870:, 32.7% of crayfishes, 25.9% of amphibians, and 21.2% of fish are either endangered or threatened. Extinction rates of many species may increase severely into the next century because of invasive species, loss of keystone species, and species which are already functionally extinct (e.g., species which are not reproducing). Even using conservative estimates, freshwater fish extinction rates in North America are 877 times higher than background extinction rates (1 in 3,000,000 years). Projected extinction rates for freshwater animals are around five times greater than for land animals, and are comparable to the rates for rainforest communities. Given the dire state of freshwater biodiversity, a team of scientists and practitioners from around the globe recently drafted an Emergency Action plan to try and restore freshwater biodiversity.
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20:
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diverse taxonomy, ease of collection, sensitivity to a range of stressors, and overall value to the ecosystem. Additionally, algal community structure (often using diatoms) is measured in biomonitoring programs. Algae are also taxonomically diverse, easily collected, sensitive to a range of stressors, and overall valuable to the ecosystem. Algae grow very quickly and communities may represent fast changes in environmental conditions.
927:
941:
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301:, which has a maximum depth of 1642 m. The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified. Ponds and pools have two regions: the
873:
Current freshwater biomonitoring techniques focus primarily on community structure, but some programs measure functional indicators like biochemical (or biological) oxygen demand, sediment oxygen demand, and dissolved oxygen. Macroinvertebrate community structure is commonly monitored because of the
877:
In addition to community structure, responses to freshwater stressors are investigated by experimental studies that measure organism behavioural changes, altered rates of growth, reproduction or mortality. Experimental results on single species under controlled conditions may not always reflect
890:
valves, macrophyte pollen, insect chitin and fish scales can be used to determine conditions prior to large scale human disturbance. These temporal reference conditions are often easier to reconstruct in standing water than moving water because stable sediments can better preserve biological
362:
streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of
1195:
Dudgeon, David; Arthington, Angela H.; Gessner, Mark O.; Kawabata, Zen-Ichiro; Knowler, Duncan J.; Lévêque, Christian; Naiman, Robert J.; Prieur-Richard, Anne-Hélène; Soto, Doris (2005-12-12). "Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges".
909:
greatly complicate and frequently exacerbate the impacts of other stressors that threaten many fish, invertebrates, phytoplankton, and other organisms. Climate change is increasing the average temperature of water bodies, and worsening other issues such as changes in
914:
composition, oxygen concentration, and other system changes that have ripple effects on the biology of the system. Water temperatures have already increased by around 1 °C, and significant declines in ice coverage have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses.
109:
Freshwater ecosystems have undergone substantial transformations over time, which has impacted various characteristics of the ecosystems. Original attempts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats to human health (for example
885:
health" of a freshwater ecosystem. Reference sites can be selected spatially by choosing sites with minimal impacts from human disturbance and influence. However, reference conditions may also be established temporally by using preserved indicators such as
1120:
Rudolfs, Willem; Falk, Lloyd L.; Ragotzkie, R. A. (1950). "Literature Review on the
Occurrence and Survival of Enteric, Pathogenic, and Relative Organisms in Soil, Water, Sewage, and Sludges, and on Vegetation: I. Bacterial and Virus Diseases".
386:. A dam produces negative effects that continue down the watershed. The most important negative effects are the reduction of spring flooding, which damages wetlands, and the retention of sediment, which leads to the loss of deltaic wetlands.
1159:
Friberg, Nikolai; Bonada, NĂşria; Bradley, David C.; Dunbar, Michael J.; Edwards, Francois K.; Grey, Jonathan; Hayes, Richard B.; Hildrew, Alan G.; Lamouroux, Nicolas (2011), "Biomonitoring of Human
Impacts in Freshwater Ecosystems",
763:
noted an 83% decline in the populations of freshwater vertebrates between 1970 and 2014. These declines continue to outpace contemporaneous declines in marine or terrestrial systems. The causes of these declines are related to:
2190:
Prather, Chelse M.; Pelini, Shannon L.; Laws, Angela; Rivest, Emily; Woltz, Megan; Bloch, Christopher P.; Del Toro, Israel; Ho, Chuan-Kai; Kominoski, John; Newbold, T. A. Scott; Parsons, Sheena; Joern, A. (2012).
833:
plants and animals are a major issue to freshwater ecosystems, in many cases outcompeting native species and altering water conditions. Introduced species are especially devastating to ecosystems that are home to
1634:
Giri, C.; Pengra, B.; Zhu, Z.; Singh, A.; Tieszen, L.L. (2007). "Monitoring mangrove forest dynamics of the
Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India using multi-temporal satellite data from 1973 to 2000".
118:
contamination). Early monitoring focused on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type of monitoring involves quantifying differing groups of organisms (
2024:
Tickner, David; Opperman, Jeffrey J; Abell, Robin; Acreman, Mike; Arthington, Angela H; Bunn, Stuart E; Cooke, Steven J; Dalton, James; Darwall, Will; Edwards, Gavin; Harrison, Ian (2020-04-01).
748:. Recent extinction trends can be attributed largely to sedimentation, stream fragmentation, chemical and organic pollutants, dams, and invasive species. Common chemical stresses on freshwater
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because water temperatures have already increased by about 1 °C, and there have been significant declines in ice coverage which have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses.
900:
74:
habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
2787:
866:
Over 123 freshwater fauna species have gone extinct in North
America since 1900. Of North American freshwater species, an estimated 48.5% of mussels, 22.8% of
1263:
309:, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the
106:(areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time). Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species.
1945:
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367:, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into
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313:. These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there.
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are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and
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374:
The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider streams and those that lack a
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kilometers in width. Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general, including related lotic systems such as
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1394:"Biology Concepts & Connections Sixth Edition", Campbell, Neil A. (2009), page 2, 3 and G-9. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
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Davidson, N.C. (2014). "How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area".
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4208:
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Allan, J.D. 1995. Stream
Ecology: structure and function of running waters. Chapman and Hall, London. Pp. 388.
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Ricciardi, Anthony; Rasmussen, Joseph B. (1999-10-23). "Extinction Rates of North
American Freshwater Fauna".
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256:(non-living) physical and chemical interactions. Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems (
4358:
3294:
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1282:
1274:
283:, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with
474:, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally for a shorter periods. Flooding results in
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2193:"Invertebrates, ecosystem services and climate change: Invertebrates, ecosystems and climate change"
1210:
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This stream operating together with its environment can be thought of as forming a river ecosystem.
19:
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1385:
Angelier, E. 2003. Ecology of
Streams and Rivers. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield. Pp. 215.
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Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to
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146:
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Arthington, Angela H.; Dulvy, Nicholas K.; Gladstone, William; Winfield, Ian J. (2016).
1740:
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1647:
1081:"State of the World's Freshwater Ecosystems: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Changes"
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383:
202:
150:
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Stevenson, R. Jan; Smol, John P. (2003), "Use of Algae in
Environmental Assessments",
2026:"Bending the Curve of Global Freshwater Biodiversity Loss: An Emergency Recovery Plan"
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576:
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2006:
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1783:"Emerging threats and persistent conservation challenges for freshwater biodiversity"
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364:
253:
119:
31:
2271:
2224:
1727:
Xu, F (September 2001). "Lake
Ecosystem Health Assessment: Indicators and Methods".
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1243:
901:
Effects of climate change on the water cycle § Impacts on freshwater ecosystems
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4738:
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2133:"Fish conservation in freshwater and marine realms: status, threats and management"
2104:
2053:
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1996:
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775:
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601:
425:. Together, these two ecosystems form the more general study area of freshwater or
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284:
237:
138:
63:
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1921:
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467:
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197:(areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time).
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813:
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402:
379:
355:
249:
233:
215:
35:
2255:
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421:, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes, ponds, and
346:(living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as
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5016:
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3913:
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2010:
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803:
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Freshwater biodiversity faces many threats. The World Wide Fund for Nature's
636:
527:
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2001:
1984:
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1906:
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Calcium concentrations falling below the needs of some freshwater organisms
729:
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306:
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1079:
Carpenter, Stephen R.; Stanley, Emily H.; Vander Zanden, M. Jake (2011).
851:
697:
664:
641:
629:
511:
487:
459:
331:
298:
71:
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350:(nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River
295:. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of freshwater ecosystems.
5006:
4583:
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2132:
1264:"Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and their Services"
867:
850:. Common causes of invasive species in freshwater ecosystems include
673:
646:
613:
546:
539:
455:
359:
351:
310:
198:
1544:
656:, water source is excess water from overflowed rivers or lakes; and
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1262:
Parmesan, Camille; Morecroft, Mike; Trisurat, Yongyut; et al.
685:
669:
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562:
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491:
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3440:
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3171:
3141:
3119:
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2527:
2427:
1985:"Extinction Rates in North American Freshwater Fishes, 1900–2010"
954:
940:
881:
The use of reference sites is common when defining the idealized
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535:
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463:
448:
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422:
347:
280:
194:
111:
103:
59:
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Examples of wetlands classified by the sources of water include
3461:
3435:
3196:
2522:
2083:
Freshwater biomonitoring and benthic macroinvertebrates, 40-158
887:
693:
523:
475:
410:
292:
245:
186:
115:
95:
47:
1873:"Invasive aquarium fish transform ecosystem nutrient dynamics"
821:
The additive—and possibly synergistic—effects of these threats
565:. The main types of wetland are defined based on the dominant
155:
Climate change is putting further pressure on these ecosystems
3399:
1964:
Smithsonian's
National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute
1078:
609:
596:
591:
571:
566:
471:
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342:
are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the
288:
265:
241:
190:
130:) and measuring the stream conditions associated with them.
99:
1590:
The World's Largest Wetlands: Their Ecology and Conservation
1329:
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2023:
1306:
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1302:
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276:
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178:
174:
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87:
83:
79:
67:
55:
39:
2080:
1271:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
1158:
2754:
2744:
2081:
Johnson, R. K.; Wiederholm, T.; Rosenberg, D. M. (1993).
1397:
1354:
658:
388:
River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems.
1299:
2189:
1877:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1846:
Reid, Andrea Jane; Cooke, Steven J. (22 January 2019).
522:
to a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and
2137:
Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
1476:(2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
165:
There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
1871:
Capps, Krista; Flecker, Alexander (22 October 2013).
1451:
1426:
1335:
1261:
1524:
1465:
1463:
1315:. Heinimann Educational Books, London. p. 163.
1119:
922:
1580:
1379:
719:
Ecosystem § Human interactions with ecosystems
378:derive the majority of their food base from algae.
287:, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as
1675:
1277:of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
1047:
1019:Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists
878:natural conditions and multi-species communities.
791:damming and fragmenting of half the world's rivers
1506:
1504:
1460:
861:
5043:
1365:. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ. p. 592.
1340:. Oxford University Press, Oxford. p. 285.
650:, water source is mixed tidal and river waters;
2240:"Phytoplankton response to a changing climate"
1848:"Freshwater wildlife face an uncertain future"
1530:
1501:
616:in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees).
4240:
3493:
3385:
2593:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
2303:
2098:
1593:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1559:
2237:
2094:
2092:
1944:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1920:Station, Julia Hampton, Great Rivers Field.
1870:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1473:Wetland ecology: principles and conservation
1435:Wetland Ecology. Principles and Conservation
486:. Wetlands form a transitional zone between
482:) processes taking place, especially in the
2658:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
1586:
1437:. Cambridge University Press. p. 497.
988:(3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
858:, and introduction for use as a food fish.
676:. The world's largest wetlands include the
628:woody plants that have evolved to tolerate
396:
4461:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
4247:
4233:
3500:
3486:
3392:
3378:
2310:
2296:
1627:
1607:
1273:. Contribution of Working Group II to the
1257:
1255:
1253:
1085:Annual Review of Environment and Resources
986:Limnology : lake and river ecosystems
569:and the source of the water. For example,
417:. Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted with
401:, meaning washed. Lotic waters range from
205:) is a study about freshwater ecosystems.
2166:
2156:
2089:
2057:
2000:
1896:
1845:
1798:
1662:
1403:
1279:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1209:
1190:
1188:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1096:
271:, which means "sluggish"), which include
260:refers to stationary or relatively still
4359:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3998:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1982:
1512:"Official page of the Ramsar Convention"
979:
977:
975:
756:and copper and pesticide contamination.
330:
221:
18:
4391:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
2238:Winder, Monika; Sommer, Ulrich (2012).
1776:
1774:
1250:
1016:
794:Emerging contaminants, such as hormones
5044:
4199:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
2317:
1587:Fraser, L.; Keddy, P.A., eds. (2005).
1185:
1141:
1046:Daily, Gretchen C. (1 February 1997).
1010:
983:
838:species. An example of this being the
358:networks or catchments, where smaller
4228:
3481:
3373:
2846:
2845:
2329:
2291:
1469:
1432:
1406:Encyclopedia of Environmental Science
1360:
1310:
1098:10.1146/annurev-environ-021810-094524
1045:
1017:Vaccari, David A. (8 November 2005).
972:
742:destruction or degradation of habitat
514:. They are considered among the most
405:only a few centimeters wide to major
147:destruction or degradation of habitat
4214:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1983:Burkhead, Noel M. (September 2012).
1780:
1771:
1636:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
1336:Brönmark, C.; L. A. Hansson (2005).
1039:
715:River ecosystem § Human impacts
208:
4664:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2921:Oceanic physical-biological process
2783:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
1919:
825:
812:Saltier coastal freshwaters due to
711:Lake ecosystem § Human impacts
317:
13:
4417:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1726:
1404:Alexander, David E. (1 May 1999).
1170:10.1016/b978-0-12-374794-5.00001-8
553:. The water in wetlands is either
392:refers to flowing water, from the
185:(faster moving water, for example
94:(faster moving water, for example
16:Part of Earth's aquatic ecosystems
14:
5103:
3753:Generalist and specialist species
2101:Freshwater Algae of North America
1823:"Living Planet Report 2018 | WWF"
894:
728:Five broad threats to freshwater
236:or lacustrine ecosystem includes
227:The three primary zones of a lake
4476:Occupancy–abundance relationship
3354:
3353:
3341:
3327:
2959:
2631:
2448:Colored dissolved organic matter
2109:10.1016/b978-012741550-5/50024-6
1698:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98380.x
939:
925:
439:This section is an excerpt from
323:This section is an excerpt from
214:This section is an excerpt from
4496:Relative abundance distribution
4209:Plant defense against herbivory
4076:Competitive exclusion principle
3788:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2793:Latin America and the Caribbean
2231:
2183:
2124:
2074:
2017:
1976:
1952:
1913:
1864:
1839:
1815:
1720:
1162:Advances in Ecological Research
723:
494:, and are different from other
4081:Consumer–resource interactions
3275:Ecological values of mangroves
2818:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
2103:, Elsevier, pp. 775–804,
1781:Reid, AJ; et al. (2019).
1533:Marine and Freshwater Research
1338:The Biology of Lakes and Ponds
1113:
1072:
862:Extinction of freshwater fauna
518:of all ecosystems, serving as
510:having adapted to oxygen-poor
169:(slow moving water, including
78:(slow moving water, including
62:. They can be contrasted with
1:
4927:Biological data visualization
4754:Environmental niche modelling
4481:Population viability analysis
1749:10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00040-9
965:
4412:Density-dependent inhibition
3295:Marine conservation activism
3280:Fisheries and climate change
1123:Sewage and Industrial Wastes
809:Light and noise interference
640:, where the water source is
7:
4881:Liebig's law of the minimum
4716:Resource selection function
3607:Metabolic theory of ecology
3290:Human impact on marine life
3167:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
2403:Aquatic population dynamics
1164:, Elsevier, pp. 1–68,
918:
854:releases, introduction for
433:
10:
5108:
4781:Niche apportionment models
4501:Relative species abundance
3705:Primary nutritional groups
3602:List of feeding behaviours
1656:10.1016/j.ecss.2006.12.019
984:Wetzel, Robert G. (2001).
898:
774:Online wildlife trade and
708:
704:
688:in South America, and the
575:are wetlands dominated by
438:
322:
213:
5030:
4962:Ecosystem based fisheries
4904:
4804:
4729:
4602:
4574:Interspecific competition
4539:
4466:Minimum viable population
4399:
4324:Maximum sustainable yield
4309:Intraspecific competition
4304:Effective population size
4267:
4184:Anti-predator adaptations
4169:
4048:
3975:
3932:
3854:
3821:
3718:
3695:Photosynthetic efficiency
3630:
3524:
3445:Pechton / Pecton / Pekton
3411:
3321:
3260:
3132:
3068:
3030:
2977:
2968:
2957:
2906:Marine primary production
2858:
2854:
2841:
2800:List of marine ecoregions
2775:
2640:
2629:
2343:
2339:
2325:
2256:10.1007/s10750-012-1149-2
1960:"Northern snakehead fish"
1220:10.1017/s1464793105006950
907:effects of climate change
305:open water zone, and the
4952:Ecological stoichiometry
4917:Alternative stable state
3152:Coastal biogeomorphology
3147:Marine coastal ecosystem
1615:"WWF Pantanal Programme"
545:Wetlands exist on every
160:
30:are a subset of Earth's
4796:Ontogenetic niche shift
4659:Ideal free distribution
4569:Ecological facilitation
4319:Malthusian growth model
4289:Consumer-resource model
4146:Paradox of the plankton
4111:Energy systems language
3831:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
3798:Optimal foraging theory
3773:Heterotrophic nutrition
3060:Paradox of the plankton
2871:Diel vertical migration
2765:Freshwater swamp forest
2483:GIS and aquatic science
2331:General components and
2002:10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.5
1433:Keddy, Paul A. (2010).
1275:Sixth Assessment Report
752:include acidification,
530:by the plants removing
4942:Ecological forecasting
4886:Marginal value theorem
4684:Landscape epidemiology
4619:Cross-boundary subsidy
4554:Biological interaction
3904:Microbial intelligence
3592:Green world hypothesis
2886:Large marine ecosystem
2578:Shoaling and schooling
2042:10.1093/biosci/biaa002
1889:10.1098/rspb.2013.1520
526:, with often improved
397:
336:
229:
133:Threats to freshwater
66:, which have a larger
24:
5057:Freshwater ecoregions
4947:Ecological humanities
4846:Ecological energetics
4791:Niche differentiation
4654:Habitat fragmentation
4422:Ecological extinction
4369:Small population size
4121:Feed conversion ratio
4101:Ecological succession
4033:San Francisco Estuary
3947:Ecological efficiency
3889:Microbial cooperation
3305:Marine protected area
3232:Salt pannes and pools
3007:Marine larval ecology
2982:Census of Marine Life
2866:Deep scattering layer
2823:San Francisco Estuary
2788:Africa and Madagascar
2613:Underwater camouflage
2393:Aquatic biomonitoring
2333:freshwater ecosystems
1311:Brown, A. L. (1987).
891:indicator materials.
740:, flow modification,
709:Further information:
580:herbaceous vegetation
334:
225:
145:, flow modification,
28:Freshwater ecosystems
22:
4972:Evolutionary ecology
4937:Ecological footprint
4932:Ecological economics
4856:Ecological threshold
4851:Ecological indicator
4721:Source–sink dynamics
4674:Land change modeling
4669:Insular biogeography
4521:Species distribution
4260:Modelling ecosystems
3919:Microbial metabolism
3758:Intraguild predation
3547:Biogeochemical cycle
3513:Modelling ecosystems
3040:Marine bacteriophage
3002:Marine invertebrates
1922:"Asian carp species"
1678:Conservation Biology
1470:Keddy, P.A. (2010).
516:biologically diverse
23:Freshwater ecosystem
5022:Theoretical ecology
4997:Natural environment
4861:Ecosystem diversity
4831:Ecological collapse
4821:Bateman's principle
4776:Limiting similarity
4689:Landscape limnology
4511:Species homogeneity
4349:Population modeling
4344:Population dynamics
4161:Trophic state index
3401:Groups of organisms
2916:Ocean fertilization
2725:Trophic state index
2683:Lake stratification
2413:Aquatic respiration
2149:2016ACMFE..26..838A
1741:2001WatRe..35.3157X
1690:1999ConBi..13.1220R
1648:2007ECSS...73...91G
842:competing with the
761:Living Planet Index
682:West Siberian Plain
354:are part of larger
5052:Freshwater ecology
5033:Outline of ecology
4982:Industrial ecology
4977:Functional ecology
4841:Ecological deficit
4786:Niche construction
4749:Ecosystem engineer
4526:Species–area curve
4447:Introduced species
4262:: Other components
4194:Deimatic behaviour
4096:Ecological network
4028:North Pacific Gyre
4013:hydrothermal vents
3952:Ecological pyramid
3899:Microbial food web
3710:Primary production
3655:Foundation species
3405:aquatic ecosystems
3182:Intertidal wetland
3177:Intertidal ecology
3045:Marine prokaryotes
2987:Deep-sea community
2881:Iron fertilization
2804:Specific examples
2730:Upland and lowland
2648:Freshwater biology
2513:Microbial food web
2423:Aquatic toxicology
2366:Aquatic adaptation
2319:Aquatic ecosystems
2197:Biological Reviews
2085:. pp. 40–158.
1926:blogs.illinois.edu
1787:Biological Reviews
1361:Kalff, J. (2002).
1313:Freshwater Ecology
1198:Biological Reviews
1023:Wiley-Interscience
784:Toxic algae blooms
780:Infectious disease
744:, and invasion by
678:Amazon River basin
668:, water source is
620:are wetlands with
500:aquatic ecosystems
384:introduced species
369:upland and lowland
337:
230:
203:freshwater biology
149:, and invasion by
120:macroinvertebrates
32:aquatic ecosystems
25:
5082:Fisheries science
5077:Freshwater plants
5039:
5038:
4922:Balance of nature
4679:Landscape ecology
4564:Community ecology
4506:Species diversity
4442:Indicator species
4437:Gradient analysis
4314:Logistic function
4222:
4221:
4179:Animal coloration
4156:Trophic mutualism
3894:Microbial ecology
3685:Photoheterotrophs
3670:Myco-heterotrophy
3582:Ecosystem ecology
3567:Carrying capacity
3532:Abiotic component
3475:
3474:
3367:
3366:
3348:Oceans portal
3317:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3192:Hydrothermal vent
3128:
3127:
3017:Seashore wildlife
2848:Marine ecosystems
2837:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2603:Thermal pollution
2568:Ramsar Convention
2508:Microbial ecology
2468:Fisheries science
2408:Aquatic predation
2209:10.1111/brv.12002
1800:10.1111/brv.12480
1735:(13): 3157–3167.
1444:978-0-521-51940-3
1129:(10): 1261–1281.
1050:Nature's Services
848:Mississippi river
600:are dominated by
512:waterlogged soils
419:lentic ecosystems
209:Lentic ecosystems
114:outbreaks due to
64:marine ecosystems
5099:
4739:Ecological niche
4711:selection theory
4531:Umbrella species
4516:Species richness
4452:Invasive species
4432:Flagship species
4339:Population cycle
4334:Overexploitation
4299:Ecological yield
4249:
4242:
4235:
4226:
4225:
4131:Mesotrophic soil
4071:Climax community
4003:Marine food webs
3942:Biomagnification
3743:Chemoorganotroph
3597:Keystone species
3557:Biotic component
3502:
3495:
3488:
3479:
3478:
3394:
3387:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3357:
3356:
3350:
3346:
3345:
3336:
3334:Lakes portal
3332:
3331:
3330:
3300:Marine pollution
2992:Deep-water coral
2975:
2974:
2963:
2896:Marine chemistry
2856:
2855:
2843:
2842:
2760:Freshwater marsh
2653:Freshwater biome
2635:
2351:Acoustic ecology
2341:
2340:
2327:
2326:
2312:
2305:
2298:
2289:
2288:
2276:
2275:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2160:
2158:10.1002/aqc.2712
2128:
2122:
2121:
2096:
2087:
2086:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2004:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1943:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1900:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1852:The Conversation
1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1802:
1778:
1769:
1768:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1684:(5): 1220–1222.
1673:
1660:
1659:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1508:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1486:. Archived from
1467:
1458:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1308:
1297:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1287:
1281:. Archived from
1268:
1259:
1248:
1247:
1213:
1192:
1183:
1182:
1156:
1139:
1138:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1100:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1053:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1014:
1008:
1007:
981:
949:
944:
943:
935:
930:
929:
928:
826:Invasive species
776:invasive species
770:changing climate
750:ecosystem health
734:overexploitation
602:woody vegetation
532:excess nutrients
400:
365:dissolved oxygen
340:River ecosystems
318:Lotic ecosystems
285:lotic ecosystems
201:(and its branch
139:overexploitation
5107:
5106:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5087:Systems ecology
5067:Aquatic ecology
5042:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5026:
5012:Systems ecology
4900:
4871:Extinction debt
4836:Ecological debt
4826:Bioluminescence
4807:
4800:
4769:marine habitats
4744:Ecological trap
4725:
4605:
4598:
4541:
4535:
4491:Rapoport's rule
4486:Priority effect
4427:Endemic species
4395:
4354:Population size
4270:
4263:
4253:
4223:
4218:
4171:
4165:
4151:Trophic cascade
4061:Bioaccumulation
4044:
3971:
3928:
3850:
3817:
3714:
3626:
3587:Ecosystem model
3520:
3506:
3476:
3471:
3407:
3398:
3368:
3363:
3340:
3339:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3309:
3270:Coral bleaching
3256:
3237:Seagrass meadow
3134:Marine habitats
3124:
3098:Coral reef fish
3064:
3050:Marine protists
3026:
2964:
2955:
2926:Ocean turbidity
2901:Marine food web
2850:
2829:
2771:
2710:River ecosystem
2663:Freshwater fish
2636:
2627:
2433:Bioluminescence
2418:Aquatic science
2335:
2321:
2316:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2236:
2232:
2188:
2184:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2097:
2090:
2079:
2075:
2022:
2018:
1981:
1977:
1968:
1966:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1937:
1936:
1930:
1928:
1918:
1914:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1844:
1840:
1831:
1829:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1779:
1772:
1725:
1721:
1674:
1663:
1642:(1–2): 91–100.
1632:
1628:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1585:
1581:
1572:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1545:10.1071/MF14173
1539:(10): 934–941.
1529:
1525:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1509:
1502:
1493:
1491:
1484:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1431:
1427:
1420:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1309:
1300:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1266:
1260:
1251:
1211:10.1.1.568.4047
1193:
1186:
1180:
1157:
1142:
1118:
1114:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1015:
1011:
996:
982:
973:
968:
945:
938:
931:
926:
924:
921:
903:
897:
864:
828:
738:water pollution
726:
721:
707:
702:
701:
618:Mangrove forest
444:
436:
431:
430:
427:aquatic ecology
380:Anadromous fish
328:
325:River ecosystem
320:
315:
314:
250:micro-organisms
228:
219:
211:
163:
143:water pollution
34:. They include
17:
12:
11:
5:
5105:
5095:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5037:
5036:
5031:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4992:Microecosystem
4989:
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4891:Thorson's rule
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4816:Assembly rules
4812:
4810:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4735:
4733:
4727:
4726:
4724:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4701:
4699:Patch dynamics
4696:
4694:Metapopulation
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4610:
4608:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4596:
4591:
4589:Storage effect
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4545:
4543:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4471:Neutral theory
4468:
4463:
4458:
4456:Native species
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4396:
4394:
4393:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4329:Overpopulation
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4275:
4273:
4265:
4264:
4252:
4251:
4244:
4237:
4229:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4175:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4136:Nutrient cycle
4133:
4128:
4126:Feeding frenzy
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4106:Energy quality
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4066:Cascade effect
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3938:
3936:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3909:Microbial loop
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3874:Lithoautotroph
3871:
3866:
3860:
3858:
3856:Microorganisms
3852:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3813:Prey switching
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3690:Photosynthesis
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3645:Chemosynthesis
3642:
3636:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3537:Abiotic stress
3534:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3521:
3505:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3482:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3397:
3396:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3351:
3337:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3266:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3088:Saltwater fish
3085:
3083:Marine reptile
3080:
3074:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3057:
3055:Marine viruses
3052:
3047:
3042:
3036:
3034:
3032:Microorganisms
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3022:Wild fisheries
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2936:Thorson's rule
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2891:Marine biology
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2862:
2860:
2852:
2851:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2750:Brackish marsh
2747:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2678:Lake ecosystem
2675:
2670:
2668:Hyporheic zone
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2518:Microbial loop
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2463:Eutrophication
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2443:Cascade effect
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2371:Aquatic animal
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2345:
2337:
2336:
2323:
2322:
2315:
2314:
2307:
2300:
2292:
2278:
2277:
2230:
2203:(2): 327–348.
2182:
2143:(5): 838–857.
2123:
2117:
2088:
2073:
2036:(4): 330–342.
2016:
1995:(9): 798–808.
1975:
1951:
1912:
1863:
1838:
1814:
1793:(3): 849–873.
1770:
1729:Water Research
1719:
1661:
1626:
1606:
1600:978-0521834049
1599:
1579:
1558:
1523:
1500:
1483:978-0521519403
1482:
1459:
1450:
1443:
1425:
1418:
1396:
1387:
1378:
1371:
1353:
1346:
1328:
1321:
1298:
1249:
1184:
1178:
1140:
1112:
1071:
1064:
1038:
1031:
1009:
995:978-0127447605
994:
970:
969:
967:
964:
963:
962:
957:
951:
950:
936:
933:Ecology portal
920:
917:
896:
895:Climate change
893:
863:
860:
827:
824:
823:
822:
819:
816:
814:sea level rise
810:
807:
801:
795:
792:
786:
781:
778:
772:
754:eutrophication
746:exotic species
725:
722:
706:
703:
637:tidal wetlands
451:is a distinct
445:
437:
435:
432:
329:
321:
319:
316:
234:lake ecosystem
226:
220:
216:Lake ecosystem
212:
210:
207:
162:
159:
151:exotic species
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5104:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5034:
5029:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5017:Urban ecology
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4876:Kleiber's law
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4803:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4732:
4728:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4649:Foster's rule
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4601:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4538:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4398:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4266:
4261:
4257:
4250:
4245:
4243:
4238:
4236:
4231:
4230:
4227:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4168:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3967:Trophic level
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3939:
3937:
3935:
3931:
3925:
3924:Phage ecology
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3914:Microbial mat
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3869:Bacteriophage
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3853:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3836:Decomposition
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3783:Mesopredators
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3728:Apex predator
3726:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3562:Biotic stress
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3503:
3498:
3496:
3491:
3489:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3390:
3388:
3383:
3381:
3376:
3375:
3372:
3360:
3352:
3349:
3344:
3338:
3335:
3324:
3323:
3320:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3242:Sponge ground
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3207:Marine biomes
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3121:
3118:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3108:Demersal fish
3106:
3104:
3103:Deep-sea fish
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3078:Marine mammal
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2962:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2608:Trophic level
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2573:Sediment trap
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2548:Phytoplankton
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2398:Aquatic plant
2396:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2361:Anoxic waters
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2244:Hydrobiologia
2241:
2234:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2120:
2118:9780127415505
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2093:
2084:
2077:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1947:
1941:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1828:
1827:wwf.panda.org
1824:
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1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1490:on 2023-03-17
1489:
1485:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1466:
1464:
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1440:
1436:
1429:
1421:
1419:0-412-74050-8
1415:
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5002:Regime shift
4987:Macroecology
4708:
4704:
4644:Edge effects
4614:Biogeography
4559:Commensalism
4407:Biodiversity
4284:Allee effect
4023:kelp forests
3976:Example webs
3841:Detritivores
3680:Organotrophs
3660:Kinetotrophs
3612:Productivity
3421:Macrobenthos
3262:Conservation
3113:Pelagic fish
3093:Coastal fish
2997:Marine fungi
2735:Water garden
2618:Water column
2563:Productivity
2538:Pelagic zone
2498:Macrobenthos
2488:Hydrobiology
2458:Ecohydrology
2332:
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2168:10072/143075
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1618:. Retrieved
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1515:. Retrieved
1492:. Retrieved
1488:the original
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1091:(1): 75–99.
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947:Water portal
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804:Microplastic
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730:biodiversity
727:
724:Biodiversity
665:vernal ponds
663:
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460:groundcovers
453:semi-aquatic
446:
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307:benthic zone
268:
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135:biodiversity
132:
108:
27:
26:
4639:Disturbance
4542:interaction
4364:Recruitment
4294:Depensation
4086:Copiotrophs
3957:Energy flow
3879:Lithotrophy
3823:Decomposers
3803:Planktivore
3778:Insectivore
3768:Heterotroph
3733:Bacterivore
3700:Phototrophs
3650:Chemotrophs
3622:Restoration
3572:Competition
3426:Meiobenthos
3247:Sponge reef
3222:Rocky shore
3217:Oyster reef
3187:Kelp forest
3070:Vertebrates
2970:Marine life
2946:Viral shunt
2911:Marine snow
2813:Maharashtra
2720:Stream pool
2623:Zooplankton
2543:Photic zone
2503:Meiobenthos
2356:Algal bloom
2250:(1): 5–16.
797:Engineered
698:Brahmaputra
653:floodplains
642:ocean tides
630:salty water
614:reed swamps
496:terrestrial
488:waterbodies
299:Lake Baikal
264:, from the
124:macrophytes
5062:Ecosystems
5046:Categories
5007:Sexecology
4584:Parasitism
4549:Antibiosis
4384:Resistance
4379:Resilience
4269:Population
4189:Camouflage
4141:Oligotroph
4056:Ascendency
4018:intertidal
4008:cold seeps
3962:Food chain
3763:Herbivores
3738:Carnivores
3665:Mixotrophs
3640:Autotrophs
3519:components
3227:Salt marsh
3162:Coral reef
2951:Whale fall
2931:Photophore
2808:Everglades
2776:Ecoregions
2715:Stream bed
2688:Macrophyte
2641:Freshwater
2473:Food chain
2386:Water bird
2030:BioScience
1989:BioScience
1969:2024-04-15
1931:2024-04-15
1857:2019-04-09
1832:2019-04-09
1620:2011-09-25
1573:2011-09-25
1517:2011-09-25
1494:2020-06-03
1372:0130337757
1347:0198516134
1322:0435606220
1292:2022-03-03
966:References
960:Freshwater
899:See also:
868:gastropods
844:paddlefish
840:Asian carp
836:endangered
789:Hydropower
768:A rapidly
690:Sundarbans
626:halophytic
612:(although
555:freshwater
551:Antarctica
540:phosphates
504:vegetation
352:ecosystems
262:freshwater
72:Freshwater
5072:Limnology
4912:Allometry
4866:Emergence
4594:Symbiosis
4579:Mutualism
4374:Stability
4279:Abundance
4091:Dominance
4049:Processes
4038:tide pool
3934:Food webs
3808:Predation
3793:Omnivores
3720:Consumers
3675:Mycotroph
3632:Producers
3577:Ecosystem
3542:Behaviour
3252:Tide pool
3157:Cold seep
2941:Upwelling
2705:Rheotaxis
2698:Fish pond
2673:Limnology
2598:Substrate
2583:Siltation
2453:Dead zone
2264:0018-8158
2177:1099-0755
2050:0006-3568
2011:1525-3244
1757:0043-1354
1706:0888-8892
1363:Limnology
1228:1464-7931
1206:CiteSeerX
1107:1543-5938
912:substrate
806:pollution
674:meltwater
647:estuaries
622:mangroves
563:saltwater
549:, except
547:continent
492:dry lands
468:saturated
456:ecosystem
360:headwater
356:watershed
311:profundal
240:(living)
199:Limnology
70:content.
4967:Endolith
4896:Xerosere
4808:networks
4624:Ecocline
4170:Defense,
3846:Detritus
3748:Foraging
3617:Resource
3454:Pleuston
3449:Plankton
3359:Category
3285:HERMIONE
3202:Mangrove
3012:Seagrass
2558:Pleuston
2553:Plankton
2533:Particle
2478:Food web
2272:16907349
2225:23578609
2217:23217156
2068:32284631
1940:cite web
1907:23966642
1883:(1769).
1809:30467930
1765:11487113
1714:85338348
1567:"US EPA"
1553:85617334
1410:Springer
1244:15921269
1236:16336747
1135:25031419
1004:46393244
919:See also
852:aquarium
831:Invasive
732:include
686:Pantanal
670:rainfall
604:such as
588:cattails
582:such as
577:emergent
559:brackish
536:nitrates
534:such as
520:habitats
434:Wetlands
423:wetlands
371:rivers.
281:wetlands
195:wetlands
137:include
104:wetlands
60:wetlands
4957:Ecopath
4764:Habitat
4634:Ecotype
4629:Ecotone
4606:ecology
4604:Spatial
4540:Species
4400:Species
4271:ecology
4256:Ecology
4204:Mimicry
4172:counter
4116:f-ratio
3864:Archaea
3552:Biomass
3525:General
3517:Trophic
3509:Ecology
3467:Tripton
3441:Neuston
3416:Benthos
3212:Mudflat
3172:Estuary
3142:Bay mud
3120:Seabird
2876:f-ratio
2859:General
2740:Wetland
2528:Neuston
2493:Hypoxia
2438:Biomass
2428:Benthos
2344:General
2145:Bibcode
2059:7138689
1898:3768308
1737:Bibcode
1686:Bibcode
1644:Bibcode
955:Ecology
846:in the
705:Threats
692:in the
572:marshes
524:animals
478:-poor (
464:flooded
449:wetland
441:Wetland
415:springs
411:streams
403:springs
348:abiotic
303:pelagic
293:streams
254:abiotic
246:animals
187:streams
112:cholera
96:streams
52:springs
48:streams
3988:Rivers
3884:Marine
3462:Seston
3458:Plocon
3436:Nekton
3432:Herpon
3197:Lagoon
2523:Nekton
2381:Mammal
2376:Insect
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1002:
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888:diatom
717:, and
700:delta.
694:Ganges
684:, the
680:, the
610:shrubs
597:Swamps
592:sedges
567:plants
480:anoxic
476:oxygen
458:whose
407:rivers
376:canopy
344:biotic
289:rivers
269:lentus
258:lentic
242:plants
238:biotic
193:) and
191:rivers
177:, and
167:Lentic
116:sewage
102:) and
100:rivers
86:, and
76:Lentic
58:, and
44:rivers
5092:Water
4905:Other
4806:Other
4759:Guild
4731:Niche
3983:Lakes
2588:Spawn
2268:S2CID
2221:S2CID
1710:S2CID
1549:S2CID
1286:(PDF)
1267:(PDF)
1240:S2CID
1131:JSTOR
606:trees
584:reeds
508:roots
484:soils
472:water
398:lotus
394:Latin
390:Lotic
277:lakes
273:ponds
266:Latin
183:lotic
179:lakes
175:ponds
171:pools
161:Types
92:lotic
88:lakes
84:ponds
80:pools
40:ponds
36:lakes
3993:Soil
2693:Pond
2260:ISSN
2213:PMID
2173:ISSN
2113:ISBN
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2007:ISSN
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1997:doi
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