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ensure against tampering and improper disclosure. Accident scene pictures should also be identified and sourced, police photographs taken at the scene are often used in civil cases. Another important aspect of forensic photography is obtaining consent. If a victim is still alive, they must give consent to have their picture taken and be used in a case. There are only two exceptions to this, which include implied consent - when a victim is not in a state where they can give consent - and when photographs are court ordered. All that said, not all photographs taken at a crime scene will be used. If they are suspected to create a prejudice in the jury for things like an unnecessary amount of gore, then a judge can deem a photo inadmissible.
603:
prints or stains on a camouflaged background, a photographer might find image subtraction techniques most helpful. However, if they were trying to analyze bite marks or fingerprints, they might use
Alternative Light Source photography instead. Moreover, these photographs may be taken at various ranges depending on the content that is being captured. For example, physical evidence (e.g., footprints, wound details, trace evidence, etc.) may require close-up images, whereas the conditions of a room may only require overall and/or midrange photography. Photographs may also be supported with video recordings.
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924:. Alternative explanations such as that the bridge was blown down by the wind during the storm that night, or that the train derailed and hit the girders are unlikely. The re-analysis supports the original court of inquiry conclusions, which stated that the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained".
567:
photography because crime scene photographers usually have a very specific purpose for capturing each image. As a result, the quality of forensic documentation may determine the result of an investigation; in the absence of good documentation, investigators may find it impossible to conclude what did or did not happen.
848:
evidence by jurors, but also the verdict and length of a sentence given. When photographs are used in criminal cases, especially gruesome photographs, the jury is more likely to give a guilty verdict as well as a harsher sentence. The use of several views taken from different angles helps to minimize the problem of
852:. Overall images do not have scales and serve to show the general layout, such as the house where the murder is thought to have occurred. Context images show evidence in context, like how the knife was next to the sofa. Close up images show fine detail of an artifact, such as a bloody fingerprint on the knife.
863:. As with crime scene photography, it is essential that the site is pristine and untouched as far as possible. Some essential intervention, such as rescuing a trapped victim, must be recorded in the notes made at the time by the photographer, so that the authenticity of the photographs can be verified.
936:
investigation found that despite frequent use by the FBI, there are considerable concerns over scientific validity of the FBI's analysis of photographic evidence. ProPublica "asked leading statisticians and forensic science experts to review methods image examiners have detailed in court transcripts,
778:
External flash units are helpful tools when responding to a crime scene and for the proper documentation of evidence. The white balance of a photo flash unit is set to mimic daylight to ensure the proper color balance of the subject matter. The photographer must be mindful of the reflections that can
708:
Preliminary overall photographs should attempt to capture the locations of evidence and identifying features of the scene, such as addresses, vehicle identification numbers and serial numbers, footwear/tire mark impressions, and the conditions of the scene. While the purpose of the overall photograph
704:
All forensic photographs must contain three elements: the subject, a scale, and a reference object. Crime scene photographs should always be in focus, with the subject of the photograph as the main object of the scene. There should always be a scale or ruler present. This will allow investigators the
712:
In all photographs, a scale must be included, as well as a marker to indicate the identity of the object in question. Again, objects in medium-range photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Adjusting the photographic principles or lighting may allow the photographer to
870:
must be maintained for crime scene photographs. Sometimes a CSI (forensic photographer) will process his/her own film or there is a specific lab for it. Regardless of how it is done any person who handles the evidence must be recorded. Secure
Digital Forensic Imaging methods may be applied to help
643:
Photographs of impressions such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tool marks require certain standards as they may be analyzed, compared, and searched through a large digital databases. For example, fingerprints are often entered into the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS).
611:
This form of photography is to provide images of the varying types of physical evidence and used as evidence in court, part of the case record, or by other investigators; typically of forensic findings during the analysis of various forensic disciplines. Forensic laboratories generally use infrared
899:
or when the images need to be enlarged to show critical details. Photographs made by film exposure usually contain much information which may be crucial long after the photograph was taken. They can readily be digitized by scanning, and then enlarged to show the detail needed for new analysis. For
769:
The responding officer must also maintain a photo log if any photographic documentation is taken. The log should contain the date and time of the photograph, the subject matter, and any additional notes. These logs must be maintained within a case file or incident report, as they are a part of the
566:
may refer to the visual documentation of different aspects that can be found at a crime scene. It may include the documentation of the crime scene, or physical evidence that is either found at a crime scene or already processed in a laboratory. Forensic photography differs from other variations of
602:
and key areas of the crime scene (e.g., entrances and exits). There are also different techniques forensic photographers use, and the selection of what technique is used depends on the object of a photograph or the desired information one wants to obtain. For example, when trying to find footwear
597:
Crime scene photography allows one to capture essential aspects of the crime scene, including its scope, the focal points of the scene, and any physical or material evidence found at or from a result of it. With the use of crime scene photography, the context of the crime scene can be represented
578:
Knowing that crucial information for an investigation can be found at a crime scene, forensic photography is a form of documentation that is essential for retaining the quality of discovered physical evidence. Such physical evidence to be documented includes those found at the crime scene, in the
847:
The images must be clear and usually have scales. They serve to not only remind investigators of the scene, but also to provide a tangible image for the court to better enable them to understand what happened. Inclusion of photographs in a court case can not only impact the perceived veracity of
687:
are taken for individuals who have been charged with a crime, and once one is created, it is automatically entered into a master database with any existing information on that individual. To maintain consistent quality, standardized lighting, background, and distance is required. In addition to
574:
is a major concept that helps determine these relationships of evidence. It is the basic tenet of why crime scenes should be investigated. Anything found at a crime scene can be used as physical evidence as long as it is relevant to the case, which is why the documentation of a crime scene and
612:(IR), ultraviolet (UV), X-Ray, or laser radiation in addition to cameras and microscopes, to represent details that would otherwise be invisible to the naked eye. However, it is crucial that such details do not interfere with the appearance and condition of the evidence being documented.
729:
format. The two widely accepted lossless compression formats are tagged image file format (TIFF) and RAW. TIFF is a universal file type, whereas RAW files are proprietary based upon the manufacturer of the camera. Specialized software may be required to open and enhance a RAW
733:
The camera must be on a grounded platform, such as a copy stand or tripod' In general, the human body cannot stop natural vibrations with a camera shutter speed slower than 1/60 of a second. Using a grounded platform will allow the subject matter to be in complete
705:
ability to resize the image to accurately reconstruct the scene. The overall photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Any change in color may misidentify an object for investigators and possibly jurors.
907:
The set of photographs taken a few days after the accident have been re-analyzed in 1999–2000 by digitalizing them and enlarging the files to show critical details. The originals were of very high resolution since a large
779:
occur due to the directionality of the flash and the position of the subject matter. To avoid flash reflections, the flash must either be removed from the camera body, creating an angle, or bounced off the ceiling.
737:
The camera shutter must be controlled by a remote cord or by using the timer mode. The simple action of depressing the shutter control will cause the camera to vibrate, losing focus on the subject matter.
582:
All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime scene: the subject, the scale, and a reference object. Also, the overall forensic photographs must be shown as a neutral and accurate
904:
of 1879 when a half-mile section of the new bridge collapsed in a storm, taking an express train down into the estuary of the river Tay. At least 75 passengers and crew were killed in the disaster.
721:
If any evidentiary photographs are to be taken for use in a critical comparison examination at a later time, guidelines must be followed in accordance with the best practices of digital evidence.
598:
through a series of photographs, aiming to tell the whole story. Such photographs are used to capture the physical environment of the scene and its surroundings, in addition to physical evidence
937:
published articles and presentations. The experts identified numerous instances of examiners overstating the techniques’ scientific precision and said some of their assertions defy logic."
741:
Photographers must also understand the principles of photography. When the photographers take the photographs itself, they must consider three components. These three components are
688:
associating file information, physical features (e.g., hair and eye colour, facial hair, tattoos, etc.) are also associated and an appropriate photo line-up is required.
3085:
570:
Crime scenes can be major sources of physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims.
1425:
Farrar, Andrew; Porter, Glenn; Renshaw, Adrian (2012). "Detection of Latent
Bloodstains Beneath Painted Surfaces using Reflected Infrared Photography".
855:
Road traffic incident (RTI) photographs show the overall layout at the scene taken from many different angles, with close-ups of significant damage, or
709:
is to document the conditions of the scene and the relationship of objects, the medium range photograph serves to document the appearance of an object.
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622:
Even illumination. This can be achieved with two light sources of equal power and distance, placed approximately 45 degrees toward the evidence.
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916:, plus a fine-grain film. The re-analyzed pictures shed new light on why the bridge fell, suggesting that design flaws and defects in the
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The evidence is placed on a clean and distraction-free background (i.e., background paper, butcher paper, neutral countertop, etc.).
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Common types of photography such as creative and artistic photography give a different purpose than forensic photography.
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The camera should be placed directly overhead of the evidence. A ladder or scaffolding may be required for larger items.
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Fundamentals of
Forensic Photography: Practical Techniques for Evidence Documentation on Location and in the Laboratory
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Grady, Rebecca
Hofstein; Reiser, Lauren; Garcia, Robert J; Koeu, Kristian; Scurich, Nicholas (August 1, 2015).
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1181:(1 ed.). New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Applications in scientific photography: Routledge.
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Measurement instruments (tape measures, rulers, electronic measuring devices, perspective grids, etc.)
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Fish, Jacqueline T.; Miller, Larry S.; Braswell, Michael C.; Wallace Jr., Edward W. (2014-01-01).
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To ensure quality photographs, general evidence is documented under the following conditions:
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Beautiful
Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879
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physical evidence in its true form is key for the interpretation of the investigation.
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Crime Scene
Response and Evidence Collection, In Security Supervision and Management
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Chapter 3 - Documenting the Crime Scene: Photography, Videography, and
Sketching
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In addition, it is suggested that these impression images be recorded in camera
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Fill the frame with the impression to take advantage of the camera's resolution;
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1276:"Impact of Gruesome Photographic Evidence on Legal Decision: A Meta-Analysis"
1040:(Online-Ausg. ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 1–77.
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example, controversy has raged for a number of years over the cause of the
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The tools required to properly document the crime scene include:
1483:
by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken
Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).
1068:. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 107–144.
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Crime or accident scene photographs can often be re-analyzed in
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columns which supported the centre section led directly to the
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Close-up photographs of relevant details found on the evidence.
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1729:
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To meet the standards for such material evidence, they must:
1471:(The Forensic Library) by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (1992).
1228:(Fourth ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 443–459.
761:
673:
1396:"The FBI Says Its Photo Analysis Is Scientific Evidence.…"
16:
Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene
1145:
Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation
1013:
Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation
832:
Evidence identification and position markers or placards
1147:. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 49–70.
1015:. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 49–70.
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examination record and discoverable material at trial.
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Have parallel planes of the subject, scale, and image;
1273:
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Photograph of a paper fragment with a ruler for scale
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Case number and scale are present in all photographs.
1253:. Boston: Anderson Publishing, Ltd. pp. 59–83.
927:
816:
Still camera with external flash and extra batteries
1424:
1323:
Lawrence Memorial Hospital sexual assault exam room
874:
668:, although the photographer may decide to edit via
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579:laboratory, or for the identification of suspects.
1066:Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation
1490:, Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946–962.
3145:
1488:Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking
1342:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–277.
1337:
672:or another editing software. That will create a
1338:Gallahue, Fiona E.; Melville, Laura D. (2008).
1174:
1063:
660:Have even illumination of the area of interest.
1142:
1010:
676:image, but increase the quality of the image.
1524:
1175:Mancini, Keith; Sidoriak, John (2017-10-02).
1093:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 37–44.
1089:Miller, Marilyn; Peter, Massey (2016-01-29).
1064:Gardner, Ross M.; Krouskup, Donna R. (2019).
544:
1481:Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies
891:Photograph of 1880 showing fallen Tay Bridge
657:Be in sharp focus and exposed correctly; and
3076:Conservation and restoration of photographs
1088:
2813:Comparison of digital and film photography
1531:
1517:
1393:
551:
537:
3033:Photographs considered the most important
1299:
1223:
651:Include a scale for accurate calibration;
638:
1143:Nafte, Myriam; Dalrymple, Brian (2021).
1035:
1011:Nafte, Myriam; Dalrymple, Brian (2021).
886:
878:
760:
725:The digital image must be captured in a
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61:
1038:Introduction to crime scene photography
606:
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1362:
1138:
1136:
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631:All sides of the evidence photographed
1512:
1477:by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).
1333:
1331:
1128:
1126:
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1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1486:Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth,
1469:Introduction to Forensic Engineering
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1059:
1057:
1006:
1004:
1002:
18:
3028:Museums devoted to one photographer
1224:Reitnauer, Andrew R. (2015-06-24).
13:
2575:Timeline of photography technology
1475:Forensic Engineering Investigation
1462:
1328:
1107:
883:Original Tay Bridge from the north
14:
3170:
1161:
1054:
999:
928:Concerns over scientific validity
45:and remove advice or instruction.
3126:
3116:
3115:
1439:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02231.x
875:Analysis of historic photographs
842:
756:
590:Features of forensic photography
452:Traffic collision reconstruction
93:
23:
3127:
1538:
1394:Gabrielson, Ryan (2019-01-17).
1387:
1356:
1316:
967:History of forensic photography
773:
305:Questioned document examination
1280:Psychiatry, Psychology and Law
1267:
1242:
1217:
1091:The Crime Scene A Visual Guide
1082:
1029:
952:Forensic materials engineering
1:
2625:Painted photography backdrops
2557:Golden triangle (composition)
1832:35 mm equivalent focal length
1418:
1292:10.1080/13218719.2018.1440468
1427:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1340:Emergency Care of the Abused
1036:Robinson, Edward M. (2013).
957:Forensic polymer engineering
782:
679:
7:
2335:Intentional camera movement
940:
716:
572:Locard's exchange principle
123:Bloodstain pattern analysis
10:
3175:
3023:Most expensive photographs
2380:Multi-exposure HDR capture
691:
3111:
3068:
3015:
2920:
2863:
2769:
2653:
2565:
2517:
2257:
2024:
1824:
1546:
422:Fire accelerant detection
2957:Digital image processing
1209:: CS1 maint: location (
992:
859:such as tire marks at a
813:(pens, pencils, markers)
2630:Photography and the law
866:As with all evidence a
325:Social network analysis
2977:Gelatin silver process
2001:Science of photography
1986:Photographic processes
1964:Perspective distortion
1363:Porter, Glenn (2013).
912:was used with a small
892:
884:
766:
765:Example of a photo log
701:
639:Impression photography
407:Electrical engineering
71:
2435:Schlieren photography
1974:Photographic printing
1897:Exposure compensation
1187:10.4324/9781315693125
890:
882:
764:
699:
437:Materials engineering
265:Facial reconstruction
70:left at a crime scene
65:
3159:Photography by genre
3154:Forensic disciplines
2219:Straight photography
1857:Chromatic aberration
1365:"Images as Evidence"
947:Forensic engineering
922:catastrophic failure
727:lossless compression
607:Evidence photography
564:Forensic photography
482:Perry Mason syndrome
270:Fingerprint analysis
68:footwear impressions
43:rewrite this article
3086:photographic plates
2771:Digital photography
1949:Hyperfocal distance
1862:Circle of confusion
902:Tay Bridge disaster
811:Writing instruments
713:achieve this goal.
505:forensic entomology
442:Polymer engineering
400:Related disciplines
315:Forensic geophysics
295:Gloveprint analysis
275:Firearm examination
245:Body identification
2590:Autochrome Lumière
2585:Analog photography
2410:Pigeon photography
2199:Social documentary
1678:discontinued films
893:
885:
767:
702:
417:Fire investigation
300:Palmprint analysis
260:Election forensics
143:Forensic genealogy
72:
3141:
3140:
2942:Collodion process
2878:Chromogenic print
2865:Color photography
2375:Multiple exposure
2350:Lo-fi photography
1877:Color temperature
1349:978-0-511-41541-8
1196:978-1-315-69312-5
1075:978-1-138-04778-5
861:traffic collision
561:
560:
339:Digital forensics
280:Footwear evidence
60:
59:
36:a manual or guide
3166:
3130:
3129:
3119:
3118:
2997:Print permanence
2947:Cross processing
2905:CMYK color model
2890:Color management
2843:Foveon X3 sensor
2838:Three-CCD camera
2482:Miniature faking
2440:Sabattier effect
2052:Astrophotography
1907:Zebra patterning
1533:
1526:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1497:, Tempus, 2004,
1493:Peter R. Lewis,
1458:
1433:(5): 1190–1198.
1412:
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1385:
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1380:
1375:(Nov/Dec): 38–42
1360:
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1325:with SDFI system
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962:Forensic science
868:chain of custody
835:Photographic log
553:
546:
539:
465:Related articles
372:Network analysis
362:Malware analysis
320:Forensic geology
97:
87:Forensic science
74:
73:
66:A photograph of
55:
52:
46:
34:is written like
27:
26:
19:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3164:
3163:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3107:
3064:
3011:
3002:Push processing
2923:
2916:
2910:RGB color model
2859:
2765:
2649:
2561:
2527:Diagonal method
2513:
2253:
2157:Photojournalism
2020:
1852:Black-and-white
1820:
1799:Slide projector
1794:Movie projector
1673:available films
1542:
1537:
1465:
1463:Further reading
1421:
1416:
1415:
1406:
1404:
1392:
1388:
1378:
1376:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1336:
1329:
1321:
1317:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1222:
1218:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1173:
1162:
1155:
1141:
1108:
1101:
1087:
1083:
1076:
1062:
1055:
1048:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1009:
1000:
995:
943:
930:
877:
845:
799:and/or digital
785:
776:
759:
719:
694:
682:
641:
609:
592:
557:
512:
511:
510:
507:
504:
487:Pollen calendar
466:
458:
457:
456:
401:
393:
392:
391:
341:
331:
330:
329:
234:
226:
225:
201:
191:
190:
189:
133:DNA phenotyping
107:
56:
50:
47:
40:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3172:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3124:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2887:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2869:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2779:Digital camera
2775:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2605:Camera obscura
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2547:Rule of thirds
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2523:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2315:Harris shutter
2312:
2310:Hand-colouring
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1996:Red-eye effect
1993:
1988:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1902:Exposure value
1899:
1894:
1889:
1887:Depth of focus
1884:
1882:Depth of field
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1687:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1645:
1640:
1639:
1638:
1633:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1521:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1491:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1386:
1355:
1348:
1327:
1315:
1286:(4): 503–521.
1266:
1259:
1241:
1234:
1216:
1195:
1160:
1153:
1106:
1099:
1081:
1074:
1053:
1046:
1028:
1021:
997:
996:
994:
991:
990:
989:
987:Trace evidence
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
942:
939:
929:
926:
876:
873:
857:trace evidence
844:
841:
840:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
822:
817:
814:
808:
803:
794:
784:
781:
775:
772:
758:
755:
739:
738:
735:
731:
718:
715:
693:
690:
681:
678:
662:
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
640:
637:
636:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
608:
605:
591:
588:
584:representation
559:
558:
556:
555:
548:
541:
533:
530:
529:
528:
527:
522:
514:
513:
509:
508:
501:
499:
497:Trace evidence
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
468:
467:
464:
463:
460:
459:
455:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
403:
402:
399:
398:
395:
394:
390:
389:
387:Audio analysis
384:
382:Video analysis
379:
374:
369:
367:Mobile devices
364:
359:
357:Database study
354:
349:
347:Computer exams
343:
342:
337:
336:
333:
332:
328:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
236:
235:
233:Criminalistics
232:
231:
228:
227:
224:
223:
218:
213:
208:
202:
197:
196:
193:
192:
188:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
146:
145:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
109:
108:
103:
102:
99:
98:
90:
89:
83:
82:
58:
57:
51:September 2021
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3171:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3149:
3134:
3125:
3123:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3038:Photographers
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2932:Bleach bypass
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2919:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2900:primary color
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2885:Reversal film
2883:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2850:Image sharing
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2751:United States
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2610:Daguerreotype
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2455:Stopping down
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2420:Rephotography
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2355:Long-exposure
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2047:Architectural
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2006:Shutter speed
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1959:Metering mode
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1872:Color balance
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1837:Angle of view
1835:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1784:Manufacturers
1782:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1504:
1503:0-7524-3160-9
1500:
1496:
1492:
1489:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1422:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1359:
1351:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1332:
1324:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1262:
1260:9781455775408
1256:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1235:9780128001134
1231:
1227:
1220:
1212:
1206:
1198:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1156:
1154:9781531008536
1150:
1146:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1102:
1100:9780128012451
1096:
1092:
1085:
1077:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1058:
1049:
1047:9780123865434
1043:
1039:
1032:
1024:
1022:9781531008536
1018:
1014:
1007:
1005:
1003:
998:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
944:
938:
935:
925:
923:
919:
915:
911:
905:
903:
898:
889:
881:
872:
869:
864:
862:
858:
853:
851:
843:Fit for court
838:colored cones
837:
834:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
815:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
801:tablet device
798:
795:
793:
790:
789:
788:
780:
771:
763:
757:Documentation
754:
752:
748:
747:shutter speed
744:
736:
732:
728:
724:
723:
722:
714:
710:
706:
698:
689:
686:
677:
675:
671:
667:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
646:
645:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
617:
616:
613:
604:
601:
595:
587:
585:
580:
576:
573:
568:
565:
554:
549:
547:
542:
540:
535:
534:
532:
531:
526:
523:
521:
518:
517:
516:
515:
506:
503:Use of DNA in
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
469:
462:
461:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
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2992:K-14 process
2987:Instant film
2982:Gum printing
2937:C-41 process
2922:Photographic
2823:Image sensor
2818:Film scanner
2472:Sun printing
2405:Print toning
2192:space selfie
2162:Pictorialism
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2092:Ethnographic
2072:Conservation
1944:Guide number
1939:Focal length
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155:Epidemiology
113:Anthropology
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41:Please help
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3103:Stereoscopy
2967:E-6 process
2962:Dye coupler
2895:color space
2808:Digiscoping
2801:camera back
2716:Philippines
2645:Visual arts
2635:Glass plate
2620:Heliography
2519:Composition
2494:Ultraviolet
2450:Stereoscopy
2445:Slow motion
2430:Scanography
2345:Kite aerial
2285:Contre-jour
2177:Post-mortem
2167:Pornography
2147:Neues Sehen
2082:Documentary
2016:Zone System
1991:Reciprocity
1917:Film format
1847:Backscatter
1825:Terminology
1695:beauty dish
1594:rangefinder
1559:light-field
1540:Photography
977:Photography
972:Murder book
806:Graph paper
472:Crime scene
432:Linguistics
412:Engineering
377:Photography
255:Colorimetry
221:Social work
3148:Categories
3093:Lomography
2924:processing
2873:Print film
2789:comparison
2756:Uzbekistan
2706:Luxembourg
2666:Bangladesh
2615:Dufaycolor
2595:Box camera
2552:Simplicity
2509:Zoom burst
2504:Xerography
2499:Vignetting
2489:Time-lapse
2477:Tilt–shift
2370:Mordançage
2360:Luminogram
2325:Holography
2320:High-speed
2300:Fill flash
2280:Burst mode
2258:Techniques
2239:Vernacular
2234:Underwater
2229:Toy camera
2209:Still life
2137:Monochrome
2127:High-speed
2077:Cloudscape
2067:Conceptual
1969:Photograph
1954:Lens flare
1934:Film speed
1816:Zone plate
1762:wide-angle
1747:long-focus
1419:References
1407:2019-01-20
1401:ProPublica
934:ProPublica
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477:CSI effect
447:Statistics
240:Accounting
211:Psychology
206:Psychiatry
185:Toxicology
170:Palynology
150:Entomology
3043:Norwegian
3007:Stop bath
2952:Developer
2580:Ambrotype
2542:Lead room
2465:Slit-scan
2400:Photogram
2395:Panoramic
2305:Fireworks
2290:Cyanotype
2132:Landscape
1777:telephoto
1725:reflector
1720:monolight
1715:lens hood
1700:cucoloris
1636:safelight
1547:Equipment
1379:11 August
1369:Precedent
1205:cite book
982:Skid mark
918:cast iron
797:Clipboard
783:Equipment
685:Mug shots
680:Mug shots
670:Photoshop
492:Skid mark
290:Profiling
250:Chemistry
175:Pathology
160:Limnology
128:Dentistry
3122:Category
2828:CMOS APS
2726:Slovenia
2654:Regional
2600:Calotype
2537:Headroom
2415:Redscale
2330:Infrared
2275:Brenizer
2249:Wildlife
2172:Portrait
2117:Forensic
2107:Fine-art
2042:Aircraft
2032:Abstract
1912:F-number
1892:Exposure
1867:Clipping
1842:Aperture
1710:hot shoe
1631:enlarger
1626:Darkroom
1455:27502260
1447:22845038
1310:31984035
941:See also
914:aperture
850:parallax
751:aperture
717:Accuracy
525:Category
180:Podiatry
165:Medicine
79:a series
77:Part of
3133:Outline
3069:Related
2761:Vietnam
2746:Ukraine
2681:Denmark
2661:Albania
2640:Tintype
2567:History
2532:Framing
2425:Rollout
2390:Panning
2340:Kirlian
2244:Wedding
2122:Glamour
2102:Fashion
2087:Eclipse
2057:Banquet
1979:Albumen
1789:Monopod
1767:fisheye
1735:softbox
1584:pinhole
1574:instant
1564:digital
1301:6818434
932:A 2019
792:Notepad
692:Methods
600:in situ
520:Outline
118:Biology
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3053:street
3048:Polish
2741:Turkey
2736:Taiwan
2721:Serbia
2711:Norway
2686:Greece
2671:Canada
2265:Afocal
2224:Street
2204:Sports
2187:Selfie
2142:Nature
2097:Erotic
2062:Candid
2037:Aerial
2025:Genres
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2731:Sudan
2701:Korea
2696:Japan
2691:India
2676:China
2460:Strip
2385:Night
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2214:Stock
2182:Ruins
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1730:snoot
1690:Flash
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1451:S2CID
993:Notes
3081:film
2796:MILC
2295:ETTR
2152:Nude
2112:Fire
2011:Sync
1809:head
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1742:Lens
1705:gobo
1653:base
1648:Film
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1499:ISBN
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