approaching normal. It rose to 42‰ in March 1916, fluctuated between 41 and 55‰ in 1917, and between 41 and 55‰ in 1918.

920:

In total, nearly 500,000 people out of a population of around 2 million in 1914 were repatriated via Switzerland from October 1914 until the end of the war. This represented a high rate of 25%.

689:. Small towns were not spared, either. Responding to the request of the municipalities, the French government granted loans through complex financial circuits to the major cities of the region. 474: 991:

The German government refused to extradite those responsible for the abuses and the open trials were unsuccessful. This impunity contributed to the feeling of injustice among the inhabitants.

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of 1907, which defined the rules applicable to the occupation of a territory by an enemy army, due to looting and the imposition of forced labor that contributed to their own war effort.

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Connolly, James (2014). "Fresh Eyes, Dead Topic? Writing the History of the Occupation of Northern France in the First World War". In Broch, Ludivine; Carrol, Alison (eds.).

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of Lille, at the Prefecture of the Nord département. Foodstuffs intended exclusively for distribution could not be traded. Offenses were punished with fines or imprisonment.

815: 822: 783: 240:, which were part of the German Reich from 1871 until their return to France at the end of the war in November 1918, are not included among the occupied territories. 799: 3291: 3115: 2455: 637: 3733: 3761: 2268: 415: 3949: 3676: 3368: 2326: 1920: 351:

While the stories of the battlefield gained notoriety after the end of the war, the suffering of the occupied populations was often relegated to obscurity.

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was located in the zone, representing a major setback for the French industry. A number of important towns and cities were situated within it too, notably

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installing barbed wire, in violation of the Hague Conventions, which prohibited the employment of civilians for the war effort against their homeland.

826: 3803: 540: 269:

The occupied zone was under military administration but some territories were assigned a particular status. The northern part of the valley of the

3644: 3002: 1950: 4189: 1706:

Connolly, James (2014). "Mauvaise Conduite: Complicity and Respectability in the Occupied Nord, 1914-1918". In De Schaepdrijver, Sophie (ed.).

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in September 1914, the Germans gained control of a portion of French territory, which remained under German occupation behind the stabilized

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Interest in the German occupation was in practice limited to the inhabitants of the affected areas in the years following the conflict.

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local narratives and studies were published, but subsequently these territories were neglected by the French historiography of the

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The publication of the prewar newspapers was also stopped, so the only periodicals available were the German propaganda newspaper

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was temporarily liberated in 1917 but the border area remained under German domination for four years: Lille for 1,465 days,

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These territories constituted 3.7% of the area and 8.2% of the population of France itself with about 2 million inhabitants.

386: 4199: 4025: 3445: 2230: 1906: 312:

The majority of the population was made up of women, children and the elderly, with most of the men having been mobilized.

43: 35: 3796: 3120: 2748: 2253: 4010: 328: 3995: 3285: 2687: 2445: 1715: 1677: 706: 656: 74: 1994: 3870: 3564: 3380: 2652: 2123: 1974: 1822: 1761: 1696: 337: 61: 851: 3050: 2088: 1022:

Those who were under occupation considered their experience too difficult to be understood by other French people.

565: 521: 1136:. Publications de la fondation Carnegie pour la paix internationale. Presses universitaires de France. p. 56. 896: 293:, which had 319,000 inhabitants before the war, counted only 175,000 at the time of liberation. The population of 4121: 3926: 3906: 3693: 3629: 3452: 3321: 2225: 2145: 2083: 1650: 2786: 4179: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3901: 3595: 2240: 2215: 2113: 1025:

Those who lived through the occupations of the two world wars consider the first to be infinitely harder than

579:

French children being instructed by a German teacher during the World War I occupation, Champagne, March 1917.

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Meanwhile, the occupied zone included some of the most industrialized parts of France: 64 percent of France's

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was placed under German civil authority until December 1916, and was then subject to the military governor of

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deported, the first evacuations began in January 1915. The trip via Switzerland with re-entry into France at

3845: 3472: 3412: 3309: 3214: 2977: 2763: 2467: 2306: 2205: 1970: 648:, a high school. During this period the Charité hospital remained the only civilian hospital in the city. 4083: 3520: 3505: 3363: 3315: 3080: 2631: 2505: 2418: 2413: 2182: 2170: 2165: 1978: 345: 2692: 1776: 4063: 4020: 3297: 3055: 3040: 2942: 2811: 2379: 2291: 2248: 1945: 670: 526:

The shortage of food began shortly after the arrival of the occupying army. Germany itself, due to the

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German troops wearing the Stahlhelm, advancing through a French town during World War I (c. 1916–18).

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Map of devastation of northeastern France. Zones totally destroyed: red. Significant damage: yellow.

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in 1914, fighting reached French soil early in the war. Though their advance was stopped at the

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is set in German-occupied France where the protagonist works in the occupation administration.

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423 remained intact; 293,043 buildings were completely destroyed and 148,948 severely damaged.

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fell from 217,000 inhabitants at the beginning of 1914 to 112,000 in October 1918 and that of

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France in an Era of Global War, 1914-1945: Occupation, Politics, Empire and Entanglements

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Most of the hospitals were requisitioned by the German army; in Lille, this included the

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Pabert - Journal d'un officier-brasseur dans la France occupée de la Grande Guerre

255:. However, the Franco-Belgian border was maintained and the crossings controlled. 4000: 3840: 3179: 2732: 2707: 2406: 2314: 2153: 1051: 976: 608: 3833: 3813: 3484: 3197: 3035: 2826: 2717: 2573: 2477: 2460: 1030: 1004: 842: 558: 130: 154: 4173: 3944: 3232: 3226: 2662: 2579: 2490: 2007: 1930: 1038: 478:

German military parade on the Place de la République in Lille, December 1914.

169: 119: 1011:. However, two accounts of this "forgotten" history were published in 2010, 3394: 2821: 2012: 1856: 862: 527: 463: 451: 134: 3605: 3510: 3208: 2636: 2057: 1934: 1834:

La guerre des bouches (1914-1918). Ravitaillement et alimentation à Lille

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Committee for the economic and financial history of France, ed. (2016).

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for 1,502 days, and Roubaix from October 14, 1914, to October 17, 1918.

1836:(in French). Villeneuve d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion. 1034: 732: 111: 1072:

is a 2017 novel about a real allied spy ring of the same name, set in

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city of Lille to the occupier in 4 years, 12.9 million by the city of

247:

was also occupied, with the exception of the western part of maritime

86: 3400: 3167: 1008: 906: 686: 407: 404: 315: 302: 281:) was attached to the General Government of Belgium; the district of 233: 1928: 1033:

compared to what was suffered in other parts of France, both in the

900:

French citizens evacuating Bapaume, ca. 1917, in horse-drawn wagons.

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The territory occupied by Germany at the end of 1914 included 10

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The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I

710:

View of an artillery machine shop, Lille, France, 1917 or 1918.

660:

German troops photographed on a Sturmpanzerwagen (A7V tank) in

509: 129:

This entailed various impositions on the population, including

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Occupation of French territory by Germany between 1914 and 1918

2026: 587:

French peasants and a German guard, northeastern France, 1915.

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German soldiers resting during the occupation of the town of

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Scene in front of the cathedral of Laon, France, March 1917.

1876:

La grande guerre dans le Nord et le Pas-de-Calais 1914-1918

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was at different times made by train, car or cattle wagon.

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Monument to the teachers Debordeaux, Poulette and Leroy in

286: 263: 979:, France, showing the devastation of World War I fighting. 805:

Commemorative monument to the national defense in 1870 in

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the occupation more severely than the region as a whole.

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Families separated in Lille during the First World War.

390:

French citizens in Lille reading war reports, ca. 1917.

90:

German occupation of the city hall (hôtel de ville) of

1773:

Les cicatrices rouges 14-18 France et Belgique occupés

1508: 1435: 1423: 1188: 1140: 1387: 1375: 1236: 1224: 1164: 137:, and requisitions of property, services, and goods. 1604: 1592: 1580: 1556: 1411: 1339: 1327: 1291: 1212: 1200: 1091: 1089: 664:, France, 21 March 1918, during Operation Michael. 466:became increasingly common as the war dragged on. 243:The vast majority of the territory of neighboring 1738:International Encyclopedia of the First World War 1734:"Occupations during the War (France and Belgium)" 1490:Denisse, Albert; Le Cars, Franck (October 2020). 1101: 1086: 512:with some 15,000 soldiers for 6,600 inhabitants. 4171: 891: 3003:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers 1708:Military Occupations in First World War Europe 1489: 498: 2042: 1914: 319:Front in 1914. Click to see enlarged version. 561:, until its distribution to the population. 3493: 2049: 2035: 1921: 1907: 1282:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1253: 1251: 491:The German occupation did not respect the 1793: 1477: 1453: 1357: 1260:Public finances in times of war 1914-1918 1182: 62:Learn how and when to remove this message 3292:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary 1873: 1705: 1686: 1429: 1405: 1194: 970: 940: 895: 874: 739:were likewise unbolted and melted down. 705: 655: 582: 574: 481: 473: 385: 327: 314: 144: 106:territory, mostly along the border with 85: 73: 3669:Occupied Enemy Territory Administration 1812: 1751: 1667: 1248: 1158: 4172: 1831: 1770: 1731: 1417: 1393: 1381: 1333: 1321: 1242: 1230: 1206: 1134:Le ravitaillement de la France occupée 1095: 995:in the north-east from November 1940. 100:German occupation of north-east France 3622:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia 2958:Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) 2030: 2018:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia 1902: 1850: 1754:The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers 1672:(2nd ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. 1610: 1598: 1586: 1574: 1562: 1550: 1538: 1526: 1514: 1465: 1441: 1369: 1345: 1309: 1297: 1218: 1170: 1146: 1119: 1107: 1044: 923: 701: 381: 140: 4026:Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne 469: 18: 3955:Ottomans against the Triple Entente 2749:Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes 1029:, and in itself more trying in the 743:Bronze statues demounted and melted 612:half a gram of bread left to eat." 13: 2688:First Battle of the Masurian Lakes 1661: 1132:Paul Collinet; Paul Stahl (1928). 348:for much of the rest of the war. 34:tone or style may not reflect the 14: 4211: 4190:France–Germany military relations 1262:(in French). Paris. p. 213. 957: 3051:Second Battle of the Piave River 2673:Russian invasion of East Prussia 1993: 1894:Journal de la Guerre (1914-1918) 1815:Lille dans les serres allemandes 936: 850: 834: 814: 798: 782: 773:Monument to the dead of 1870 in 766: 747: 623: 522:Commission for Relief in Belgium 44:guide to writing better articles 23: 4122:Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo 3322:Lithuanian Wars of Independence 2056: 1725: 1651:Nord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin 1616: 1483: 870: 725: 692: 515: 157:in part or in full, includingː 4195:Military occupations of France 3945:Austria-Hungary against Serbia 3804:Deportations from East Prussia 3601:1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia 1691:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 1494:(in French). Editeurs divers. 1125: 607:The occupation of the city of 555:American Ambassador to Belgium 301:from 122,723 to 77,824, while 102:refers to the period in which 1: 3856:Ukrainian Canadian internment 1878:(in French). Lille: La Voix. 892:Evacuations and repatriations 714:An administration called the 94:, France, during World War I. 4011:Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement 3310:Estonian War of Independence 2978:Southern Palestine offensive 1853:La France occupée. 1914-1918 966: 733:works of art in public space 434:and 40 percent of the total 395:messages by carrier pigeon. 7: 4200:German military occupations 3965:USA against Austria-Hungary 3364:Turkish War of Independence 3316:Latvian War of Independence 3041:Treaty of Bucharest of 1918 2632:Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo 1644: 755:L'Aveugle et le Paralytique 499:Omnipresence of the Germans 228:The current departments of 10: 4216: 4048:Treaties of Brest-Litovsk 3596:1899–1923 cholera pandemic 3056:Second Battle of the Marne 2943:Second battle of the Aisne 2812:Second Battle of Champagne 2653:German invasion of Belgium 669:particular to the camp of 519: 410:reached their recipients. 338:German invasion of Belgium 336:Owing to the speed of the 323: 4154: 4113: 4034: 3973: 3935: 3879: 3868: 3829:Assyrian genocide (Sayfo) 3772: 3744: 3692: 3614: 3588: 3540: 3433: 3426: 3358:Irish War of Independence 3254: 3136: 3101:Armistice of Villa Giusti 3086:Battle of Vittorio Veneto 3011: 2913: 2840: 2741: 2698:First Battle of the Marne 2645: 2607: 2542: 2533: 2476: 2350: 2339: 2305: 2277: 2239: 2191: 2144: 2137: 2064: 2002: 1991: 1941: 1832:Lembré, Stéphane (2016). 998: 651: 342:First Battle of the Marne 3981:Constantinople Agreement 3274:Armenian–Azerbaijani War 3137:Co-belligerent conflicts 3106:Second Romanian campaign 3076:Third Transjordan attack 2787:Gorlice–Tarnów offensive 2693:Battle of Grand Couronné 1851:Nivet, Philippe (2011). 1794:Buffetaud, Yves (2014). 1771:Becker, Annette (2010). 1732:Wegner, Larissa (2014). 1079: 685:, 25 million by that of 681:, 48 million by that of 4044:Modus vivendi of Acroma 3996:Bulgaria–Germany treaty 3304:Greater Poland Uprising 3204:National Protection War 3081:Meuse–Argonne offensive 3031:German spring offensive 3026:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 2802:Siege of Novogeorgievsk 2777:Second Battle of Artois 2658:Battle of the Frontiers 1874:Le Maner, Yves (2011). 1668:McPhail, Helen (2001). 1656:World War I reparations 1049:Much of the 1928 novel 952:La Gazette des Ardennes 416:La Gazette des Ardennes 365:, Paris: Fayard, 2010, 4069:Paris Peace Conference 4057:Ukraine–Central Powers 3851:Massacres of Albanians 3819:Late Ottoman genocides 3626:Bulgarian occupations 3334:Third Anglo-Afghan War 3298:Hungarian–Romanian War 3116:Naval Victory Bulletin 3111:Armistice with Germany 3061:Hundred Days Offensive 2988:Battle of La Malmaison 2938:Second battle of Arras 2905:Battle of Transylvania 2759:Second Battle of Ypres 2627:Sarajevo assassination 2516:South African Republic 1929:Countries occupied by 1813:Deruyck, René (1992). 1752:Kennedy, Paul (1989). 1324:, pp. 24, 56, 57. 1015:by Philippe Nivet and 980: 946: 901: 880: 711: 665: 638:Saint-Sauveur hospital 588: 580: 488: 479: 391: 376: 333: 320: 150: 95: 83: 4180:France in World War I 4079:Treaty of St. Germain 4052:Russia–Central Powers 4006:Sykes–Picot Agreement 3834:Pontic Greek genocide 3809:Destruction of Kalisz 3785:Eastern Mediterranean 3346:Polish–Lithuanian War 3128:Armistice of Belgrade 3091:Armistice of Salonica 3021:Operation Faustschlag 2968:Third Battle of Oituz 2890:Baranovichi offensive 2858:Lake Naroch offensive 2832:Battle of Robat Karim 2807:Vistula–Bug offensive 2782:Battles of the Isonzo 2713:First Battle of Ypres 1710:. London: Routledge. 1529:, p. 133 to 141. 1017:Les Cicatrices Rouges 974: 944: 899: 878: 709: 659: 586: 578: 568:'s intervention with 485: 477: 389: 363:Les Cicatrices Rouges 353: 331: 318: 148: 89: 77: 4074:Treaty of Versailles 3790:Mount Lebanon famine 3705:in the United States 3673:Russian occupations 3387:Turkish–Armenian War 3328:Polish–Ukrainian War 3268:Ukrainian–Soviet War 3215:Central Asian Revolt 2998:Armistice of Focșani 2728:Battle of Sarikamish 2678:Battle of Tannenberg 2074:Military engagements 1855:(in French). Paris: 1775:(in French). Paris: 1312:, pp. 158, 159. 1122:, pp. 311, 312. 823:François André-Bonte 775:Charleville-Mézières 534:The Mayor of Lille, 506:German General Staff 436:coal mining capacity 430:, 24 percent of its 4141:They shall not pass 4064:Treaty of Bucharest 4021:Treaty of Bucharest 3960:USA against Germany 3937:Declarations of war 3641:German occupations 3554:British casualties 3413:Soviet–Georgian War 3340:Egyptian Revolution 3280:Armeno-Georgian War 3144:Somaliland campaign 3096:Armistice of Mudros 2973:Battle of Caporetto 2963:Battle of Mărășești 2933:Zimmermann telegram 2928:February Revolution 2873:Battle of the Somme 2797:Bug-Narew Offensive 2772:Battle of Gallipoli 2764:Sinking of the RMS 2556:Scramble for Africa 2550:Franco-Prussian War 2206:Sinai and Palestine 1817:. La Voix du Nord. 1624:"The Alice Network" 1577:, pp. 365–368. 1553:, pp. 293–298. 1541:, pp. 210–248. 1372:, pp. 164–168. 1019:by Annette Becker. 594:Chamber of Commerce 432:steel manufacturing 428:pig-iron production 399:French population. 116:military occupation 4101:Treaty of Lausanne 4016:Paris Economy Pact 3950:UK against Germany 3880:Entry into the war 3846:Urkun (Kyrgyzstan) 3565:Ottoman casualties 3375:Franco-Turkish War 3255:Post-War conflicts 3239:Russian Revolution 3221:Invasion of Darfur 3186:Kelantan rebellion 3174:Kurdish rebellions 3150:Mexican Revolution 2983:October Revolution 2948:Kerensky offensive 2923:Capture of Baghdad 2900:Monastir offensive 2885:Brusilov offensive 2723:Battle of Kolubara 2562:Russo-Japanese War 1468:, pp. 96–107. 1149:, pp. 15, 24. 1057:Hans Herbert Grimm 1045:In popular culture 981: 947: 924:Acts of resistance 902: 881: 712: 702:Industrial plunder 666: 589: 581: 570:President Poincaré 489: 480: 392: 382:Isolated territory 334: 321: 205:Meurthe-et-Moselle 151: 141:Territory occupied 96: 84: 4167: 4166: 4150: 4149: 4134:The Golden Virgin 4128:Mutilated victory 4109: 4108: 4089:Treaty of Trianon 4084:Treaty of Neuilly 3991:Damascus Protocol 3864: 3863: 3824:Armenian genocide 3781:Allied blockades 3753:Belgian refugees 3536: 3535: 3446:Strategic bombing 3422: 3421: 3407:Franco-Syrian War 3381:Greco-Turkish War 3369:Anglo-Turkish War 3352:Polish–Soviet War 3286:German Revolution 3262:Russian Civil War 3245:Finnish Civil War 3071:Battle of Megiddo 3046:Battle of Goychay 2993:Battle of Cambrai 2953:Battle of Mărăști 2868:Battle of Jutland 2848:Erzurum offensive 2703:Siege of Przemyśl 2683:Siege of Tsingtao 2668:Battle of Galicia 2598:Second Balkan War 2586:Italo-Turkish War 2543:Pre-War conflicts 2529: 2528: 2419:Portuguese Empire 2335: 2334: 2297:German New Guinea 2279:Asian and Pacific 2024: 2023: 1885:978-2-84393-181-9 1866:978-2-200-35094-9 1843:978-2-7574-1280-0 1805:978-2-84673-193-5 1798:. Ysec éditions. 1796:Le Nord en guerre 1786:978-2-213-65551-2 1756:. Vintage Books. 1517:, pp. 85–96. 1501:979-10-699-5337-6 1444:, pp. 15–24. 1269:978-2-11-129404-2 1173:, pp. 33–36. 1161:, pp. 265–6. 1070:The Alice Network 1013:La France Occupée 975:Postcard view of 720:Journal de Pabert 536:Charles Delesalle 470:Living conditions 421:Bulletin de Lille 371:978 2 213 65551 2 273:River (including 72: 71: 64: 38:used on Knowledge 36:encyclopedic tone 4207: 4094:Treaty of Sèvres 3986:Treaty of London 3877: 3876: 3655:Northeast France 3586: 3585: 3558:Parliamentarians 3491: 3490: 3453:Chemical weapons 3431: 3430: 3192:Senussi campaign 3162:Muscat rebellion 3156:Maritz rebellion 3124: 3066:Vardar offensive 2895:Battle of Romani 2863:Battle of Asiago 2853:Battle of Verdun 2817:Kosovo offensive 2592:First Balkan War 2540: 2539: 2439:Russian Republic 2348: 2347: 2142: 2141: 2084:Economic history 2051: 2044: 2037: 2028: 2027: 1997: 1923: 1916: 1909: 1900: 1899: 1889: 1870: 1847: 1828: 1809: 1790: 1767: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1721: 1702: 1683: 1638: 1637: 1635: 1634: 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3548: 3547:Civilian impact 3546: 3532: 3489: 3418: 3250: 3180:Ovambo Uprising 3132: 3118: 3007: 2909: 2836: 2754:Battle of Łomża 2737: 2733:Christmas truce 2708:Race to the Sea 2641: 2603: 2525: 2496:Austria-Hungary 2472: 2407:Empire of Japan 2344: 2342: 2331: 2315:U-boat campaign 2301: 2273: 2235: 2187: 2133: 2114:Popular culture 2060: 2055: 2025: 2020: 1998: 1989: 1956:Northern France 1937: 1927: 1886: 1867: 1844: 1825: 1806: 1787: 1764: 1742: 1740: 1728: 1718: 1699: 1680: 1664: 1662:Further reading 1647: 1642: 1641: 1632: 1630: 1622: 1621: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1597: 1593: 1585: 1581: 1573: 1569: 1561: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1537: 1533: 1525: 1521: 1513: 1509: 1502: 1488: 1484: 1476: 1472: 1464: 1460: 1452: 1448: 1440: 1436: 1428: 1424: 1416: 1412: 1404: 1400: 1392: 1388: 1380: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1356: 1352: 1344: 1340: 1332: 1328: 1320: 1316: 1308: 1304: 1296: 1292: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1256: 1249: 1241: 1237: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1213: 1205: 1201: 1193: 1189: 1181: 1177: 1169: 1165: 1157: 1153: 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1197:, p. 234. 1187: 1185:, p. 216. 1183:Buffetaud 2014 1175: 1163: 1151: 1139: 1124: 1112: 1100: 1084: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1046: 1043: 1039:occupied zones 1005:interwar years 1000: 997: 968: 965: 959: 958:Accommodations 956: 938: 935: 925: 922: 893: 890: 872: 869: 868: 867: 856: 849: 847: 843:Pierre Legrand 840: 833: 831: 820: 813: 811: 804: 797: 795: 788: 781: 779: 772: 765: 763: 753: 746: 744: 727: 724: 703: 700: 694: 691: 653: 650: 625: 622: 566:Herbert Hoover 559:Brand Whitlock 520:Main article: 517: 514: 500: 497: 471: 468: 383: 380: 358: 325: 322: 223: 222: 215: 208: 201: 194: 187: 180: 173: 166: 142: 139: 70: 69: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4212: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4153: 4143: 4142: 4138: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4102: 4099: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4041: 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161:70% of the 124:World War I 4174:Categories 3974:Agreements 3774:War crimes 3650:Luxembourg 3543:Casualties 2414:Montenegro 2249:South West 2129:Technology 2119:Propaganda 2109:Opposition 1961:Luxembourg 1633:2024-02-10 1611:Nivet 2011 1599:Nivet 2011 1587:Nivet 2011 1575:Nivet 2011 1563:Nivet 2011 1551:Nivet 2011 1539:Nivet 2011 1527:Nivet 2011 1515:Nivet 2011 1466:Nivet 2011 1442:Nivet 2011 1370:Nivet 2011 1346:Nivet 2011 1310:Nivet 2011 1298:Nivet 2011 1219:Nivet 2011 1171:Nivet 2011 1147:Nivet 2011 1120:Nivet 2011 1108:Nivet 2011 857:Statue of 841:Statue of 821:Statue of 671:Holzminden 644:, and the 564:Following 112:Luxembourg 3871:Diplomacy 3578:Olympians 3501:Australia 3468:Logistics 3401:Vlora War 3330:(1918–19) 3306:(1918–19) 3300:(1918–19) 3288:(1918–19) 3235:(1916–17) 3217:(1916–17) 3168:Zaian War 3158:(1914–15) 2878:first day 2766:Lusitania 2594:(1912–13) 2588:(1911–12) 2576:(1908–09) 2570:(1905–06) 2552:(1870–71) 2341:Principal 2201:Gallipoli 2104:Memorials 2089:Geography 2079:Aftermath 2005:See also: 1979:Lithuania 1743:6 October 1628:Goodreads 1278:cite book 1009:Great War 967:Aftermath 907:Annemasse 845:in Lille. 829:in Lille. 687:Tourcoing 408:Red Cross 405:Frankfurt 303:Tourcoing 251:, around 234:Haut-Rhin 4159:Category 3746:Refugees 3712:Italians 3701:Germans 3661:Ober Ost 3441:Aviation 2535:Timeline 2506:Bulgaria 2287:Tsingtao 2264:Togoland 2211:Caucasus 2146:European 2138:Theatres 1983:Courland 1946:Moresnet 1645:See also 977:Marville 931:Patience 735:made of 456:Maubeuge 419:and the 359:— 291:Ardennes 258:Part of 249:Flanders 230:Bas-Rhin 219:Ardennes 217:100% of 210:4.8% of 80:Hautmont 3897:Germany 3797:Germany 3725:Germany 3645:Belgium 3630:Albania 3589:Disease 3569:Sports 3521:Ireland 3434:Warfare 3427:Aspects 2615:Origins 2608:Prelude 2511:Senussi 2491:Germany 2486:Leaders 2424:Romania 2365:Belgium 2360:Leaders 2259:Kamerun 2241:African 2176:Romania 2154:Balkans 2069:Outline 1951:Belgium 1933:during 1931:Germany 1052:Schlump 1003:In the 859:Brennus 825:on the 759:Cambrai 683:Roubaix 679:Cambrai 460:Avesnes 448:Cambrai 373:, p. 10 324:History 299:Roubaix 260:Picardy 245:Belgium 238:Moselle 203:25% of 196:30% of 189:12% of 168:25% of 122:during 118:by the 108:Belgium 3917:Russia 3892:France 3720:Canada 3635:Serbia 3506:Canada 3463:Horses 3415:(1921) 3409:(1920) 3403:(1920) 3397:(1920) 3389:(1920) 3342:(1919) 3336:(1919) 3282:(1918) 3247:(1918) 3241:(1917) 3229:(1916) 3223:(1916) 3188:(1915) 2600:(1913) 2582:(1911) 2564:(1905) 2521:Darfur 2446:Serbia 2429:Russia 2392:Greece 2380:France 2370:Brazil 2216:Persia 2159:Serbia 1975:Poland 1971:Warsaw 1882: 1863: 1840: 1821: 1802: 1783: 1777:Fayard 1760: 1714: 1695: 1676: 1498: 1266: 999:Legacy 737:bronze 652:Abuses 640:, the 510:Carvin 487:watch. 369: 236:, and 212:Vosges 104:French 92:Caudry 4114:Other 3907:Japan 3902:Italy 3729:camps 3573:Rugby 3123:] 2402:Japan 2397:Italy 2375:China 2269:North 1080:Notes 1074:Lille 1064:] 911:Évian 807:Lille 609:Sedan 543:] 444:Douai 440:Lille 295:Lille 283:Briey 279:Fumay 275:Givet 271:Meuse 253:Ypres 198:Meuse 191:Marne 184:Aisne 177:Somme 3694:POWs 3013:1918 2915:1917 2841:1916 2742:1915 2646:1914 2451:Siam 2254:East 1880:ISBN 1861:ISBN 1838:ISBN 1819:ISBN 1800:ISBN 1781:ISBN 1758:ISBN 1745:2015 1712:ISBN 1693:ISBN 1674:ISBN 1496:ISBN 1284:link 1264:ISBN 1037:and 1035:free 791:Laon 662:Roye 458:and 367:ISBN 287:Metz 277:and 264:Laon 163:Nord 110:and 98:The 1055:by 909:or 861:in 757:in 4176:: 3121:It 2016:• 2010:• 1981:• 1977:• 1973:• 1859:. 1779:. 1736:. 1626:. 1288:. 1280:}} 1276:{{ 1250:^ 1088:^ 1076:. 1062:de 1041:. 722:. 557:, 541:fr 454:, 450:, 446:, 442:, 232:, 133:, 126:. 3545:/ 2050:e 2043:t 2036:v 1922:e 1915:t 1908:v 1888:. 1869:. 1846:. 1827:. 1808:. 1789:. 1766:. 1747:. 1720:. 1701:. 1682:. 1636:. 1504:. 1286:) 1272:. 1098:. 865:. 809:. 793:. 777:. 761:. 221:. 214:; 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Index