Genocides in history (before World War I)

10453:, p. 430: "That said, and ever since the initial Eastern seaboard settler wars against the Tsenacommacahs and Pequots in the 1620s and early 1630s, systematic genocidal massacre was a core component of native destruction throughout three centuries of largely 'Anglo' expansion across continental North America. The culmination of this process from the mid-1860s to mid-1880s ... native Araucanian resistance by the Argentinian and Chilean military in the Southern Cone pampas, primarily in the agribusiness interest. In Australia, too, 'Anglo' attrition or outright liquidation of Aborigines from the time of 'first contact' in 1788 reached its zenith in Queensland in these same decades, as a dedicated Native Mounted Police strove to cleanse the territory of indigenous tribes in favour of further millions of cattle stock. Undoubtedly, in all these instances, Western racism and contempt for natives as 'savages' played a critical role in psychocultural justifications for genocide" 14780:. On the orders of General Jacob H. Smith, U.S. troops retaliated against the entire island (600 square miles) of Samar where Balangiga is located. The exchange is known because of two courts-martial: one of Waller, who was later court-martialed for ordering or allowing the execution of a dozen Filipino bearers, and the other of Gen. Jacob H. Smith, who was actually court-martialed for giving that order. The jury is out as to what extent that particular order was carried out, because Littleton Waller actually countermanded it to his= own men and said "Captain David Porter, I've had instructions to kill everyone over ten years old. But we are not making war on women =and children, only on men capable of bearing arms. Keep that in mind no matter what other orders you receive." Undoubtedly, some men did commit atrocities regardless of Waller's commands. 3823: 10477:, pp. 27, 38: "More than any other work, Wolfe’s seminal 2006 essay, 'Settler colonialism and the elimination of the Native' established the 'centrality of dispossession' to our understandings of Indigenous genocide in the context of settler colonialism. His definition of 'settler colonialism' spoke directly to Genocide Studies scholars"; "With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states" 4106:

deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle, attempting to avoid contact with Europeans, into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation. Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk. While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them. They were officially declared "extinct" after the death of

4623: 7357:, p. 160: "Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to the inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin's vision of the nature of the crime of genocide." 2393:, if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it was easy for the dominant group to define the other as subhuman. As a result, the marginalized group might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated. Jones continues: "The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs." 4797:, historian Benjamin Madley recorded the number of killings of Indigenous Californians that occurred between 1846 and 1873. He found evidence that during this period, at least 9,400 to 16,000 Native Americans were killed by non-Indigenous. Most of these killings occurred in more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise"). 10,000 Native Americans were also kidnapped and enslaved. In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June, 2019, California governor 3572:. The population of native cattle had no prior exposure to the disease and as a result, it was unable to fight it off. Despite the violence of the conquest, some historians stress the fact that before the centralization process was completed, Ethiopia was devastated by numerous wars which started in the 16th century. In the intervening period, military tactics had not changed much. In the 16th century, the Portuguese Bermudes documented depopulation and widespread atrocities against civilians and combatants (atrocities which included torture, mass killings and the imposition of large scale slavery) during several successive Aba Gedas' 4949: 3856:, over the course of more than four centuries "from the 1490s into the 1890s, Europeans and white Americans engaged in an unbroken string of genocide campaigns against the native peoples of the Americas." Stannard writes that the native population had been reduced savagely by invasions of European plague and violence and that by around 1900 only one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people–were natives. He calls it "the worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed", and it leveled off because "there was, at last, almost no one left to kill." On 20 January 1513, 17108:", and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state." 4700:

about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate..." In the same 1894 report, the Census Bureau dismissed assertions that millions of Native Americans once inhabited what is now the United States, insisting instead that North America in 1492 was an almost empty continent, and "guesstimating" that aboriginal populations "could not have exceeded much over 500,000", whereas modern scholarship now estimates from 2.1 million to more than 10 million.

6310: 3455: 5280:, and together with lands where the Ainu lived, they were unilaterally incorporated into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu lands away, and prohibited the Ainu from engaging in salmon fishing and deer hunting." Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, because the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people." In 2004, the small 6731:

Torea—declared that "the law of Nunuku was not a strategy for survival, to be varied as conditions changed; it was a moral imperative." A Moriori survivor recalled: " commenced to kill us like sheep.... were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed—men, women and children indiscriminately." A Māori conqueror explained, "We took possession... in accordance with our customs and we caught all the people. Not one escaped..."

5569:, but Newson, who used the data which she collected from historical demographic documents, argues that intermittent contact and a low population density prevented the spread of such diseases before the arrival of the Spaniards, thus making them lethal to vulnerable populations. Yet, despite its previous lack of exposure, the diseases which were introduced to the indigenous population of the Philippines were not seen as having an impact which was as great as the impact which they had on the indigenous populations of the 5436:. The massacres were mainly committed in regions which were located in what is modern-day south eastern Turkey, north eastern Syria and northern Iraq. According to some estimates, as many as 325,000 people were killed, and 546,000 Armenians and Assyrians who survived the massacres were made destitute when they were forcibly deported from cities, and almost 2500 of their farmsteads, towns and villages were either destroyed or stolen. Hundreds of churches and monasteries were either destroyed or forcibly converted into 10489:, p. 622: "These mass killings represent turning points in the history of the Spanish Atlantic conquest and share important characteristics. Each targeted Amerindian communities. Each was entirely or partially planned and executed by European actors, namely Spanish military entrepreneurs under the leadership of friar Nicolás de Ovando, Hernán Cortés and Pedro de Alvarado respectively. Each event can be described as a 'genocidal massacre' targeting a specific community because of its membership of a larger group" 3615: 3963:

the hunter for the sedentary life of the farmer. The new Americans, convinced of their cultural and racial superiority, were unwilling to grant the original inhabitants of the continent the vast preserve of land required by the Indians' way of life. The consequence was a conflict in which there were few heroes, but which was far from a simple tale of hapless victims and merciless aggressors. To fling the charge of genocide at an entire society serves neither the interests of the Indians nor those of history.

2306:(CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; forcibly transferring children of the group to another group." 6766: 3720: 4264: 6050:"There were poor girls, completely naked, hanging from tree branches, hands tied behind their backs, after having been raped. It was fortunate that, with the Blues gone, some charitable passersby delivered them from this shameful torment. Elsewhere, in a refinement of barbarism, perhaps without precedent, pregnant women were stretched out and crushed beneath wine presses....Bloody limbs and nursing infants were carried in triumph on the points of bayonets." – Account of the war by a Vendean abbé 3494:, who extracted a fortune from the land by the use of forced labour of natives. Under his regime, there were 2 to 15 million deaths among the Congolese people. Deliberate killings, abusive punishments, and general exploitation were major causes of the deaths. As in the colonization of the Americas, European diseases, hitherto unknown in the region, also led to a considerable number of deaths. Because the main motive for the killings was financial gain, it has been debated whether the term 5956: 6566: 66: 9926: 3120: 15436:... with one estimate showing that the indigenous population of the entire north-western Caucasus was reduced by a massive 94 per cent". Text of citation: "The estimates of Russian historian Narochnitskii, in Richmond, ch. 4, p. 5. Stephen Shenfield notes a similar rate of reduction with less than 10 per cent of the Circassians (including the Abkhazians) remaining. (Stephen Shenfield, "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?", in The Massacre in History, p. 154.) 3596:). Warfare in the region essentially involved acquiring cattle and slaves, winning additional territories, gaining control of trade routes and carrying out ritual requirements or securing trophies to prove masculinity. Wars were fought between people who might be members of the same linguistic group, religion and culture, or between unrelated tribes. Centralization greatly reduced these continuous wars; minimizing the loss of lives, raids, destruction and 6071: 4619:. While it is uncertain how successful such attempts were against the target population, historians have noted that, "history records numerous instances of the French, the Spanish, the British, and later on the American, using smallpox as an ignoble means to an end. For smallpox was more feared by the Indian than the bullet: he could be exterminated and subjugated more easily and quickly by the death-bringing virus than by the weapons of the white man." 3922:, for the American Indians "the arrival of the Europeans marked the beginning of a long holocaust, although it came not in ovens, as it did for the Jews. The fires that consumed North America Indians were the fevers brought on by newly encountered diseases, the flashes of settlers' and soldiers' guns, the ravages of 'firewater,' the flames of villages and fields burned by the scorched-earth policy of vengeful Euro-Americans." Some authors, including 4129:

children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance. While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, abuse, and sexual abuse. The negative effects of the residential school system have long been accepted almost unanimously among scholars researching the residential school system, with debate focussing on the motives and intent.

6520:, which were reported by the European, American and Serbian opposition press. Most of the crimes occurred between October 1912 and the summer of 1913. The goal of the forced expulsions and massacres was statistical manipulation before the London Ambassadors Conference to determine the new Balkan borders. 10% of the population of present-day Kosovo (estimated to be 500,000) were victimized, with between 120,000 and 270,000 Albanians being killed. 6034:. The Huguenot political movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, and many rank-and-file members subsequently converted. Those who remained became increasingly radicalized. Though by no means unique, the blood-letting "was the worst of the century's religious massacres". Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion". 3201: 5356: 292: 5747:. The Georgian government has officially recognized the events as a genocide, as have Circassian advocacy organizations, a stance also held by a plethora of scholars of genocide and other historians, with Oliver Bullough crediting the Russian Empire with "the first modern genocide on European soil", and Anssi Kullberg arguing that the Russian state thus invented "the strategy of modern ethnic cleansing and genocide". 5573:. Newson also argues that the same factors which kept the diseases at bay before the Spanish conquest also curtailed the spread of the infections during the early years of the Spanish colonial period. Newson also concludes that, for the indigenous population of the Philippines, "the demographic decline which occurred during the seventeenth century was the outcome of a complex interaction of factors which included the 16446:[And according to these rules, the vast trading city of Brody, filled almost exclusively with Jews, was left in its former freedom and integrity, as recognized by the Russian inhabitants as useful for their turnover and earnings, and only a moderate indemnity was taken from the Jews in cloth, linen and leather for sewing to the registered army uniforms and shoes, and some provisions for feeding the troops.] 4732:"was guilty of contributing to the deaths of thousands of innocent people. The law calls his offense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suffering the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly befitting an action that had such horrendous consequences." Archaeologist and anthropologist Ann F. Ramenofsky writes, " 2929:

to massacre the tribes in the capital, while ordering his generals to purge their armies of tribespeople. The Jie were an ethnic group which possessed racial characteristics which included high-bridged noses and bushy beards, and as a result, they were easily identified and killed. However, many of the people killed were also mistakenly-identified Han Chinese. In total, 200,000 of them were reportedly massacred.

6220: 2439:. Similarly, Kwang Hyun Ho stresses the fact that modern humans possess a mutated gene which is related to aggression and combined with fossil evidence, the possession of it by early modern humans proves that the Neanderthals were killed in acts of violence which were committed by early modern humans. The first person to publish an analysis of a Neanderthal, French paleontologist 16444:А по симъ правиламъ и обширный торговый городъ Броды, наполненный почти одними Жидами, оставленъ въ прежней свободѣ и цѣлости, яко признанный отъ Рускихъ жителей полезнымъ для ихъ оборотовъ и заработковъ, а только взята отъ Жидовъ умѣренная контрибуція сукнами, полотнами и кожами для пошитья реестровому войску мундировъ и обуви, да для продовольствія войскъ нѣкоторая провизія. 6027:, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. King Charles IX ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks in all, the massacre expanded outward to the countryside and other urban centres. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, from 6,000 to 30,000. 4828:"The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians. Why not annihilation? Their glory has fled, their spirit broken, their manhood effaced; better that they die than live the miserable wretches that they are." 6642:, was genocide. He argued, using statements of intent by the architects of the program, that it was intended to cause the Aboriginal people to die out. The program ran from 1900 to 1969. The nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with opponents questioning the findings contained in the Commission report and asserting that the size of the 2736:, the coastal islands, etc. Moreover, Caesar's second attempt to annihilate the tribe two years later is proof that the community survived, and its apparent ability to regenerate itself lead Caesar to believe that he needed to launch more raids against them. According to Nico Roymans, their disappearance from the political map may have resulted from "a policy of 5773:

the genocide. There is concern by the Russian government that acknowledging the events as genocide would entail possible claims of financial compensation in addition to efforts toward repatriating diaspora Circassians back to Circassia. A presidential commission in Russia has been set up "to counter the attempts to falsify history to the detriment of Russia".

3940:, a research historian, wrote: "There are other terms to describe what happened in the Western Hemisphere, but genocide is not one of them. It is a good propaganda term in an age where slogans and shouting have replaced reflection and learning, but to use it in this context is to cheapen both the word itself and the appalling experiences of the Jews and 5044:) in the Dutch East Indies. The violence which occurred in the city lasted from 9 October until 22 October 1740, with minor skirmishes continuing to occur outside the city walls into late November. Historians have estimated that at least 10,000 ethnic Chinese were massacred; just 600 to 3,000 are believed to have survived. 3766:. The order states "every Herero, with or without a gun, with or without cattle, will be shot. I will no longer accept women or children, I will drive them back to their people or let them be shot at." Olusoga and Erichsen write: "It is an almost unique document: an explicit, written declaration of intent to commit genocide." 10465:, p. 339: "The genocidal intent of California settlers and government officials was acted out in numerous battles and massacres (and aided by technological advances in weaponry, especially after the Civil War), in the abduction and sexual abuse of Indian women, and in the economic exploitation of Indian child labourers." 7111:, p. 6: "Genocide is an action-oriented model designed for moral condemnation, prevention, intervention or punishment. In other words, genocide is a normative, action-oriented concept made for the political struggle, but in order to be operational it leads to simplification, with a focus on government policies."; 19946:... estimated population for the year 1769 ... Nationwide by this time only about one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people—were natives. The worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed ... finally had leveled off. There was, at last, almost no one left to kill. 6181:, Khmelnytsky's rationale for sparing the Jews of Brody was largely mercantile because Brody was a major trading center and as a result, the Jews who lived there were judged to be useful "for turnovers and profits" and based on this assumption, they were only required to pay "moderate indemnities" in kind. 4716:

with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths. Historians David Stannard and Barbara Mann have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the

2590:, in which groups of people were conquered and the males who belonged to the conquered groups were killed but the children (particularly the girls) and the women were incorporated into the conquering groups. Jones notes, "Chalk and Jonassohn provide a wide-ranging selection of historical events such as the 16714:

Cossack bands, and many more were disintegrated by the flight of their members to escape the enemy... The Jews of the Ukraine, Podolia and Eastern Galicia bore the brunt of the massacres. It is estimated that about two hundred thousand Jews were killed in these provinces during the fatal years of 1648–49.

5202:, it is written that 1,000,000 were executed because after the collapse of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing dynasty launched waves of massacres against the Hakkas, that at their height killed up to 30,000 each day. These policies of mass murder of civilians occurred elsewhere in China, including 16440:

A po sim" pravilam" i obshirnyy torgovyy gorod" Brody, napolnennyy pochti odnimi Zhidami, ostavlen" v" prezhney svobodѣ i tsѣlosti, yako priznannyy ot" Ruskikh" zhiteley poleznym" dlya ikh" oborotov" i zarabotkov", a tol'ko vzyata ot" Zhidov" umѣrennaya kontributsíya suknami, polotnami i kozhami dlya

8764:

Although the word zindīq/zandik was initially, in the Sassanid Empire, applied to Manichaeans as a pejorative epithet, by the time of the Islamic Epoch its usage had broadened and was loosely applied to Gnostic Dualists, agnostics, atheists, and even to free thinkers and libertines. Eventually in the

8677:

It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name—one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus—Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that

4727:

A smallpox epidemic struck the Great Plains in 1836–1840, resulting in the deaths of many, including 90% of the Mandan who previously numbered 1,600. While specific responsibility for the epidemic remains in question, scholars have asserted that the Great Plains epidemic was "started among the tribes

4699:

According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), between 1789 and 1891, "The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of

4606:

against indigenous populations, saying, "You will Do well to try to Innoculate the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race.", and instructing his subordinates, "I need only Add, I Wish to Hear of no prisoners should any of the

3638:

By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and if necessary

2996:, ordered the composition of polemical works that were to be used to refute the beliefs of freethinkers and other heretics, and for years, he attempted to completely exterminate them, hunting them down and exterminating freethinkers in large numbers, putting anyone who was merely suspected of being a 17337:

Incorporating a global-comparative perspective on the genocide of the last half-millenium has enabled important advances in the understanding of events central to the genocide studies field – such as the process of Ottoman imperial dissolution, reciprocal genocidal killing (during the "Unweaving" in

16648:

Is there not a difference in nature between Hitler's extermination of three million Polish Jews between 1939 and 1945 because he wanted every Jew dead and the mass murder 1648–49 of 100,000 Polish Jews by General Bogdan Chmielnicki because he wanted to end Polish rule in the Ukraine and was prepared

10301:

If the German command's strategy was to destroy entire settlements (crops, harvests, and food), kill civilians along with combatants, coerce the surrender of entire groups through deliberate starvation, and to intentionally deprive ethnic groups of the leadership that was crucial to their survival —

8490:

Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres

6626:

Lemkin and most other comparative genocide scholars present the extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines as a textbook example of a genocide, while the majority of Australian experts are more circumspect. Detailed studies of the events surrounding the extinction have raised questions about some of the

5186:

one Qing loyalist who observed the genocidal massacres which the Taiping forces committed against the Manchus wrote that the "pitiful Manchus", the Manchu men, women and children were executed by the Taiping forces. The Taiping rebels were seen chanting while slaughtering the Manchus in Hefei. After

4944:

that quote; "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed many were murdered...by the theological application of the sacred principles

4792:

were brought to the brink of extinction, from a previous population of some 3,500 people to fewer than 100. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian Indigenous population of California were at least 310,000, and perhaps as high as 705,000, but by 1849, due to Spanish and Mexican

4715:

of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees—along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves—were removed from their homes. The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey

4128:

Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996, the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes. Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native

4105:

The Beothuks attempted to avoid contact with Europeans in Newfoundland by moving from their traditional settlements, into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation. The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement

3434:

due to the fact that it was "one of the worst holocausts in human history" because it resulted in 15 to 20 million deaths according to one estimate, and he contradicts arguments such as the one which states that "it was in slave owners' interest to keep slaves alive, not exterminate them" by stating

15359:

In what was the first modern genocide on European soil – fifty years before Turkey's Armenians were butchered, ninety years before the holocaust – perhaps as many as 300,000 Circassians died from hunger, violence, drowning and disease when Russia expelled them from their lands on their final defeat

7632:

Fu, Q; Li, H; Moorjani, P; Jay, F; Slepchenko, S. M.; Bondarev, A. A.; Johnson, P. L.; Aximu-Petri, A; Prüfer, K; De Filippo, C; Meyer, M; Zwyns, N; Salazar-García, D. C.; Kuzmin, Y. V.; Keates, S. G.; Kosintsev, P. A.; Razhev, D. I.; Richards, M. P.; Peristov, N. V.; Lachmann, M; Douka, K; Higham,

6277:

generals. The Army sought to secure the country, and it also sought to confiscate the lands of Irish families that had participated in the fighting. This policy became a continuation of the Elizabethan policy which encouraged Protestants to settle in Ireland, because the Protestant New Model army's

5772:

forces was legitimate, but he did not recognize "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide". On 5 July 2005, the Circassian Congress, an organisation that unites representatives of the various Circassian peoples in the Russian Federation, called on Moscow to acknowledge and apologize for

3988:

was one of the causes of their depopulation in North America; that the majority of the Native Americans enslaved were women and children compared to the enslavement of Africans which mostly targeted adult males and in turn they were sold at a 50% to 60% higher price, and that 2,462,000 to 4,985,000

3439:

for labor exploitation. To revisit the issue of intent already touched on: If an institution is deliberately maintained and expanded by discernible agents, though all are aware of the hecatombs of casualties it is inflicting on a definable human group, then why should this not qualify as genocide?"

2928:

After surviving multiple assassination attempts, Shi Min concluded that he could no longer trust the Jie and other non-Han people under his command. In late 349, he issued a culling order, rewarding any Han Chinese for killing any Jie or "barbarian" person they find. Shi Min personally led his army

2727:

claimed. If the systematic destruction of infrastructure by the Roman forces was intended to prevent the local people from regaining power, the physical extermination of them proved to be impractical. The available areas of refuge which were hardly accessible to the Roman legions were numerous: the

2472:

Malthus regards chiefdoms are an intermediate stage between independent tribes and states. By contrast to independent tribes, chiefdoms cumulated power after their decisive military victories but they did not learn to enslave their defeated enemies yet. Hence, according to Malthus, chiefdoms simply

2396:

Wrote Chalk and Jonassohn: "Historically and anthropologically peoples have always had a name for themselves. In a great many cases, that name meant 'the people' to set the owners of that name off against all other people who were considered of lesser quality in some way. If the differences between

8491:

with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as is usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction

6594:

refers to the Queensland frontier that represented the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier

6289:

in 1652. Its goal was to further the transfer of land from Irish to English hands. The immediate war aims and the longer term policies of the English Parliamentarians resulted in an attempt by the English to transfer the native population to the western fringes to make way for Protestant settlers.

6066:

Timothy Tackett countered that "the Vendée was a tragic civil war with endless horrors committed by both sides—initiated, in fact, by the rebels themselves. The Vendeans were no more blameless than were the republicans. The use of the word genocide is wholly inaccurate and inappropriate." However,

3962:

the sad fate of America's Indians represents not a crime but a tragedy, involving an irreconcilable collision of cultures and values. Despite the efforts of well-meaning people in both camps, there existed no good solution to this clash. The Indians were not prepared to give up the nomadic life of

16713:

This situation changed for the worse in 1648–49, the years in which the Chmelnicki massacres took place. These persecutions, which swept over a large part of the Polish Commonwealth, wrought havoc with the Jewry of that country. Many Jewish communities were practically annihilated by the ruthless

6726:

others. "Parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori tribal territories and settlements without warning, permission or greeting. If the districts were wanted by the invaders, they curtly informed the inhabitants that their land had been

6630:

On the Australian continent during the colonial period (1788–1901), the population of 500,000–750,000 aboriginal Australians was reduced to fewer than 50,000. Most were devastated by the introduction of alien diseases after contact with Europeans, while perhaps 20,000 were killed by massacres and

4695:

A study by Gregory Michno concluded that of 21,586 tabulated casualties (killed, wounded or captured) in a selected 672 battles and skirmishes, military personnel and settlers accounted for 6,596 (31%), while indigenous casualties totalled about 14,990 (69%) for the period 1850–90. Michno's study

2707:

Caesar reported that he burnt every village and building that he could find in the territory of the Eburones, drove off all of the cattle, and his men and beasts consumed all of the corn that the weather of the autumnal season had not destroyed. He left those who had hid themselves, if there were

12625:

Henderson, Donald A.; Inglesby, Thomas V.; Bartlett, John G.; Ascher, Michael S.; Eitzen, Edward; Jahrling, Peter B.; Hauer, Jerome; Layton, Marcelle; McDade, Joseph; Osterholm, Michael T.; O'Toole, Tara; Parker, Gerald; Perl, Trish; Russell, Philip K.; Tonat, Kevin (9 June 1999). "Smallpox as a

6341:

during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland – where one-third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for food – was exacerbated by a host of political, social, and economic factors that remain the subject of historical debate. Contemporary

5560:

According to Linda A. Newson's research, demographic decline occurred in the Philippines during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, primarily as a result of destructive epidemics which were introduced on the islands during the establishment of the Spanish colonial regime. It was previously

3159:

argues that Pegg's classification of the Albigensian Crusade as a genocide is inappropriate, on the ground that it "was proclaimed against unbelievers ... not against a 'genus' or people; those who joined the crusade had no intention of annihilating the population of southern France ... If Pegg

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under the Abbasids claimed to be Muslims, and when it was applied to Muslims, the accusation was that the accused secretly harbored Manichaean beliefs. "The proof for such an accusation was sought, if at all, in an indication of some kind of dualism, or if that individual openly flouted Islamic

14775:

Ten days after President McKinley's death, the residents of Balangiga, a tiny village 400 miles southeast of Manila, attacked the local U.S. garrison. While U.S. soldiers ate breakfast, the church bells rang a signal. Filipinos brandishing machetes emerged from their hiding places. Forty-eight

6734:

After the invasion, Moriori were forbidden to marry Moriori, or to have children with each other. All became slaves of the invaders. Many Moriori women had children by their Maori masters. A small number of Moriori women eventually married either Maori or European men. Some were taken from the

6200:

states that Jewish chroniclers of the 17th century "provide invariably inflated figures with respect to the loss of life among the Jewish population of Ukraine. The numbers range from 60,000–80,000 (Nathan Hannover) to 100,000 (Sabbatai Cohen), but that "he Israeli scholars Shmuel Ettinger and

3971:

opposes these viewpoints and says, "Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking

3508:

in 2003 that attempting to eliminate a portion of the population is enough to qualify as genocide under the UN convention. Reports of the atrocities led to a major international scandal in the early 20th century, and Leopold was ultimately forced in 1908 by the Belgian government to relinquish

4132:

Indigenous people of Canada have long referred to the residential school system as genocide, with scholars referring to the system as genocidal since the 1990s. According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or

3886:

system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings." He considers colonists guilty due to failing to halt the abuses of the system despite royal orders. He also notes the

2347:

has so designated. Mohammed Hassan Kakar argues that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator. He prefers the definition from Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, which defines genocide as "a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other

4237:

argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola. Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of

3979:

2573:

recorded the impression of survivors from the onslaught of the chiefdom of the Vikings: "Wild beasts... killing babies, children, young men, old men, fathers, sons and mothers... They overthrow, they despoil, they destroy, they burn, they ravage; sinister cohort, fatal phalanx, cruel host."

6730:

A council of Moriori elders was convened at the settlement called Te Awapatiki. Despite knowing of the Māori predilection for killing and eating the conquered, and despite the admonition by some of the elder chiefs that the principle of Nunuku was not appropriate now, two chiefs—Tapata and

3267:, because of this policy of total obliteration, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field because very few records of the existence of that society still exist. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted 3972:

immunity to disease. In the case of the Jewish Holocaust, no one denies that more Jews died of starvation, overwork, and disease under Nazi incarceration than died in gas ovens, yet the acts of creating and maintaining the conditions that led to those deaths clearly constitute genocide."

9939: 4184:

archipelago, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Historians estimate that the genocide spanned a period of between ten and twenty years, and resulted in the decline of the Selk'nam population from approximately 4,000 people during the 1880s to a few hundred by the early 1900s.

6618:

and other factors, had such devastating impacts on the aboriginal Tasmanian population that it was reported that they had been exterminated. Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that by 1830, "Disease had killed most of them but warfare and private violence had also been devastating."

6463:

During these wars, hundreds of thousands of Turks and Pomaks fled from their villages and became refugees. The total number of refugees is estimated to be between 400,000 and 813,000. The number of Ottoman civilians who were killed is estimated to range from 732,000 to 1,500,000.

2708:

any, alive in the hope that they would all die of hunger in the winter. Caesar said that he wanted to annihilate the Eburones as well as their name, and indeed, we hear nothing more about the Eburones. Their country was soon occupied by a Germanic tribe with a different name, the

7107:, pp. 5–17: "On any ranking of crimes or atrocities, it would be difficult to name an act or event regarded as more heinous. Genocide arguably appears now as the most serious offense in humanity's lengthy—and, we recognize, still growing—list of moral or legal violations."; 3693:. The war was triggered by German colonial policies which were designed to force the indigenous population to grow cotton for export. The war lasted from 1905 to 1907, during which 75,000 to 300,000 died, overwhelmingly from famine. The end of the war was followed by a period of 4917:(Pakistan). It is estimated that more than 60% of the Hazara were either massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahman's campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns and as a result many Hazara families had to move seasonally to the 5126:

has attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide". Mark Levene, a historian of genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".

5839:

banned Romani from entering the country and it also required those Romani who were already living in the country to leave it within 16 days. Failure to do so could result in the confiscation of their property, their imprisonment and deportation. The act was amended with the

2443:, was also the first to suppose (in 1912) that early humans violently replaced Neanderthals. In particular, larger tribal groupings and projectile weapons were supposed to give modern humans an edge in violent conflicts with Neanderthals and other indigenous populations of 6209:

Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their

3247:. In the end, half of the Mongol tribes were exterminated by Genghis Khan. Rosanne Klass referred to the Mongols' rule of Afghanistan as "genocide". It has been estimated that approximately 11% of the world's population was killed either during or immediately after the 11874: 15426:, p. 132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported." 9991: 6357:' in relation to Ireland: "When you see it, you know that you are encountering famine-porn. It is inevitably part of a presentation that is historically unbalanced and, like other kinds of pornography, is distinguished by a covert (and sometimes overt) appeal to 17678:

According to Serbian Social Democrat politician Kosta Novakovic, from October 1912 to the end of 1913, the Serbo-Montenegrin regime exterminated more than 120,000 Albanians of all ages, and forcibly expelled more than 50,000 Albanians to the Ottoman Empire and

3166:

is not as dismissive as Lerner regarding Pegg's contention that the Albigensian Crusade was a genocide. He does however take issue with Pegg's argument that the Albigensian Crusade formed an important historical precedent for later genocides, including the

17338:

the Balkans)... The human toll of this "Great Unweaving," from Greece's independence war in the early nineteenth century to the final Balkan wars of 1912–1913, was enormous. Hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Muslims were massacred in the secessionist drive…

9718: 4741:, "the genocide of many Native American tribes" including the Mandans, was caused by "governmental assimilationist policies that coexisted with officially or unofficially sanctioned campaigns of war to eradicate, diminish, or forcibly evict the 'savages 3948:

and the conquest of the Americas wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact". He instead estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like

16868:

Finally, in the spring of 1648, under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki (1595–1657), the Cossacks revolted in the Ukraine against Polish Rule. ... Although the exact number of Jews massacred is unknown, with estimates ranging from 40,000 to 100,000

2742:

on the part of the Roman authorities, in combination with the confiscation of Eburonean territory". A great part of their gold fell into Roman hands during repeated Roman raids on the Eburones in 53–51 BCE, and then it was melted down and carried off.

7115:, pp. 149–189: "... genocide has become the yardstick, the gold standard for identifying and measuring political evil in our times. The label 'genocide' confers moral distinction on its victims and indisputable condemnation on its perpetrators." 9965: 9952: 13674: 11075:

It is this sudden acceleration, this abrupt change from the discourse of 'defensive warfare' and 'merciful civilization' to that of 'offensive warfare' and of genocide, which is perhaps the most distinctive mark of the literature of the Argentine

5831:

declared that "whosoever kills a Gypsy (Romani), will be guilty of no murder". The subsequent massive killing spree which took place across the empire later prompted the government to step in to "forbid the drowning of Romani women and children".

2527:

10:40–41, 11:21–23, 6:18–9) was total, but, according to Ostrovsky, "whenever the Israelite chiefdom won, the vanquished did not survive." Given the vast data on chiefdom-level warfare, he finds the historicity of the Canaanite genocide credible.

10034: 6067:

historians Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn consider the Vendée a case of genocide. Historian Pierre Chaunu called the Vendée the first ideological genocide. Adam Jones estimates that 150,000 Vendeans died in what he also considers a genocide.

5346:

occurred in Kashmir under the rule of Mirza Haider Dughlat, followed by the Mughals (1586–1752), the Afghans (1752–1819), the Sikhs (1819–1845) and the Dogras (1846–1947). A small Shia community has managed to survive in Kashmir until today.

4736:

can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem." According to

4443:, non-Indians were systematically killed by the rebels. Some historians have described these killings aimed at non-Indians, in conjunction with attempts to violently eradicate various non-Indian cultural customs, as genocidal in nature. 4160:, which was adopted into Canadian law in 2010, where article 7 discusses the rights of indigenous people to not be subjected to genocide or "any other act of violence, including forcibly removing children of the group to another group". 1256: 16618:

In response to Poland having taken control of much of the Ukraine in the early seventeenth century, Ukrainian peasants mobilized as groups of cavalry, and these "cossacks" in the Chmielnicki uprising of 1648 killed an estimated 100,000

3395:

took place between 1402 and 1496. Initially carried out by members of the Castilian nobility in exchange for a covenant of allegiance to the crown, the process was later carried out by the Spanish crown itself during the reign of the

2862:, 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery. The Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a 6321:(1845–1852) was a genocide. During the famine, approximately 1 million people died and a million more people emigrated from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25% and leading to the formation of the 4220:

due to forced labor and exploitation by the Spanish. Raphael Lemkin considers Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide including the abuses of the Encomienda system.

16536:

Moreover, Poles must have been keenly aware of the massacre of Jews in 1768 and even more so as the result of the much more widespread massacres (approximately 100,000 dead) of the earlier Chmielnicki pogroms during the preceding

6184:

Although many modern sources still give estimates of Jews killed in the uprising at 100,000 or more, others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000, and recent academic studies have argued fatalities were even lower.

4769:) not be given smallpox vaccinations, which had been provided to other tribes in other areas. Some have posited that some tribes weren't given vaccines because they were hostile or because their land wasn't important for trading. 3329:, both genetically and culturally, sometime after 1300 AD. The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide." 5912:

in the region were arrested, and 12,000 Romani people were killed. Although a majority were released after a few months, many others spent several years imprisoned and subject to forced labor. The raid was approved by the King

5532:", characterized by the systematic destruction of native communities and their institutions, while the natives were forced to work on the colonial government's projects. She writes that the Spaniards imposed an alien religion, 2464:

performed the most genocidal warfare in human history and practiced this kind of warfare all over the world, wherever culture reached the level of chiefdom. He based his conclusion on anthropological researches and notes that

17442: 11902: 6170:

Most of the Jewish communities which existed in the rebellious Hetmanate were devastated by the uprising and the ensuing massacres, though occasionally a Jewish population was spared, notably after the capture of the town of

2809:

in 66–73 CE. These tensions were exacerbated by the establishment of a large Roman military presence in Judea, changes in administrative life and the economy, together with the outbreak and suppression of Jewish revolts from

6627:

details and interpretations in earlier histories. Curthoys concluded, "It is time for a more robust exchange between genocide and Tasmanian historical scholarship if we are to understand better what did happen in Tasmania."

13724: 12118: 3957:

says "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence"; however, he rejected calling it genocide stating that

2866:. However, the Jewish population remained strong in other parts of Palestine, thriving in Galilee, Golan, Bet Shean Valley and the eastern, southern and western edges of Judea. Roman casualties were also considered heavy— 17639:. [as for example that of the Serbian deputy Triša Kaclerovićh, who, in an article published in 1917 by the International Bulletin, affirms that in 1912-1913 120,000 Albanians were massacred by the Serbian army] 6722:, a European ship hired by the Māori, arrived carrying 500 Māori armed with guns, clubs, and axes, followed by another ship with 400 more warriors on 5 December 1835. They proceeded to enslave some Moriori and kill and 15320:

The clarity and intention and precision and thoroughness of execution that Holquist documents in this episode are the same features one would stress in labeling the event an instance of genocide according to Lemkin's

6423:

declared war on the Ottomans. The Ottomans quickly lost territory. According to Geert-Hinrich Ahrens, "the invading armies and Christian insurgents committed a wide range of atrocities upon the Muslim population." In

4684:

Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make

5855:, Holy Roman Emperor, issued an edict against the Romani, ordering "that all adult males were to be hanged without trial, whereas women and young males were to be flogged and banished forever." Additionally, in the 5090:

to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century. After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the

6201:

Bernard D. Weinryb speak instead of the 'annihilation of tens of thousands of Jewish lives', and the Ukrainian-American historian Jarowlaw Pelenski narrows the number of Jewish deaths to between 6,000 and 14,000".

14331: 9728: 18034: 5179:. One of the bloodiest wars in history and the bloodiest civil war in history, the Taiping Rebellion was marked by genocidal atrocities which were perpetrated by both of the sides which fought in the conflict. 13659: 16591:

A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654

7039:

deportations as genocide by default, and differed from the adopted Genocide Convention in many ways. From a 21st-century perspective, its coverage was very broad, and as a result, it would classify any gross

16807:

In 1648–55 the Cossack under Bogdan Chmielnicki (1593–1657) joined with the Tartars in the Ukraine to rid themselves of Polish rule... Before the decade was over, more than 100,000 Jews had been slaughtered.

2397:

the people and some other society were particularly large in terms of religion, language, manners, customs, and so on, then such others were seen as less than fully human: pagans, savages, or even animals."

3841:, the Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, and the Cambridge World History of Genocide, colonial policies in some cases included the deliberate genocide of indigenous peoples in North America. According to 15373: 13692: 2451:

species as they spread out of Africa. This view is at odds with the more supported views that Neanderthal extinction occurred due to events such as interbreeding, inbreeding, disease, and climate change.

8645:

In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.

5871:. These mutilations enabled the authorities to identify the individuals as Romani on their second arrest. The edict encouraged local officials to hunt down Romani in their areas by levying a fine of 100 6638:, a former president of Australia's Human Rights Commission, stated that Australia's program in which 20,000–25,000 Aboriginal children were forcibly separated from their natural families, known as the 5544:

were all destroyed. She describes the Spanish conquest as a genocide, with killings of natives being common. Furthermore, she writes that the Spanish continued to view the natives of the Philippines as

2936:, and it was around this time when the culling order appeared to stop, as he changed his stance to appeasing and winning back the support of the tribes. Regardless, the order and subsequent wars on the 20829:

van Bruineßen, Martin (1994), "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in Andreopoulos, George J (ed.),

18104: 17987: 3564:, which lasted from 1888 to 1892 and was the worst famine in the region's history; a third of Ethiopia's total population of 12 million was killed according to some estimates. The famine was caused by 16232:

Langlois, Claude (1987). "Les héros quasi mythiques de la Vendée ou les dérives de l'imaginaire" [The quasi-mythical heroes of Vendée or the excesses of the imagination]. In Lebrun, F. (ed.).

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police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony. Thus some sources have characterized these events as a Queensland Aboriginal genocide.

6587:, Henry Reynolds described this act as genocide. However the majority of scholars disagree that the initial smallpox was the result of deliberate biological warfare and have suggested other causes. 4395:

tribes. The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequot. At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity. Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to colonists in

3259:, out of which at least 35 million deaths were in China). If the calculations are accurate, the events would be the deadliest acts of mass killings in human history. The second campaign against the 3108:. The Crusade was primarily prosecuted by the French crown and it promptly took on a political flavour. It resulted in a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, and realigned the 11587: 2313:

and condemned by the civilized world", and it also states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity." Genocide is widely considered to be the epitome of human

11216: 13448: 9317: 22857: 14060: 7506:

Churchill, Steven E.; Franciscus, Robert G.; McKean-Peraza, Hilary A.; Daniel, Julie A.; Warren, Brittany R. (August 2009). "Shanidar 3 Neandertal rib puncture wound and paleolithic weaponry".

5599:

Numerous massacres were committed against Filipinos during the American and Japanese occupations of the Philippines, notably, massacres were committed on Samar and Sulu by Americans during the

3634:, that within three decades of the French conquest of Algeria in 1830, war, famine and disease had reduced the original population from 3 million by a figure ranging from 500,000 to 1,000,000. 3557:(Galla) population down to 5 million people, which "took away from the Galla all possibility of thinking about any sort of uprising." Eshete Gemeda put the death toll even higher at 6 million. 15736:

It is unlikely that it was an agreed signal for a massacre planned in advance - a highly dubious plan, whether attributed to the Queen Mother (by Protestant sources) or to Parisian Catholics.

4793:

colonization and epidemics this number had decreased to 100,000, and from 1849 to 1890, the indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings. In

12460:

Slavery in Peru: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the Secretary of State, with Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Alleged Existence of Slavery in Peru

5122:

Historian Michael Edmund Clarke has argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people". Historian

2917:

or "Five Barbarians", of which the Jie were one of them. In its final years, the Later Zhao fell into civil war between members of the imperial family over the throne. One powerful member,

6290:

This policy was reflected in a phrase attributed—without factual foundation—to Cromwell: "To Hell or to Connaught" and it has been described as a genocide by some nationalist historians.

2303: 1222: 13535: 3263:, the final military action which was led by Genghis Khan, because he died during it, involved the intentional and systematic destruction of Western Xia cities and culture. According to 22294: 18390: 5844:, which directed that they abandon their "naughty, idle and ungodly life and company" and adopt a settled lifestyle. For those Romani who failed to adhere to a sedentary existence, the 2488:

supposed that slavery and imperialism appeared at a later, albeit equally savage, stage, when peoples learned "how to make better use of their conquered enemies than to dine off them."

19876:

Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904–1908

12092: 9341: 4056:

government. Others perceived the campaign as intending to suppress only groups of aboriginals that refused to submit to the government and carried out attacks on European settlements.

3549:. Some estimates of the number of people who were killed in the atrocities that were committed during the war and the famine which coincided with it go into the millions. According to 2992:

as having said "tolerance is laudable, except in matters which are dangerous to religious belief, or matters which are dangerous to the sovereign's dignity." The third Abbasid caliph,

5936:

tenets", a male Rom "had to prove his ability to support a wife and children", and "Gypsy children over the age of five were to be taken away and brought up in non-Romani families."

5932:

issued an edict which forbade marriages between Romani. When a Romani woman married a non-Romani man, she had to produce proof of "industrious household service and familiarity with

2503:): When Israel defeats the Canaanite nations, the tradition commands, "you must devote them to complete destruction. You shall make no covenant with them and show no mercy to them" ( 12128: 14569: 6790: 11869:

Harambour, Alberto (2019). "'There Cannot be Civilisation and Barbarism on the Island': Civilian-driven Violence and the Genocide of the Selk'nam People of Tierra del Fuego". In

17450: 17351: 17072:

The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide.

16510:

The peasants of Ukraine rose up in 1648 under a petty aristocrat Bogdan Chmielnicki. ... It is estimated that 100,000 Jews were massacred and 300 of their communities destroyed.

11519: 7081: 4615:-exposed blankets to Native American emissaries as gifts during the Siege of Fort Pitt, "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians", in one of the most famously documented cases of 2716:" who first crossed the Rhine, and the way this matches Caesar's description of the Eburones and their neighbours, leads to the possibility that they survived under a new name. 10832: 6055:

In 1986, Reynald Secher argued that the actions of the French republican government during the revolt in the Vendée (1793–1796), a popular mostly Catholic uprising against the

4229:

describes the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths." Yale University's

2676:

ordered the murder of all Italics in Asia Minor, resulting in the deaths of about 100,000, mainly civilians. The death toll makes it one of the deadliest recorded genocides in

5475:

throughout the province. Reports estimated that the Adana Province massacres resulted in the death of as many as 30,000 Armenians and the death of as many as 1,500 Assyrians.

16333: 6342:

commentators did not believe that the blight was the cause of the mass death, instead, they believed that the mass death was caused by the actions of the British government.

2646:

was besieged by Roman forces for three years (149–146 BCE). Once the city was breached, the Romans spent seven days systematically destroying it and killing its inhabitants.

19070: 5754:

Calculations including those which take the Russian government's own archival figures into account have estimated a loss of 80%–97% of the Circassian nation in the process.

18573: 9867:

African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective

8113: 4801:

apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."

3809: 13714: 21630: 17660: 10530: 8691: 4976:, have affirmed it. An estimated 165 million people may have died as a result of British colonial policies from 1880 to 1920. This number surpasses the deaths from both 3174:

Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe the Albigensian Crusade as "the first ideological genocide". Kurt Jonassohn and Frank Chalk, who together founded the

3008:, continued the pogroms, although they occurred with diminished intensity during the reign of the latter and were later ended by him. In turn this policy influenced the 12582: 10771: 22722: 17900: 11364:"Genocide and Historical Debate: William D. Rubinstein Ascribes the Bitterness of Historians' Arguments to the Lack of an Agreed Definition and to Political Agendas" 16730:...carried out in 1648 and 1649 by the Cossacks of the Ukraine, led by Bogdan Chmielnicki. The anti-Semitic outburst took the lives of from 150,000 to 200,000 Jews. 11021: 4538: 3992:

Several films and books on the subject were released around the year 1992 to coincide with the 500th anniversary of Columbus' voyage. In 2003, Venezuelan President

3980:

Hispaniola dropped so significantly. and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the

20830: 17260:

King, Neysa (2009). "Rethinking and Recognizing Genocide: The British and the Case of the Great Irish Potato Famine". In Cooley, Dennis R.; Steffen, Lloyd (eds.).

3175: 1725: 10135: 4696:

almost exclusively uses Army estimates. His follow-up book "Forgotten Battles and Skirmishes" covers over 300 additional fights not included in these statistics.

21399: 15108: 4889:'s subjugation of the Hazara ethnic group in the late nineteenth century due to its fierce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to an intense feeling of 4019:. The depopulation caused the abandonment and reforestation of large areas of farmland, resulting in large enough decreases in carbon dioxide to cool the earth. 24: 6016:(the future Henry IV of France) on 18 August. Many of the wealthiest and most prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris to attend the wedding. 4238:

Hispaniola dropped so significantly and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did during the

18352:(2023). ""Now We Are Natives": The Genocide of the Beothuk People and the Politics of "Extinction" in Newfoundland". In Jacob, Franj; Göllnitz, Martin (eds.). 10799: 3701:), caused in large part by the scorched-earth policies used by governor von Götzen to suppress the rebellion. These tactics have been described by scholars as 759: 16895:

Even when there was mass destruction, as in the Chmielnicki uprising in 1648, the violence against Jews, where between 40000 and 100000 Jews were murdered ...

9781:

Hassen, Mohammed (2002). "Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002".

22833: 21638: 21372: 6382: 4403:; other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. Scholars such as Michael Freeman have concluded that the war was genocidal in nature. 3805: 14068: 22801: 7876:

Sullivan, Alexis P.; Manuel, Marc de; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Perry, George H. (July 2017). "An evolutionary medicine perspective on Neandertal extinction".

5693: 4550: 3985: 18855: 18173: 11609:

Charles, Grant; DeGane, Mike (2013). "Student-to-Student Abuse in the Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Setting the Stage for Further Understanding".

11579: 11220: 9505: 6735:

Chathams and never returned. Only 101 Moriori out of a population of about 2,000 were left alive by 1862. Although the last Moriori of unmixed ancestry,

975: 20284:

Chakma, Kabita; Hill, Glen (2013). "Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh". In Visweswaran, Kamala (ed.).

13458: 7031:

By 1951, Lemkin was saying that the Soviet Union was the only state that could be indicted for genocide; his concept of genocide, as it was outlined in

2367:; however, this claim is not supported by evidence. The Soviet view was shared and supported by many diverse countries, and they were also in line with 21670: 16244:

Langlois, Claude (June 1988). "Les dérives vendéennes de l'imaginaire révolutionnaire" [The Vendée excesses of the revolutionary imagination].

14846: 13415: 9327: 4812:, contemporaneously and freely admitted to the definition of genocide—annihilation of a people—as being deliberately intended, in the aftermath of the 4157: 22377: 15442: 6544: 17316: 15174: 12001: 11336: 11280: 2136: 1497: 14942: 22690: 21741: 17847: 17388: 17044:

Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'

13392: 12567: 5541: 4921:, Iran, or Pakistan to find jobs and sources of income. Quetta in Pakistan is home to the third largest settlements of Hazara outside Afghanistan. 4542: 2268: 926: 16829:

By the time the Cossacks and the Poles signed a peace treaty in 1654, 700 Jewish communities had been destroyed and more than 100,000 Jews killed.

15432:'The First Circassian Exodus' to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, Based on the Accounts of Contemporary British Observers 6196:

dedicated solely to the issue of Jewish casualties in the uprising concludes that 18,000–20,000 Jews were killed of a total population of 40,000.

4961: 4345:. By the end of Diaz's rule at least 20,000 Yaquis were killed in Sonora and their population was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000. Mexican president 22549: 22329: 21765: 21026: 20254: 9048: 4571:, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. Ortiz states that from the 3435:

that they are "mostly sophistry" by stating: "the killing and destruction were intentional, whatever the incentives to preserve survivors of the

3338: 17001: 3112:

in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown, and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the

22849: 22011: 21436: 20005:

Thielen-Wilson, Leslie (2014). "Troubling the Path to Decolonization: Indian Residential School Case Law, Genocide, and Settler Illegitimacy".

13545: 13480: 11734: 11546: 10068: 7968: 7204: 2854:

of Judea, in provoking the revolt. The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the extensive depopulation of Judean communities, more so than during the

839: 3321:

are the descendants of the Birnirk of Siberia, who expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they completely replaced the Indigenous

21923: 21251: 12399:

The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein

12096: 4568: 4528: 3817: 3639:

destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years later, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration."

21757: 16401: 16370: 15467: 14880: 9349: 8430: 6374: 2555:

31:7–18). Adam Jones notes that this massacre is an example of the partial destruction and the partial incorporation of an enemy ethnicity.

18917:

Harring, Sidney L. (2021). "'Shooting a Black Duck': Genocidal Settler Violence against Indigenous Peoples and the Creation of Canada". In

17486: 5682: 4281:, who held political and economic control of the region. Adam Jones wrote: "Genocidal atrocities on both sides cost up to 200,000 killed." 3792:. Frequently, Zulu armies not only aimed to defeat their enemies, they aimed to totally destroy them. Those who were exterminated included 1502: 20311: 16461: 12231: 7129: 3914:

died from lethal forced labor in the mines, in which a third of workers died every six months and that within two years of the arrival of

7173: 6881: 4087:. Settlements were burned, and of the 30,000 Hurons, a few thousand were able to flee and avoid becoming victims of the ethnic genocide. 1472: 1068: 589: 15403: 7577:

Sánchez-Quinto, F; Botigué, L. R.; Civit, S; Arenas, C; Avila-Arcos, MC; Bustamante, C. D.; Comas, D; Lalueza-Fox, C (17 October 2012).

22809: 22756: 21725: 20078: 17471: 16484:

Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed

16067:

Lebrun, François (May 1985). "La guerre de Vendée : massacre ou génocide ?" [The Vendée War: massacre or genocide?].

14436:. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers. pp. 339–369. 12664: 5586: 5520: 5387:

forces between 1843 and 1847, resulting in the slaughter of more than 10,000 indigenous Assyrian civilians who were inhabitants of the

744: 258: 17366: 11306: 6063:, was the first modern genocide. Secher's claims caused a minor uproar in France and mainstream authorities rejected Secher's claims. 5037: 4780:

by colonists in the territory, causing several ethnic groups to be entirely wiped out. In one such series of conflicts, the so-called

22003: 21379: 21168: 20906: 11827: 11192: 10842: 8608: 6916: 6437: 6386: 4645:

carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples, acts that some scholars say constitute genocide. The

4119: 3899:

as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."

3491: 17566: 13295:"The Supreme Court's Indian Law Decisions: Deviations from Constitutional Principles and the Crafting of Judicial Smallpox Blankets" 11237: 3016:

which targeted those Muslim religious scholars and officials who refused to accept the doctrine of the created nature of the Quran.

2650:

has labelled the devastation of the city and the massacre of its population "The First Genocide". By contrast to Kiernan, Historian

21089: 20600: 17651: 17542: 12167:(Cleveland, 1897), p. 138; Ethel Boissevain, "Whatever Became of the New England Indians Shipped to Bermuda to be Sold as Slaves," 11054: 6886: 2519:

15:3). " must not leave anything that breathes" (Deuteronomy 20:16). The Bible exaggerates when it claims that the genocide of the

671: 559: 16675:... massacring an estimated one hundred thousand Jews as the Ukrainian Bogdan Chmielnicki had done nearly three centuries earlier. 13811: 12607: 11121: 6153:. The insurgency was accompanied by mass atrocities committed by Cossacks against the civilian population, especially against the 4148:

that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in

3074:

rebellions. William's strategy, implemented during the winter of 1069–70 (he spent Christmas 1069 in York), has been described by

21153: 19196: 18582: 18183: 14027: 13348: 11377: 10535: 10277:"Was Quashing the Maji-Maji Uprising Genocide? An Evaluation of Germany's Conduct through the Lens of International Criminal Law" 8097: 4065: 4046: 2760: 2384: 22066: 20953: 18318: 15066: 8123: 5883:

amended the decree to include the execution of adult female Romani, while children were "to be put in hospitals for education".

4909:, continued as lands were confiscated and populations were expelled or fled. Some 35,000 families fled to northern Afghanistan, 21678: 20731:

Sommer, Tomasz (2010). "Execute the Poles: The Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, 1937–1938. Documents from Headquarters".

14246: 14135: 10408:

Charters (1839). "Notices of the Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier".

10260:

t is doubtlessly appropriate—probably even important—to understand the German suppression of the Maji-Maji Revolt as genocidal.

8902: 6286: 5594: 5210:. This resulted in a massive civilian flight and death toll with some 600 towns destroyed and other bloody policies resulting. 3813: 2237: 931: 681: 509: 494: 489: 319: 18210: 3936:

Some historians disagree that genocide, defined as a crime of intent, should be used to describe the colonization experience.

2756: 22412: 21606: 21468: 20875: 20819: 20721: 20700: 20580: 20555: 20509: 20488: 20465: 20440: 20243: 19967: 19939: 19914: 19888: 19863: 19842: 19817: 19789: 19764: 19739: 19711: 19686: 19633: 19570: 19484: 19400: 19372:(2 October 2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". 19359: 19325: 19265: 19237: 19185: 19160: 19141: 19046: 19018: 18934: 18869: 18841: 18816: 18791: 18741: 18709: 18562: 18537: 18485: 18447: 18378: 18095: 17978: 17598: 17525: 17330: 17269: 17135: 17093: 17065: 17037: 16189: 16120: 16057: 15979: 15676: 15587: 15256: 15007: 14925: 14811: 14376: 14344: 14310: 14218: 14111: 13927: 13900: 13123: 13092: 13065: 13021: 12987: 12918: 12891: 12825: 12797: 12764: 12732: 12700: 12442: 12245: 11472: 11416: 11103: 10917: 10723: 10692: 10661: 10432: 10245: 10048: 10005: 9875: 9652: 9624: 9600: 9525: 9406: 9279: 9177: 9032: 8530: 7287: 7256: 7187: 6906: 5562: 4572: 3301:(1393–4)—Tamerlane got around—he killed all the Christians he could find, including everyone in the, then, Christian city of 2291: 818: 749: 474: 125: 18944:

Heinrichs, Johannes (2008). "Die Eburonen, Oder: Die Kunst Des Überlebens" [The Eburones, or: The Art of Survival].

16341: 10950: 10159: 2752: 22841: 22361: 21970: 21890: 17622: 14614:

Late Ottoman genocides : the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies

10879: 7076: 5727:

coast. After a century of insurgency and war and failure to end the conflict, the Russian military executed the systematic

5537: 4004:

holiday. Chavez blamed Columbus for spearheading "the biggest invasion and genocide ever seen in the history of humanity."

3846: 3822: 2309:

The preamble to the CPPCG states that "genocide is a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the

2261: 1278: 564: 378: 19059: 18593:

Cooper, Allan D. (3 August 2006). "Reparations for the Herero Genocide: Defining the limits of international litigation".

17022:

O'Leary, Brendam; McGarry, John (24 November 1995). "Regulating nations and ethnic communities". In Breton, Albert (ed.).

12947: 5406:

in May–June 1876, 30,000 Bulgarians died and 5,000 Bulgarians were killed in Batak – according to modern researchers, the

4857:. According to official reports, 40 were killed and 300 were taken prisoner, with an uncertain number managing to escape. 2881:'s disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or 22597: 21941: 21704: 21010: 20307: 20007: 19661: 16566:... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage. 11932: 11031: 6795: 5182:

In every area which they captured, the Taiping immediately exterminated the entire Manchu population. In the province of

3224: 3195: 2882: 2627: 1938: 1594: 1507: 1398: 1058: 876: 499: 484: 32: 28: 20843: 18368: 18141: 16425: 7923:"Quantifying the potential causes of Neanderthal extinction: Abrupt climate change versus competition and interbreeding" 7758:"Skeletal Anomalies in The Neandertal Family of El Sidrón (Spain) Support A Role of Inbreeding in Neandertal Extinction" 7696:"Skeletal Anomalies in The Neandertal Family of El Sidrón (Spain) Support A Role of Inbreeding in Neandertal Extinction" 5490:

took place in the Ottoman Empire. Some historians consider these genocides a single event and they refer to them as the

5288:, urging him to recognize Japanese mistreatment of the Ainu people as a genocide, something which Putin declined to do. 4011:, the colonization of the Americas caused so much disease and death in the 100 years after 1492, that it contributed to 3400:. Some historians have labelled the conquest genocidal in nature due to the brutal treatment of the Islands' indigenous 2805:. The revolt erupted as a result of religious and political tensions which existed in Judea since the end of the failed 21646: 21210: 20297: 20092: 19593: 19080: 18897: 18766: 18662: 17908: 17385:

Diplomacy on the Edge: Containment of Ethnic Conflict and the Minorities Working Group of the Conferences on Yugoslavia

16603: 15951: 14662: 14625: 14541: 14514: 14471: 13643: 13583: 13248: 12293:

against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782, cost over 100,000 mestizos, native Peruvians and Spanish settlers' lives in

12080: 10618: 10145: 9953:

The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"

9485: 8965: 8877: 8483: 8266:

Cohen, Shaye J. D. (July 1982). "Masada: Literary Tradition, Archaeological Remains, and the Credibility of Josephus".

8049: 7179: 6896: 6534: 6150: 6123: 5533: 4599: 4177: 3561: 3458:

A Congolese man, Nsala, looking at the severed hand and foot of his five-year-old daughter who was killed, cooked, and

3449: 2847: 1492: 958: 15116: 9865: 6791:

Anti-Mongolianism § State-sponsored genocides by the Russian Empire/Soviet Russia, Imperial China/Communist China

2484:

of chiefdoms appears in the military genocidal context which is referred to as "post-battle rage" rather than hunger.

2477:, the phrase by which they express their resolution to make war against an enemy is 'let us go and eat that nation.'" 21686: 21105: 20654: 20414: 20391: 19995: 18632: 17805: 17425: 17396: 17296: 16969: 16888: 16861: 16822: 16800: 16745: 16706: 16668: 16641: 16611: 16584: 16559: 16529: 16503: 16020: 15918: 15883: 15722: 15651: 15579: 15383: 15313: 15284: 14768: 14405: 14174: 13223: 12524: 11896: 11583: 11196: 10754: 9821:

Haberland, Eike (1983). "An Amharic manuscript on the mythical history of the Adi kyaz (Dizi, south-west Ethiopia)".

8998: 8973: 8946: 8701: 8670: 8638: 8590: 8337: 7146: 6921: 6821: 6548: 5950: 3208: 2531:

Scholars devoted much of their attention to the Canaanite genocide and scholars of theology struggled to explain why

1132: 963: 430: 408: 5660:, shortly before his arrival. According to many historical reports, the Bedir Khan massacres can be classified as a 3953:, which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations. Political scientist 22772: 22730: 20839: 20318:(in Spanish). Programa de Ciencia y Derechos Humanos, Asociación Americana del Avance de la Ciencia. Archived from 20289: 20235: 20221: 19421:

Madley, Benjamin (2008). "From Terror to Genocide: Britain's Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australia's History Wars".

18512:(2023). "Genocidal Massacres in the Spanish Conquest of the Americas: Xaragua, Cholula and Toxcatl, 1503–1519". In 15795: 15643: 15198: 12540:

Shannon, Jennifer (1 September 2014). "The Professionalization of Indigeneity in the Carib Territory of Dominica".

10424: 10095: 9212: 7273: 6807: 4777: 4592: 4346: 4204:. According to Philippe Girard, "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent." 4012: 2874: 2363:

may have feared greater international scrutiny of the political killings that occurred in the country, such as the

2318: 1891: 1720: 1614: 1063: 953: 187: 18575:

In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759–2004

15450: 9898: 8895:"Perimortem mutilation of human remains in an early village in the American Southwest: A case for ethnic violence" 8894: 2764: 21818: 21793: 20477:

Expelling the Germans: British opinion and post-1945 population transfer in context. Oxford historical monographs

20193: 9790: 9614: 7044:

violation as a genocide, and many events that were deemed genocidal by Lemkin did not amount to genocide. As the

7015: 6240: 5364: 3724: 2254: 1467: 970: 719: 514: 19507:

Marvin, Laurence W. (2009). "A Most Holy War: The Albigensian Crusade and the Battle for Christendom (review)".

17654:[Albanian uprisings in Kosovo as an alternative to liberation from Serbian-Montenegro rule (1913-1914)] 14140:[The tragedy of the Ainu – The tragedy of the Russian Far East] (in Russian). kamtime.ru. Archived from 13507: 12095:[Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documents the brutal Yaqui genocide in our country] (in Spanish). Archived from 3864:. Balboa slew hundreds in Caribbean villages. The crown later withdrew support and Balboa was executed in 1519. 2988:

was a serious one, and it could cost the accused his/her life. A history of the time cites the "Spiller" caliph

2921:(later known as Ran Min), was an adopted Han Chinese, and in 349, he seized control of the emperor and capital, 22738: 22368: 22126: 21542: 21332: 21042: 19703: 17825: 16215: 16012: 13843: 13193: 12756: 12411: 12324: 12060: 11058: 10281: 10185: 10111: 10040: 8805: 8742:

the word zindiq/zandik was initially applied in the Sassanid Empire to the Manichaeans as a pejorative epithet

7279: 5880: 4871: 3382: 3244: 3141:" in the 20th century, referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in 574: 251: 160: 22645: 17704:

120,000-270,000 Albanians were killed and approximately 250,000 Albanians were expelled between 1912 and 1914.

14166:

Thomas Cochrane and the Dragon Throne: Confronting disease, distrust and murderous rebellion in Imperial China

13862: 10849: 9789:(3 Special Issue: The Oromo in Ethiopian Studies: Confronting Challenges to Politically Engaged Scholarship). 9752: 6591: 6161:, the Uprising is known for the concomitant outrages against the Jews who, in their capacity as leaseholders ( 4412: 2355:

played in excluding political groups from the international definition of genocide, which is contained in the

724: 22398: 21502: 21097: 20899: 19799: 19028: 17312: 15375:

The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe: The history and today of selected ethnic groups in five countries

12316: 11727:

Hidden From History: The Untold Story of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples by the Church and State in Canada

10504: 10388:

Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities

9768:

Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review

6876: 5392: 5329: 5187:

capturing Nanjing, Taiping forces killed about 40,000 Manchu civilians. On 27 October 1853, they crossed the

4973: 4918: 3568:, an infectious viral cattle disease which wiped out most of the national livestock, killing over 90% of the 3423: 3160:

wishes to connect the Albigensian Crusade to modern ethnic slaughter, well—words fail me (as they do him)."

2390: 2168: 1876: 554: 140: 22698: 22565: 18581:(Thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane: Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies. Archived from 16764:

After defeating the Polish army, the Cossacks joined with the Polish peasantry, murdering over 100,000 Jews.

15506: 14950: 13425: 9642: 8440: 5848:

interpreted the act in a way that permitted the execution of non-complying Romani "as a warning to others".

5678: 22419: 22391: 21582: 21478: 20661:

The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II.

20341: 20138: 20107: 20036: 19374: 18783: 18430:. Vol. 2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. 17201: 16156:

Gough, Hugh (1987). "Genocide & the Bicentenary: the French Revolution and the revenge of the Vendée".

15299: 15023: 13057: 12724: 12692: 12354: 11954: 11835: 11147: 10556: 8547: 6785: 5852: 5795: 4881: 4564: 4508: 4372: 4076: 3504: 2977:

beliefs or practices." As such, certain Muslim poets of early Abbasid times could also be accused of being

2416: 2344: 1425: 1373: 309: 90: 15184: 13660:"British empire killed 165 million Indians in 40 years: How colonialism inspired fascism | MR Online" 12009: 11340: 11284: 6378: 5863:, their left ears were to be cut off. In other parts of Austria, they would be branded on the back with a 4622: 3759:. An estimated 10,000 Namaqua were killed, with estimates for the Herero ranging from 60,000 and 100,000. 22706: 22581: 22573: 21874: 21460: 20865: 20572: 20259:

Instrumentes Legales y Operativos Para el Funcionamiento de la Comisión Para el Esclarecimiento Histórico

19987: 19550: 18978: 16961: 16378: 15967: 15867: 15714: 13115: 11404: 10951:"European colonizers killed so many Native Americans that it changed the global climate, researchers say" 6811: 6748: 6460:

but later allowed to reconvert, which most of them did. Jews were also targeted in the ensuing violence.

6326: 6230:. "An Gorta Mór, Britain's genocide by starvation, Ireland's holocaust 1845–1849, over 1,500,000 deaths". 6115:; also known as the Cossack-Polish War, the Chmielnicki Uprising, or the Khmelnytsky insurrection) was a 5590: 5388: 4992:, forced labour among other indirect and direct causes resulted in the death of over 100 million Indians 4728:

of the upper Missouri River by failure to quarantine steam boats on the river", and Captain Pratt of the

3838: 3714: 3517:

During its military conquests, its centralization of its power and its incorporation of territories into

3306: 2079: 1923: 1328: 921: 859: 182: 16783: 16097: 15902: 22621: 21826: 20406: 20084: 19959: 19906: 19834: 19621: 19554: 19423: 18888: 18861: 18833: 18758: 18693: 18521: 18431: 18063: 17029: 16521: 16202: 14368: 12789: 12237: 11924: 10983: 10746: 10715: 9851:

Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122

9830: 9398: 9372:. Vol. 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 418. 8869: 8567: 8329: 8062: 8033: 7878: 7817:"Inbreeding, Allee effects and stochasticity might be sufficient to account for Neanderthal extinction" 7508: 7138: 6540: 6354: 5641: 5509: 5223: 4805: 3857: 3763: 3216: 3029: 2855: 2806: 2188: 943: 609: 324: 20262: 15800: 12478:

McD. Beckles, Hilary (2008). "Kalinago (Carib) Resistance to European Colonisation of the Caribbean".

3747:

endured a genocidal persecution between 1904 and 1907 while their homeland was under colonial rule as

3231:

were genocidal killers who were known to eradicate whole nations. He ordered the extermination of the

2772: 2654:

finds the destruction of Carthage one of long and widely practiced genocides and brings only from the

2594:'s root-and branch depredations in the first half of the first millennium BCE, and the destruction of 22589: 22557: 22439: 22322: 20642: 19731: 19546:

Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making

18151: 17870: 17005: 16759: 16551: 16441:

poshit'ya reyestrovomu voysku mundirov" i obuvi, da dlya prodovol'stvíya voysk" nѣkotoraya provizíya.

11095: 8268: 8176:

Cowles, C. S.; Gard, Daniel L.; Merrill, Eugene H.; Longman III, Tremper; Gundry, Stanley N. (2003).

8041: 6457: 6353:, who has written twenty-four books about Ireland, has said the following about the use of the word ' 6250: 4948: 4940: 4772:

The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1849, and it resulted in a large number of

4478:. During this time period, several tribes became extinct, with 80–86% of the total population in the 4008: 3796:, women, children and even dogs. Estimates of the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million. 3096:

The Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year-long military campaign which

2321:

estimated that 43 genocides occurred between 1956 and 2016, resulting in 50 million deaths. The

1519: 1333: 1227: 1112: 766: 734: 388: 314: 244: 145: 19093:(June 2002). "Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines". 18804:

Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I

18073:

Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History

16411: 11725: 11553: 10076: 9427:"Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders" 9426: 7212: 6755: 6269:

from using Ireland as a base to threaten England from. The force was initially under the command of

5723:

in the Northwest Caucasus for more than one hundred years, trying to secure its hold on Circassia's

5025: 22287: 22278: 21979: 21356: 20892: 20105:(2003). "The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican". 19809: 19781: 19678: 18651:

Crimes of State Past and Present: Government-Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses

18292: 17417: 15070: 14917: 14705: 13943: 12180: 12147: 8630: 6945: 6803: 6569: 6346: 5176: 4376: 3748: 3553:, Menelik's Russian military aide, Menelik's armies "dreadfully annihilated more than half" of the 3149:

writes that "The Albigensian Crusade ushered genocide into the West by linking divine salvation to

2948:

Zindīq (زنديق) or Zandik (𐭦𐭭𐭣𐭩𐭪) was initially used to negatively denote the followers of the

2673: 2295: 1785: 1673: 1514: 1283: 1212: 1040: 995: 849: 729: 709: 639: 569: 445: 205: 116: 22746: 20613: 18414:(2023). "'The Centrality of Dispossession': Native American Genocide and Settler Colonialism". In 17584: 5198:, Qing forces allowed no rebels who spoke its dialect to surrender. Reportedly in the province of 4200:, ordered the killing of the white population of French creoles on Haiti, which culminated in the 22308: 22301: 21292: 20480: 19931: 19653: 19257: 18752: 18469: 16853: 16660: 16383: 15875: 15477: 15336: 14888: 13635: 13400: 12859: 12688:

Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac's Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America

12349: 10391: 8848: 8826: 8759: 8737: 8475: 7248: 6816: 6556: 6338: 6031: 6020: 5997: 5993: 5600: 5528:

describes Spanish colonial rule of the Philippines as one of the "most cruel colonial regimes in

4965: 4842: 4838: 4657: 4556: 4471: 4193: 3618: 3609: 3577: 2512: 2500: 2084: 2064: 1918: 1908: 1866: 1482: 1323: 1177: 1147: 1142: 1085: 1020: 1005: 938: 911: 896: 275: 20337:"A genocide that never was: explaining the myth of anti-Chinese massacres in Indonesia, 1965–66" 20136:

Weiss-Wendt, Anton (December 2005). "Hostage of Politics: Raphael Lemkin on 'Soviet Genocide'".

17497: 17199:

Mcveigh, Robbie (2008). ""The balance of cruelty": Ireland, Britain and the logic of genocide".

17127: 17121: 14103: 13741:

describe the rise and fall of the Zunghar state and its relations with other Mongol tribes, the

11142: 9589:

The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers

7633:

T. F.; Slatkin, M; Hublin, J. J.; Reich, D; Kelso, J; Viola, T. B.; Pääbo, S (23 October 2014).

5963: 4272: 3944:, to mention but two of the major victims of this century." Noble David Cook, writing about the 2658:

seventeen examples "excluding numberless cases which approximate only parts" of genocidal wars.

1122: 22817: 22405: 22354: 22244: 21987: 21526: 21412: 20319: 19095: 18672:

Cruickshank, Joanna; McKinnon, Crystal (2023). "Australia's Stolen Generations, 1914–2021". In

18286: 17652:"Kryengritjet shqiptare në Kosovë si alternativë çlirimi nga sundimi serbo-malazez (1913-1914)" 17590: 17467:

Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan War

16906: 16725: 16495: 16471: 15830: 14425: 14302: 14290: 13816: 12872:

United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)

12165:

History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardiner

11245: 9811:

Alemayehu, Kumsa. Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia Charles University in Prague

9363: 8118: 7417:

Eski, Yarin (2023). "Born of violence: the Neanderthal extinction, genocide and colonization".

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in the Pacific Ocean. These people lived by a code of non-violence and passive resistance (see

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to Ireland to subdue the Catholic population of the country and take revenge on it and prevent

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for half a year. The result was mass killings of Romani across the Holy Roman empire. In 1721,

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approved the mass execution of 38 Dakota Native Americans convicted in Minnesota following the

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had an adverse effect on the Jie, as they ceased to play a role in Chinese history soon after.

2867: 2794: 2432: 2183: 2156: 2146: 1604: 1584: 1447: 1318: 1207: 1157: 1127: 1107: 1035: 1015: 990: 985: 980: 891: 854: 827: 798: 793: 373: 363: 150: 135: 110: 22653: 20191:

Woolford, Andrew (2009). "Ontological Destruction: Genocide and Canadian Aboriginal Peoples".

19750: 18477: 15637: 14911: 14451: 14207:

Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire

13886: 13872: 13082: 13051: 13011: 12908: 12815: 12783: 12778:

For historians who describe this specific attempt at intentional infection as successful, see:

12750: 12718: 12686: 11408: 10905: 10740: 10121: 10105: 9392: 8469: 7964:"Mobility of a large-volume pyroclastic flow – emplacement of the Campanian ignimbrite, Italy" 7242: 6580: 5577:, the restructuring of Filipino communities, and periodic famines, epidemics and Moro raids". 4242:

if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to. According to anthropologist

3178:, include a detailed case study of the Albigensian Crusade in their genocide studies textbook 22714: 22469: 21749: 21427: 21178: 21121: 21002: 20646: 19853: 19625: 19465: 19395: 19369: 19251: 19133: 19008: 18646: 18554: 16903:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999

16722:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999

16600:

The More Moderate Side of Joseph De Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy

16084: 15573: 15407: 14797: 14760: 14498: 14164: 13453: 13109: 13038:

Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile

12977: 12561: 12516: 12509: 12195: 11462:"Solving the "Indian Problem": Assimilation Laws, Practices & Indian Residential Schools" 11363: 10862: 10514: 9966:

The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"

9517: 8863: 8791: 8765:

later period, even up to the present time, 'zindīq' came to be synonymous with 'irreligious'.

8520: 6950: 6940: 6866: 6603: 6493: 6420: 6282: 6266: 6024: 5914: 5799: 5791: 5787: 5166: 5154: 5001: 4813: 4766: 3830: 3626: 3483: 3047: 3041: 2802: 2768: 2681: 2372: 2151: 2111: 2044: 1933: 1881: 1800: 1549: 1313: 1217: 1192: 1187: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1102: 1050: 1010: 916: 886: 776: 383: 20692: 19278:(2010). "A Most Holy War: The Albigensian Crusade and the Battle for Christendom (review)". 19213: 17891:

Tatz, Colin (2006). Maaka, Roger; Chris Andersen (eds.). "Confronting Australian Genocide".

16752:

Between 100,000–500,000 Jews were murdered by the Cossacks during the Chmielnicki massacres.

12668: 12397: 12313:

Resistance, rebellion, and consciousness in the Andean peasant world, 18th to 20th centuries

3989:

Native Americans were enslaved between Columbus's arrival and 1900 throughout the Americas.

2551:

period were partial genocides, such as the destruction of the Midianites by the Israelites (

22865: 22764: 22347: 22140: 22119: 21486: 21340: 21186: 21145: 20923: 19721: 19398:; Hudson, Graham (2012). "The Genocide Question and Indian Residential Schools in Canada". 17085: 16880: 14710: 12587: 12269: 11314: 10992: 9894: 8605: 8551: 7977: 7934: 7887: 7830: 7771: 7709: 7648: 7592: 7517: 6607: 6501: 6484:

during the conflicts that occurred in the region between 1912 and 1913. During the 1912–13

6472:

The massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were perpetrated on several occasions by the

6138: 6084: 6001: 5887: 5710: 5574: 4935: 4638: 4560: 4534: 4388: 4311:

also offered a bounty of 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman and 25 pesos per child.

4234: 4222: 4169: 4134: 4038: 3976: 3968: 3945: 3915: 3550: 3487: 3427: 2334: 2022: 1534: 1408: 1117: 1075: 1025: 1000: 808: 771: 504: 358: 170: 85: 20: 18370:

The Thistle and the Drone: How America's War on Terror Became a Global War on Tribal Islam

14832:

Historical Perspective: Santa Clara University Undergraduate Journal of History, Series II

14421: 13512: 11200: 10226:

From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa

9366:(1992) . "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Habib, Mohammad; Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad (eds.). 6646:

had been exaggerated. The intent and effects of the government policy were also disputed.

6043: 4668:, about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took 4602:

authorized the intentional use of disease as a biological weapon, notably during the 1763

4539:

Genocide of indigenous peoples § United States colonization of indigenous territories

2535:

commanded the Israelites to wage a "genocidal" conquest of Canaan and the secular scholar

2325:

estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence.

8: 22682: 22384: 22251: 22200: 21906: 21802: 21773: 21733: 21717: 21364: 21316: 21282: 21274: 21243: 21018: 20547: 20350: 20179: 19348: