Alcohol and Native Americans

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due to strong cultural values associated with responsible motherhood. In many families women become caretakers, assisting alcoholic men when they are sick or in legal trouble. Within Lakota society there are few social controls on alcohol misuse, nor is there pressure to stay sober. Drunken behavior is excusable, and the family does not ostracize people with an alcohol use disorder but often provides them with shelter and food. She notes that there is constant peer pressure among men to join others in drinking as a social activity. Quitting alcohol then becomes a personal endeavor that requires substantial will power, introspection and sacrifice. Modern therapies attempt to connect treatment to traditional rituals emphasizing the individual's search for spiritual strength and guidance, such as the

2950:. Evidence that these genetic factors are more prevalent in Native Americans than other ethnic groups has been a subject of debate. According to one 2013 review of academic literature on the issue, there is a "substantial genetic component in Native Americans" and "most Native Americans lack protective variants seen in other populations." Another review of genetic studies from 2017 noted that few genetic studies of alcoholism in Native Americans had been done due to many Native American tribes' mistrust of scientists but stated that, in what few studies had been done, "the results are largely similar to findings in European-ancestry individuals indicating that do not have increased genetic risk for" alcoholism. Many scientists have provided evidence of the genetic component of alcoholism by the 2328:

for anyone who "shall sell, exchange, or give, barter, or dispose of, any spirituous liquor or wine to an Indian, (in Indian country)." The law provided exceptions for alcohol intended for US government troops, and stipulated that any supplies of illegal alcohol could be confiscated and destroyed. An additional provision in the law mandated a "$ 1,000 fine for setting up and operating a distillery in Indian Country for manufacturing ardent spirits," to prevent entrepreneurs from making alcohol rather than importing it. Immediate results were encouraging: by 1835 the first Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Elbert Herring, declared, "The exclusion of ardent spirits, where it could be effected, has done much good." This act was amended multiple times but remained in force until 1953.

2855: 2025: 2739:, or had run away from home as a child. Seventy-two percent had been arrested at least once for an alcohol-related reason. The mean age of first alcohol use was 14, with some participants reporting first use as young as age 6. Many of the participants had been introduced to alcohol by a parent or an older sibling. Close to 100% of the study participants described using alcohol to suppress grief, self-pity and loneliness. Most of the women said that the death of a close family member, a divorce, or the end of an important relationship motivated them to drink regularly and heavily. Seventy-three percent reported drinking during pregnancy. 2015:

amongst them, and buy Skins, Furs, Slaves and other of their Commodities therewith. They never are contented with a little, but when once begun, they must make themselves quite drunk; otherwise they will never rest, but sell all they have in the World, rather than not have their full Dose. In these drunken Frolicks, (which are always carried on in the Night) they sometimes murder one another, fall into the Fire, fall down Precipices, and break their Necks, with several other Misfortunes which this drinking of Rum brings upon them; and tho' they are sensible of it, yet they have no Power to refrain this Enemy. About five years ago, when

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carried them home safely, keeping them covered up and "restraining and guiding" them so they would avoid "committing excesses and transgressions," and not fall "into a river or a hole." Drunkenness was also viewed as a means of establishing communication between humans and the gods, and was therefore not considered appropriate for commoners. Alcoholic intoxication was seen as an act of transcending the boundaries of human, divine and natural forces, one that should only be done by accomplished, brave and important members of society so as to avoid offending the supernatural world. Among the Maya, pulque was referred to as

2136: 2257: 2337: 3175:, from 1981 to 1991, the prevalence of FAS in the overall U.S. population per 10,000 births was 2.1. Among Native Americans, that number was 31.0. A CDC survey conducted from 2015 to 2017 found that 18.1% of Native American women drink during pregnancy (compared to 8.6% of Hispanic and 10.7% of white women) and that 5.1% engage in binge drinking. The significant difference between the FAS rates of the U.S. population and Native Americans has been attributed to a lack of healthcare, high poverty levels, and a young average population. Healthcare spending for an average American on 177: 11404: 2794:(i.e., young people leaving the community to find work) had higher rates of alcohol use and misuse. Native Americans living in urban areas have higher rates of alcohol use than those living in rural areas or on reservations, and more Native Americans living on reservations (where cultural cohesion tends to be stronger) abstain altogether from alcohol. May draws parallels to other societies affected by cultural change. Alaska Natives who follow a more traditional lifestyle have reported greater happiness and less frequent alcohol use for coping with stress. 1458: 3433: 2377:, but enforcing the prohibition of alcohol was difficult. Indians refused to testify against whites who sold them alcohol and juries were reluctant to convict businessmen, who were often reputable members of the community, based on the testimony of an Indian, usually a known alcoholic. Judges frequently imposed less than the maximum penalty on convicted offenders, sometimes ordering fines of $ 1 and prison terms of one day. In at least one case, the defendant was acquitted by a lenient judge even after pleading guilty. 3861: 2878:(BAC) levels to 0.08 g/dL. This typically occurs after 4 drinks for women and 5 drinks for men, in about 2 hours. However, as Silk-Walker et al. point out, Native American drinking often does not conform to standard measurements as, for example, when a group shares one or more bottles. Binge drinking has less impact on health if enough time elapses between binges, however binge drinkers have a higher risk of death by accident, violence or alcohol poisoning as they are less accustomed to intoxication. 33: 3833: 2076:, and put them down before us, and make us drink; and get all the Skins that should go to pay the Debts we have contracted for Goods bought of the Fair Traders; and by this Means, we not only ruin ourselves, but them too. These wicked Whiskey Sellers, when they have once got the Indians in Liquor, make them sell their very Clothes from their Backs. In short, if this Practice be continued, we must be inevitably ruined: We most earnestly therefore beseech you to remedy it. 13363: 2782:(NCS) conducted in 1990–1992. They found that alcohol dependence was more common in the Northern Plains sample (13.0%) than in the Southwest sample (12.2%), and both were higher than in the US sample (10.7%). Northern Plains women had a rate of alcohol dependence more than twice that of either US or Southwest women. The authors speculate that "Southwest women, as the carriers of tradition in this 3847: 1662: 2365:. Alcohol could still be legally purchased in white communities by Native Americans, and taken home. In 1861 Commissioner William P. Dole reported: "Unprincipled traders, debarred by law from going upon the reservations, gather upon their borders, and by means of this traffic ... they filch from the Indian his little all, often reducing him to a state of utter want and destitution." 2814:. The Hopi tend to drink in the privacy of their homes, on a daily basis, and many people report drinking alone. A comparison of the Navajo drinking patterns in 1969 with patterns of the same individuals in 1994 showed a transition towards solitary, daily drinking, although many Navajos quit drinking as they reached middle age, citing health concerns and religious beliefs. 3093:, rape, and assault compared with other U.S. ethnic groups. Alcohol and drug use is associated with higher rates of domestic violence among Native Americans compared to many other demographics. Over two-thirds (68%) of Native American and Native Alaskan sexual assault victims attribute their attacker's actions to drinking and/or taking drugs before the offense. 2786:, may have greater ties to their Native ways and thus be at less risk for the development of alcohol use disorders." Of those individuals in the Native American samples who sought professional help for a substance use disorder, 26.3% of the Southwest Indians went to a traditional or spiritual healer as compared to only 17.4% of those in Northern Plains sample. 3132:

U.S. population. The median alcohol-attributed death rate for Native Americans (60.6 per 100,000) was twice as high as the rate for any other racial or ethnic group. Males are affected disproportionately more by alcohol-related conditions than females. The highest risk of alcohol-related deaths is between 45 and 64 years of age. Chronic liver disease and

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refuted the claims to many of these myths by documenting the wide variability of alcohol problems across and within Native tribes and the very different response that certain individuals have to alcohol as opposed to others. Research has not identified any genetic or biological anomalies that render Native peoples particularly vulnerable to alcoholism.

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misuse. Although drinking behavior has increased exponentially since colonization, since 1975 alcohol use patterns among Native Americans have remained constant. A 2003 study found that lifetime rates of alcohol dependence varied from 21 to 56 percent for men and 17 to 30 percent for women across seven geographically diverse American Indian tribes.

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renewal. Production of pulque was ritualized and the brewers would abstain from sex during the fermentation period. During most festivals, participants were not permitted to drink more than four cups of pulque, and Aztec folklore describes the likely fate of people who drank too much, including death by disease or accident. Exaggerated tales of the

3745:, have been implemented to build self-esteem and combat alcoholism among Native American and Native Alaskan youth. Researchers have found that standard substance misuse prevention programs are less effective among Native Americans because of the poor understanding of the unique historical and sociopolitical context of each tribe. One program used 2214:"The white people brought whisky to our village, made our people drink, and cheated them out of their homes, guns and traps. This fraudulent system was carried to such an extent that I apprehended serious difficulties might occur, unless a stop was put to it. Consequently, I visited all the whites and begged them not to sell my people whisky." 2735:

examined to confirm self-reported information. Fifty-two staff members employed at the treatment centers were also interviewed. Among the participants, 81% had been emotionally, physically and/or sexually abused as children and 78% had been abused as adults. Over half had been abandoned by one or both parents, raised by relatives, sent to a

2161:. This created concentrated populations of displaced, demoralized, and often traumatized Indians, frequently resettled in desolate, barren country where hunting and farming were difficult. In this environment of an already-disrupted, fragmented society, the demand for alcohol was high, and white businessmen quickly discovered that 1966:

men" and questioned the motives of those who would offer a substance that was so offensive to the senses and that made men foolish. Most Native people who did drink alcohol were reported to show "remarkable restraint while in their cups." Most drank alcohol only during social or trading contact with whites.

2020:

those that sold Rum to the Heathens; but it was never strictly observ'd, and besides, the young Indians were so disgusted at that Article, that they threatened to kill the Indians that made it, unless it was laid aside, and they might have Rum sold them, when they went to the Englishmen's Houses to buy it.

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Alcohol treatment facilities that cater specifically to Native Americans can be difficult to find outside of rural areas or reservations because Native Americans account for less than 1.7% of the United States population. Coyhis and White make five recommendations in regard to the treatment of Native

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and some other Northern Plains tribes, the repetitive identification of oneself as an alcoholic is considered to be a hindrance to recovery. In addition to a preference for treatment oriented towards traditional Native American values and customs, most Native clients prefer tribal-specific practices,

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Compared with the United States population in general, the Native American population is much more susceptible to alcoholism and related diseases and deaths. From 2006 to 2010, alcohol-attributed deaths accounted for 11.7 percent of all Native American deaths, more than twice the rates of the general

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At least one recent study refutes the belief that Native Americans binge drink more than white Americans. Data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) from 2009 to 2013 showed that Native Americans compared to whites had lower or comparable rates of binge drinking. The survey included

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at an early age, and this pattern of testing alcohol limits persists until early adulthood. Approximately 20 percent of Native American youth between 7th and 12th grade belong in this category. Other youth exhibit an experimental pattern of drinking through adolescence and this is noted as one of the

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found that as Native Americans were crowded onto reservations, men lost their traditional social role as providers and started drinking to alleviate their feelings of powerlessness. She observed that Lakota women abstain from alcohol more frequently than men, or quit drinking once they bear children,

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Recognizing that penalties and exceptions needed to be written into law, Congress passed 25 U.S.C. § 177, "Act to regulate trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes, and to preserve peace on the frontiers" on 30 June 1834, superseding the old Nonintercourse Act of 1802 and imposing a fine of $ 500

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authorizing the president "to take such measures, from time to time, as to him may appear expedient to prevent or restrain the vending or distributing of spirituous liquors among all or any Indian tribes." But beyond giving the President responsibility for monitoring alcohol sold to Native Americans,

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in North America. Lemkin theorized that the availability of alcohol undermined social integrity, promoted violence, impeded organized resistance, and contributed to the belief that Native Americans were culturally inferior. Lemkin argued that once a people becomes dependent on alcohol "the desire for

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are extremely apt to get drunk, and when so are very quarrelsome & disorderly ... indeed if it be the Design of Providence to extirpate these Savages in order to make room for Cultivators of the Earth, it seems not improbable that Rum may be the appointed Means. It has already annihilated all the

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Within a few years, most tribes passed their own prohibition laws, but they were adopted by Indians for Indians, not imposed on them by the federal government. Interestingly, discriminatory liquor legislation was never passed in Hawaii, where alcohol laws applied both to Native islanders and whites.

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During the next seven years Congress engaged in a heated debate over the dangers and benefits of repealing the "Indian liquor laws." An attempt to repeal laws in Wisconsin and Minnesota was defeated, but in 1953 a law to repeal the laws in Arizona was amended to include all Indian country within the

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If liquor is injurious to them inside of a reservation, it is equally so outside of it; and why cannot Congress forbid its introduction into a place near by, which they would be likely to frequent? It is easy to see that the love of liquor would tempt them to stray beyond their borders to obtain it;

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numbered 1,237, and by 1862 there were only 802. By 1872 tribal population was down to 700, with no males over the age of fifty-five. Other tribes shrank at a similar rate. The problem of alcohol use disorder worsened when in 1872 the Nonintercourse Act was amended to allow Indians to sell and trade

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The Alcohol and Substance Abuse Program (ASAP) is a program for American Indian and Alaska Native individuals to reduce the incidence and prevalence of alcohol and substance use disorders. These programs are administered in tribal communities, including emergency, inpatient and outpatient treatment

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among Native Americans. At least one study found the prevalence of PTSD was as high as 21.9%. This rate is comparable to rates for groups experiencing severe and extreme events, such as mass shootings, major burns, and combat. Statistically, the incidence of alcohol misuse among survivors of trauma

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Indians feel that the prohibition, which singles them out as a racial group, is discriminating and brands them as inferior. Veterans of World War II, who were able to obtain liquor with no difficulty while in the armed forces, have made many protests against the existence of the law. Various Indian

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to Indians under the influence of liquor, or when there was ready access to liquor. Goods and annuities could not be distributed until chiefs "have pledged themselves to use all their influence, and to make all proper exertions, to prevent the introduction and sale of such liquor in their country."

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Most of the Savages are much addicted to Drunkenness, a Vice they never were acquainted with, till the Christians came amongst them. Some of them refrain drinking strong Liquors, but very few of that sort are found amongst them. Their chief Liquor is Rum, without any Mixture. This the English bring

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was made. The use of alcohol as a trade item and the practice of intoxication for fun, or to alleviate stress, gradually undermined traditional Native American culture until by the late 18th century, alcoholism was recognized as a serious problem in many Native American communities. Native American

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funded the Healthy Nations Initiative to help Native Americans reduce the demand for and use of alcohol and illegal drugs. Healthy Nations provided funds for public education, substance misuse treatment, post-treatment follow-up, and supporting services for 14 Native American tribes, incorporating

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The Indian Alcohol and Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1986 was updated in 2010 to make requirements that the Office of Indian Alcohol and Substance Abuse (OIASA), a subdivision of SAMHSA, is to work with federal agencies to assist Native American communities in developing a Tribal

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After European contact, white drunkenness was often interpreted by other whites as the misbehavior of an individual. Native drunkenness was interpreted in terms of the inferiority of a race. What emerged was a set of beliefs known as firewater myths that misrepresented the history, nature, sources

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A 2006 study found that 29.6% of Native Americans reported regular binge drinking as compared to 25.9% of whites, 25.6% of Hispanics and 21.4% of African-Americans. The 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health and National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services, which surveyed adolescents

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Philip May (1996) found that the recreational drinking pattern of sporadic bingeing persists among many Native American drinkers throughout the early years that they drink, but that males often reach a turning point in their 30s and 40s when they quit drinking completely, for health reasons (42%),

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containing a high alcohol content were also being sold in large quantities on reservations. The 1893 amendment to the law prohibited "ardent spirits, ale, beer, wine or intoxicating liquors or liquors of whatever kind," punishable with imprisonment for not more than two years and fines of not more

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bartered twenty gallons of whiskey for sixteen horses and over two hundred buffalo robes from the Indians. Beckwourth reported that "one pint of alcohol, costing no more than six cents , was into five times the quantity of whiskey, usually one pint for one buffalo robe," which would sell for more

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As the white people understand the weakness and incapacity of the Indians, they have a certain power over us, while pretending that, with all their deception, they mean well by the Indians. They come and bring rum into our towns, offer it to the Indians and say, drink; this they will do until they

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Your Traders now bring scarce any Thing but Rum and Flour. ... The Rum ruins us. We beg you would prevent its coming in such Quantities, by regulating the Traders ... We desire it may be forbidden, and none sold in the Indian Country. ... When these Whiskey Traders come, they bring thirty or forty

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A number of early accounts report that many Native Americans had no tradition of making alcoholic beverages, and did not know the effects of alcohol. Rather than approval, most Native peoples initially responded to alcohol with distaste and suspicion. They considered drunkenness "degrading to free

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with Native American adolescents aged 14 to 18 living in urban communities in California. Focus groups were designed to help participants explore and resolve their ambivalence about drug and alcohol use. A systematic review of programs in which both students and parents participated revealed that

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have played a crucial role in mitigating the impact of alcohol on Native communities. Addiction treatment agencies and counselors can become actively involved in communities by emphasizing the connection between personal health and community health, so as to build a culture of abstinence, healthy

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surveyed 1399 students in 33 schools in 11 US states and found that 52.8% of all Native American 8th-graders and 67.5% of all Native American 12th-graders had experimented with alcohol, compared with 13.8% and 41.1% of non-Native students in the same schools. Researchers have seen higher rates of

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Surveys have shown that Native American youth are more likely to start drinking at a younger age, more likely to drink heavily, and more likely to suffer negative consequences of drinking than their non-Native counterparts. Among Native American adolescents, alcohol and drug use are statistically

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That any person who shall sell, give away, dispose of, exchange, or barter any malt, spirituous, or vinous liquor, including beer, ale, and wine, or any ardent or other intoxicating liquor of any kind whatsoever, or any essence, extract, bitters, preparation, compound, composition, or any article

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characterized them as habitual drunkards and detailed their shameful behavior under the influence of alcohol, in an effort to discourage drunkenness among the Aztecs. Elderly Aztecs who had reached the age of 70 and had raised families could drink as much as they wanted, as long as their children

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Pulque was drunk by Aztec priests and their sacrificial victims, to increase the priests' enthusiasm and to ease the suffering of the victim. Among commoners, it was permitted only to the elderly and pregnant or lactating women due to the association between pulque and fertility, purification and

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Belief in the firewater myths is prevalent among Native American youth and many adults, and often leads to greater frequency and intensity of alcohol use. Such beliefs can also prevent young people from seeking treatment for alcoholism due to a lack of confidence in their own ability to recover.

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Phillip A. May's in-depth examination of the epidemiology of alcohol use disorder and alcohol dependence among Native Americans (1994) found that tribes with a higher level of traditional social integration and less pressure to modernize had fewer alcohol-related problems. Tribes in which social

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was Governor, he summon'd in all the Indian Kings and Rulers to meet, and in a full Meeting of the Government and Council, with those Indians, they agreed upon a firm Peace, and the Indian Rulers desired no Rum might be sold to them, which was granted, and a Law made, that inflicted a Penalty on

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animal skins and other materials and resources. Traders also discovered that giving free alcohol to Native Americans during trading sessions gave them a distinct advantage during negotiations. Extreme intoxication was common among the colonists, contrary to the inexperienced native populations.

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When Europeans began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to Native Americans, the tribes had very little time to adapt and develop social, legal, or moral guidelines to regulate alcohol use. Early traders offered alcohol in trade, exchanging it for highly sought-after

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Gonzales, Katherine; Roeber, Jim; Kanny, Dafna; Tran, Annie; Saiki, Cathy; Johnson, Hal; Yeoman, Kristin; Safranek, Tom; Creppage, Kathleen; Lepp, Alicia; Miller, Tracy; Tarkhashvili, Nato; Lynch, Kristine E.; Watson, Joanna R.; Henderson, Danielle; Christenson, Megan; Geiger, Sarah Dee (2014).

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argue that these "firewater myths" portrayed Native Americans as genetically inferior (inherently vulnerable to alcoholism) thus providing ideological support for the decimation and colonization of Native tribes, and that they continue to serve that function today. The scientific literature has

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The Indians for many years have complained that the liquor laws are most discriminatory in nature. ... Inasmuch as Indians are expected to assume the responsibilities of citizenship and serve in the Armed Forces on an equal basis with other Americans, the committee sees no reason for continuing

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In order to create a firm and effective relationship between the treatment agency and the tribal community, counselors and clinicians should understand the cultural and historical context that has provoked alcohol misuse, and be familiar with the organization, histories, values, ceremonies and

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and the National Tribal Behavioral Health Agenda. The Office of Indian Alcohol and Substance Abuse (OIASA), an organizational component of OTAP, coordinates federal partners and provides tribes with technical assistance and resources to develop and enhance prevention and treatment programs for

3063:. Other research has also found that historical trauma is associated with substance use problems in Native American communities, and that treating this trauma in tandem with alcohol use disorder is more effective than substance use treatment without supplemental treatment of historical trauma. 2805:

suggest that binge drinking occurs more commonly in communities that are more culturally distinct from white mainstream culture, as measured by education level, employment, and engagement in religious activities, and that alcohol is typically consumed intensively in intermittent, public social

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There is considerable variation in the level of alcohol use and patterns of intake between tribes. This may be related to differing social tolerance of aberrant behavior when intoxicated, and certainly the socioeconomic conditions of different Native American communities play a role in alcohol

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A 2002 study looked at alcohol dependence and treatment in 172 Native American and Alaskan Native women who were in treatment at nine substance use disorder treatment centers in the west, southwest, northern plains, the midwestern US and Alaska. As part of the study, participants' records were

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and National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services, which surveyed adolescents and adults receiving treatment and found that 9.7% of Native Americans surveyed had had an alcohol use disorder during the previous twelve months (compared to 6.1% of whites). An analysis of surveys conducted

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on beer, wine and liquor. Legalizing sales enables the tribes to keep more money within their reservation economies and support new businesses and services, as well as to directly regulate, police and control alcohol sales. The retained revenues also provide funds for health care services and

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have been associated with substance use disorders among Native American teens in the U.S. and Canada. Alcohol education and prevention programs have focused on raising self-esteem, emphasizing traditional values, and recruiting Native youth to advocate for abstinence and healthy substitution.

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Montag Annika C., Brodine Stephanie K., Alcaraz John E., Clapp John D., Allison Matthew A., Calac Daniel J., Hull Andrew D., Gorman Jessica R., Jones Kenneth L., Chambers Christina D. (2015). "Preventing Alcohol-Exposed Pregnancy Among an American Indian/Alaska Native Population: Effect of a

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financed the relocation of over six thousand Native Americans from reservations to cities, and funded the establishment of job training centers. The program had devastating long-term effects on this population. Many of the Native Americans relocated to urban areas found themselves homeless,

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In 1905 the US Supreme Court overturned the 1904 conviction in Kansas of Albert Heff, who was convicted of selling two quarts of beer to an Indian, and was fined $ 200 and sentenced to four months in jail. The Supreme Court ruled that a Native American granted citizenship through the 1887

2002:

Great quantities of rum continually brought to their town, insomuch as they ruined by it, having nothing left but have laid out all, even their clothes, for rum, and may now, when threatened with war, be surprised by their enemies when beside themselves with drink, and so be utterly

9185:"Jeanne Bereiter and Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart, "Transforming Trauma Informed Care: Integrating Historical Trauma in Behavioral Health and Primary Care," PowerPoint presentation, National Indian Health Board, 2017 AI/AN Behavioral Health Conference, August 15–17, 2017, Tulsa, OK" 5626:

Theodore Borek, Curtis Mowry and Glenna Dean. "Analysis of Modern and Ancient Artifacts for the Presence of Corn Beer; Dynamic Headspace Testing of Pottery Sherds from Mexico and New Mexico." Paper presented at Symposium Y, Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology VIII, November

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The incidence of alcohol use disorder varies with gender, age, and tribal culture and history. While little detailed genetic research has been done, it has been shown that alcoholism tends to run in families with possible involvement of differences in alcohol metabolism and the

152:, and discriminatory legislation was abandoned in the 1950s in favor of laws passed in Native American communities by Native Americans. Modern treatment focuses on culturally appropriate strategies that emphasize traditional activities designed to promote spiritual harmony and 87:

also contributing. Deaths related to alcohol among Native Americans are more common in men and among Northern Plains Indians. Alaska Natives showed the lowest incidence of alcohol-related death. Alcohol misuse amongst Native Americans has been shown to be associated with

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A New Voyage to Carolina; Containing the Exact Description and Natural History of That Country: Together with the Present State Thereof. And a Journal of a Thousand Miles, Travel'd Thro' Several Nations of Indians. Giving a Particular Account of Their Customs, Manners,

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The Acts of Assembly of the Province of Pennsylvania, Carefully Compared with the Originals: And an Appendix, Containing Such Acts and Parts of Acts, Relating to Property, as are Expired, Altered, Or Repealed. Together with the Royal, Proprietary, City, and Borough

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appointed by the United States." In the decades following the US Civil War, it was illegal to sell alcohol to Indians, but it was not illegal for Native Americans themselves to buy alcohol. By 1891 most Native Americans living in the United States were confined to

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restrictive disciplinary measures used by parents often have a counterproductive effect, and that drug and alcohol use by family members was a stronger influence on early use by adolescents than such behavior among non-family peers. The use of a Native American

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grew out of an explicitly European-American theistic tradition, studies show that some Native Americans prefer treatments that combine tribal practices with traditional AA therapy. Many Native American clients find AA's model objectionable, however, due to the

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model, which assumes that drinking is a maladaptive response to psychological trauma, social pressures and family dynamics, and that it can be managed 1) by educating the drinker to use other behavior patterns to cope with stress, and 2) by developing strong

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Pre-Columbian Native Americans fermented starchy seeds and roots as well as fruits from both wild and domesticated plants. Among the most common are drinks made from fermented corn, agave, and manioc. Aboriginal use of alcohol generally took place in shared

9155:"Beaulieu-Banks, Renee; Sundeen, Kim; and Christopherson, Kyra. (2018). "American Indian Perspectives on Healing from Historical Trauma: An Indigenous Inquiry." Master of Arts in Holistic Health Studies research paper, St. Catherine University, Sophia" 3100:, and the offender and/or the victim witnessing domestic violence between their parents as a child. For Native American abuse victims, the health care setting offers a critical opportunity for early identification and even primary prevention of abuse. 2093:

become quite beside themselves and act as though they were out of their heads. the white people stand, and point at them with their fingers, laugh at them and say, see what great fools the Shawanose are. But who makes them so foolish, who is at fault?

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gatherings that attract the attention of law enforcement. The visibility of this behavior may have contributed to beliefs that alcoholism is a serious problem in these communities, although contemporaneous studies also show that alcohol use among the

7653: 9473:"Amanda Lechner, Michael Cavanaugh, Crystal Blyler. "Addressing Trauma in American Indian and Alaska Native Youth," Research paper developed for the Dept. of Health & Human Services by Mathematica Policy Research, Washington, DC August 24, 2016" 7909:

Beauvais F., Chavez E., Oetting E. R., Deffenbacher J., Cornell G. "Drug use, violence, and victimization among White American, Mexican American and American Indian dropouts, students with academic problems, and students in good academic standing".

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The leading obstacles preventing women from starting treatment were lack of child care and lack of affordable transportation. This was especially true for women living in isolated rural areas, but also pertained to women in cities with inadequate

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due to feelings of hopelessness, and loss of family and tribal connections." Brave Heart has argued that there is a significant correlation between alcohol misuse, depression and suicide and the emotional responses to historical trauma such as

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was created, primarily to settle land disputes, but also to restrict the sale of alcohol on Indian lands: "No ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any pretense, into the Indian country," stated the act which created this office.

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often viewed immoderate drinking as a sign that Native American culture was decaying and was unable to cope with the modern world. The obliteration of indigenous cultures was often regarded as an inevitable consequence of "progress." In 1753,

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and adults receiving treatment, found that 3.0% of Native Americans aged 12 to 17 reported binge drinking during the previous twelve months (compared to 6.6% of whites). Nonetheless, the overall rates of binge drinking appear to fluctuate: A

2454:(Arkansas), reported "the opening of beer saloons in every village in the agency, almost without exception. The Indian and Federal laws were openly, flagrantly, and defiantly violated, drunkenness and its train of evils held full sway." 2344:(1912): "Now that the party is home, the men revel in strong drink and are very quarrelsome. Because of this the families become frightened and move away for safety...The drunken men run yelling through the village." From a drawing by 2222:

wrote: "it is ardent spirits that causes many of them to steal one from another, to kill one another in combats when drunk, to neglect all kinds of business." By the 1850s, tribal populations entered into a steep decline: in 1857 the

2838:, only 25.3% came from a family with both biological parents present; 73% had been victims of physical or sexual abuse, 22.9% were not in school prior to their admission to this program, and 32.3% were referred by a judge or a court. 10736: 3183:

reported that the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome in Alaska was 1.5 per 1,000 live births but, among American Indians and Alaska Natives, the rate was 5.6. The rate of FAS among different tribal groups varies widely. Among the

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pulp and stored in pottery containers. This is probably the earliest known consumption of cacao. Fermentation is an early step in the process later used to produce the nonalcoholic chocolate beverage widely consumed in Mesoamerica.

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research currently has not found one specific gene that is responsible for the rates of alcoholism among Native Americans, implying the phenomenon may be due to an interplay of multiple genes and environmental factors. Research on

2924:

responses from 171,858 whites compared to 4,201 Native Americans. Native American and white binge drinking (defined as 5+ drinks on an occasion 1–4 days during the past month) estimates were similar: 17.3% and 16.7%, respectively.

9659: 8885: 8350:"CDC, "Use of selected substances in the past month among persons aged 12 and over, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, selected years 2002–2016," The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2017" 11075:

Newton NC, Champion KE, Slade T, Chapman C, Stapinski L, Koning I, Tonks Z, Teesson M (2017). "A systematic review of combined student- and parent-based programs to prevent alcohol and other drug use among adolescents".

7718:, Gary D. Sandefur, Ronald R. Rindfuss, Barney Cohen, Editors. Committee on Population, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education National Research Council. National Academy Press: Washington, D.C. 1996" 11261:""Generation Indigenous Youth Resiliency Panel Series: How grantees and partners across the Tribal Health System recruit and develop behavioral health staff." Indian Health Service, Division of Behavioral Health, 2017" 5034: 3200:

Dietary practices in Mesoamerica differ from those of Native North American peoples, and some foods commonly consumed in Latin America may prevent some of the effects of chronic alcohol misuse. High concentrations of

2498:

and not subject to federal legislation." The result was an immediate increase in the sale and consumption of alcohol in Native American communities. Lewis St. John, writing about the tribes of Washington State, says:

9929: 2688:

integrate the psychology of substance use disorder treatment with traditional rituals and symbolism and with community rehabilitation to reduce stressors and help recovering alcoholics maintain a healthy lifestyle.

2202:

hunters in exchange for whiskey. To evade federal laws prohibiting whites from selling alcohol to Indians, many traders (including Bent) married Native American women and were formally inducted into their tribes.

1784:

Prior to contact with colonists, alcohol use and production were mainly concentrated in the southwestern United States. In 2007, archaeologist Glenna Dean conducted studies to show that, between AD 828 and 1126,

1981:

had become important trade items and essential elements in diplomatic councils, treaty negotiations, and political transactions, and had become part of Native American gift-giving rituals. The result was the

7642: 3581:(Tribal Families, Rural and Urban, Together Healing), a coalition of American Indian/Alaskan Native organizations providing information and resources to support indigenous ways of life, healing and wellness. 2607:

A number of prominent Native Americans protested against the social and cultural damage inflicted by alcohol on indigenous communities, and encouraged others to avoid drinking. Initially, activists such as

9188: 3587:, a national organization devoted to the support and development of quality, accessible, and culturally-competent health services for American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) living in urban settings. 2701:

during the previous twelve months, and 43.4% had had an alcohol use disorder at some time during their lives (compared to 14.0% and 32.6% of whites, respectively). This contrasts sharply with the 2015

2368:

On 15 March 1864 an amendment was passed making it illegal to "sell, exchange, give, barter, or dispose of any spirituous liquors or wine to any Indian under the charge of any Indian superintendent or

3396: 2270:

By the early eighteenth century it had become clear that alcohol was harming Native American society and health. A series of local regulations were passed beginning as early as October 1701, when the

9367:

Robin R. W., Chester B., Rasmussen J. K., Jaranson J. M., Goldman D. (1997). "Prevalence and characteristics of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a southwestern American Indian community".

2706:

between 2002 and 2016 determined that 34.4% of Native American adults used alcohol in 2016 (down from 44.7% in 2002), 21.6% engaged in binge drinking and 7.6% described their alcohol use as "heavy."

4527:

Myhra LL (2011). ""It runs in the family": intergenerational transmission of historical trauma among urban American Indians and Alaska Natives in culturally specific sobriety maintenance programs".

3723:

Alcohol treatment and recovery services should focus on broader goals related to Native communities rather than limiting themselves to individual therapy. Throughout history, religious and cultural

2766:. Twenty percent of participants were referred by a medical professional, sometimes because of pregnancy, with pressure or encouragement from family or friends as an important secondary motivation. 9738: 3192:

tribes, the rate of FAS is more similar to the overall rate for the United States, while among the Southwest Plains Native Americans there is a much higher rate of one per every 102 live births.

10708: 1433:, powers of healing, and the facilitation of war-making. the new phenomenon of intoxication ... to the old concepts of dreaming, communion with the spirit world, and the acquisition of power." 3570:

develops trauma-related treatment protocols, outreach materials, and service delivery guidelines specifically designed for American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) children and their families.

3096:

Certain risk factors have a high correlation with levels of domestic violence, including the offender and victim both being under the age of 40, presence of a substance use disorder, receiving

3466:

Action Plan (TAP). The TAP coordinates resources and funding required to help mitigate levels of alcohol and substance use disorders among the Native American population, as specified in the

2286:, the fine was doubled and the Shawnees were authorized to destroy any supplies of rum brought illegally into their communities. In 1767, regulations adopted at the Augusta Conference in the 4182:(September 2005). "Prevalence of mental disorders and utilization of mental health services in two American Indian reservation populations: mental health disparities in a national context". 3801:, instituted a Village-Based Counselor program to provide much-needed behavioral health services to its more remote villages. Lechner et al. have analyzed the responses to psychological and 7028: 2778:

Beals et al. compared 1446 Native Americans living on a Southwest reservation with 1638 residents of a Northern Plains reservation, and examined their characteristics in relation to the US

8720:

Wall Tamara L., Carr Lucinda G., Ehlers Cindy L. (2003). "Protective association of genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase with alcohol dependence in Native American Mission Indians".

10246: 9131: 5726: 6580:, The Annie E. Casey Foundation; National Urban Indian Family Coalition; Marguerite Casey Foundation; Americans for Indian Opportunity; National Indian Child Welfare Association, 2008. 3424:(SAMHSA) and tribal governments, tribal organizations, and federal agencies on behavioral health issues that impact tribal communities. OTAP supports SAMHSA's efforts to implement the 11267: 1112: 2165:

would trade hides for alcohol at a fraction of their commercial value. Hundreds of new businesses were established to take advantage of the growing market for buffalo hide, used for

57: 7458: 10485: 7394:. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration." HHS Publication No. SMA–17–BaroUS–16. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2017" 2828:

academic failure, delinquency, violent criminal behavior, suicidality, and alcohol-related mortality among Native American youth than in the rest of the United States population.

5932:, v. 11–16: Minutes of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania from its organization to the termination of the revolution, Volume 2. J. Severns & Company, 1852; p. 141" 2476:

whatsoever ... which produces intoxication, to any Indian ... shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than sixty days, and by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars."

8023:. US National Research Council and US Institute of Medicine Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and Prevent Underage Drinking. Washington DC: National Academies Press. 2912:(20%), because their responsibilities forced them to quit (18%), because they found drinking unrewarding (9%), or because they had joined an established Protestant church (4%). 11188: 3155:

were 21.5 per 100,000, more than 3.5 times higher than among other ethnicities in the US. Compared with whites, successful Native American suicides had 2.1 times the odds of a

2403:

Such action has been taken locally in several states, including in 2017 when the Nebraska Liquor Control Commission voted to deny license renewals to the four liquor stores in

4367: 3136:

are 3.9 times as prevalent in the Native American population than the general US population. Of all alcohol-attributable deaths, motor vehicle accidents account for 27.5% and

2823:

associated with living on a reservation, dropping out of school, legal problems, antisocial behavior, and socializing with alcohol-using peers. A 2012 study by researchers at

5003: 4043: 3179:

is about $ 11,762 whereas average spending on healthcare for a Native American is $ 2,782. In a 2007 document, "Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders among Native Americans," the

10357: 5076:"John S. Henderson, Rosemary A. Joyce, Gretchen R. Hall, W. Jeffrey Hurst, and Patrick E. McGovern, "Chemical and archaeological evidence for the earliest cacao beverages." 6948:

Buffalo land- an authentic account of the discoveries, adventures, and mishaps of a scientific and sporting party in the wild West; with graphic descriptions of the country

6837: 6239:

The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer, Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians. With Illustrations. Written from His Own Dictation

4076: 11680: 11345: 242: 9056: 8159: 7420:"Table 50: Use of selected substances in the past month among persons aged 12 and over, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, selected years 2002–2016. 10435: 6924: 6183: 1481:

Pre-Columbian Native Americans in Mexico and Central America prepared over forty different alcoholic beverages from a variety of plants and plant extracts. Traditional

10644:"Challenges to providing quality substance abuse treatment services for American Indian and Alaska native communities: perspectives of staff from 18 treatment centers" 6050:

Zeisberger, David. "The Diaries of David Zeisberger Relating to the First Missions in the Ohio Basin." Ed. Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze. Ohio,

2088:

communities in Ohio when he encountered Chief Gischenatsi, who told the missionary that the sale of alcohol was a deliberate attempt to undermine indigenous culture:

148:

about the dangers of drinking and intoxication. Legislation prohibiting the sale of alcohol to Native Americans generally failed to prevent alcohol-related social and

3627:

cultures of Native Americans with whom they work. Counselors should be aware of the enormous diversity in personal experiences, personalities, spiritual beliefs, and

11388: 7162:

Information on Removal of Restrictions on American Indians: A Memorandum and Accompanying Information from the Chairman to Members of the Committee, November 2, 1964

6867: 3421: 12774: 11378: 7397: 6029: 5759: 3879: 2581: 2554: 2439: 1381: 9184: 3769:

Prevention programs have used innovative strategies to promote healthy substitution and alternatives to drinking in Native American communities. With the help of

3684:. Treatments should make clear reference to traditional Native values such as patience, generosity, cooperation, and humility, and to teaching metaphors like the 2319:

the law made little difference to the expanding commercial sales of rum and whiskey along the frontier. No other conclusive action was taken until 1832, when the

10581: 6181:, Foundations of the Laws of War Publications of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2008. 5287: 1719:, the imbibing of pulque was done only by certain people, under certain conditions. It was a ritual drink, consumed during festivals such as that of the goddess 11143:

Patchell BA, Robbins LK, Lowe JA, Hoke MM (2015). "The Effect of a Culturally Tailored Substance Abuse Prevention Intervention with Plains Indian Adolescents".

10050: 6386:

Rebecca L. Robbins, "Self-Determination and Subordination: the Past, Present, and Future of American Indian Governance" (87:122) in M. Annette Jaimes (editor),

6081: 2546: 2290:

attempted to limit the amount of alcohol brought into Native American communities to no more than fifteen gallons of rum, although this referred mainly to the

1330: 437: 9102: 6778: 6631: 2963:

suggests that learned behavior augments genetic factors in increasing the probability that children of alcoholics will themselves have problems with alcohol.

11641: 11636: 11418: 6811: 3713: 2511:. Other agencies report a similar striking increase in the amount of drunkenness, crime, and death and a marked lowering of moral standards and civilization. 9505: 7944: 12027: 6893: 4824: 4728: 302: 63:

A survey of death certificates from 2006 to 2010 showed that deaths among Native Americans due to alcohol are about four times as common as in the general

10271: 12698: 9730: 3557:, a National Resource Center for American Indian and Alaska Native Health, Education and Research dedicated to quality health care across Indian Country. 3148: 2697:

The 2012–2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III (NESARC-III) found that 19.2% of Native Americans surveyed had had an

6626:

Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania: From the Organization to the Termination of the Proprietary Government, Mar. 10, 1683-Sept. 27, 1775

4320:

Berman, M; Hull, T; May, P (2000). "Alcohol control and injury death in Alaska native communities: wet, damp and dry under Alaska's local option law".

2867: 2859: 1320: 1193: 7724: 56:, 11.7% of all deaths are related to alcohol. By comparison, about 5.9% of global deaths are attributable to alcohol consumption. Because of negative 12703: 12108: 8410: 4575: 1337: 1261: 1178: 5487: 11338: 11170: 11129: 11061: 10901: 10693: 9966: 9907: 9844: 9402: 8863: 8755: 8655: 8556: 8335: 7929: 7800: 7625: 7533: 7238: 6562: 2310:

On 30 March 1802, federal action was taken to restrict the transport of alcohol into indigenous communities, when Congress (at the urging of Chief

1352: 1188: 1168: 186: 10757:

Weibel-Orlando, J. "Culture-specific treatment modalities: Assessing client-to-treatment fit in Indian alcoholism programs." In: Cox, W.M. (Ed.),

8259:"National Center for Health Statistics, "Health, United States, 2007, with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans," Hyattsville, MD: 2007" 8088: 7266: 7024: 2584:

had legalized alcohol sales on their reservations. Tribes decided to retain revenues that previously would go to state governments through retail

13085: 12647: 11014:"Integrating Motivational Interviewing and Traditional Practices to Address Alcohol and Drug Use Among Urban American Indian/Alaska Native Youth" 8878:"Moore, D., and Coyhis, D. 2010 "The Multicultural Wellbriety Peer Recovery Support Program: Two Decades of Community-Based Recovery," July 2010 8444: 3778: 2495: 2386: 10235: 9506:"Intimate partner violence in American Indian and/or Alaska Native communities: A social ecological framework of determinants and interventions" 9127: 7778: 6684:""From Thomas Jefferson to the Senate and the House of Representatives, 27 January 1802," Founders Online, National Archives. (Original source: 6414:"Interpersonal violence in the lives of urban American Indian and Alaska Native women: implications for health, mental health, and help-seeking" 5722: 4253: 1750:... he summoned people. He set it out in a vessel before the hearth, along with small cups for drinking. Before having anyone drink, he took up 7686: 5903: 4395: 3076:

is significantly elevated, and survivors of physical, emotional and sexual abuse in childhood have among the highest rates of alcohol misuse.

1990:. Alcohol made men less reliable hunters and allies, destabilized village economics, and contributed to a rise in poverty. The minutes of the 11904: 6691: 4403: 3894: 2920:

survey showed 32.8% of Native Americans over age 12 reporting binge drinking in 2005, which fell to 18.2% in 2011 and rose to 22.7% in 2016.

1429:

Before contact, Native Americans used mind-altering substances to communicate with the spirit world, and intoxication was "associated with a

1305: 881: 384: 247: 11260: 8383:"Alcohol use among Native Americans compared to whites: Examining the veracity of the 'Native American elevated alcohol consumption' belief" 6600: 5999: 5875: 5105: 11989: 10827: 10022: 9479: 6749:, House document, United States Office of Indian Affairs, United States. Dept. of the Interior. Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC, 1861" 3899: 3180: 1949: 1374: 1347: 1281: 1117: 462: 8958:"Endorsement of the "firewater myth" affects the use of protective behavioral strategies among American Indian and Alaska Native students" 8202: 5930:

Colonial Records: Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania from the organization to the termination of the proprietary government

2430:" with a high alcohol content were often sold to Native Americans while the sale of alcoholic beverages was prohibited. Illustration from 2050:, after providing rum to a party of Iroquois in exchange for their cooperation during treaty discussions, and wrote in his autobiography: 13392: 11948: 11793: 11331: 9996: 8313: 6515:"Epidemiology and etiology of substance use among American Indians and Alaska Natives: risk, protection, and implications for prevention" 5897:

A. Glynn Henderson, "The Lower Shawnee Town on Ohio: Sustaining Native Autonomy in an Indian "Republic"." In Craig Thompson Friend, ed.,

5670: 2589:

facilities to treat alcohol use disorder. In some cases, legalization of alcohol sales has also supported the development of resorts and

1251: 1173: 9005:

Brave Heart MY (2003). "The historical trauma response among natives and its relationship with substance abuse: a Lakota illustration".

5345: 13288: 12858: 11653: 11648: 10489: 8235: 7679:"Koss, M.P.; Yuan, N.P.; Dightman, D.; et al. "Adverse childhood exposures and alcohol dependence among seven Native American tribes." 3951:

Szlemko, William J.; Wood, James W.; Thurman, Pamela Jumper (October 2006). "Native Americans and alcohol: past, present, and future".

3172: 1266: 447: 287: 4777: 2900:, and observed that heavy Native American drinkers may not be physiologically dependent on alcohol, but they misuse it by engaging in 13402: 12840: 12190: 11955: 11706: 11184: 10461: 5809: 5604: 2625: 297: 10773:"Incorporating traditional healing into an urban American Indian health organization: a case study of community member perspectives" 9731:"Anna Marjavi and Vicki Ybanez, "Building Domestic Violence Health Care Responses in Indian Country: A Promising Practices Report." 9210:

Gone, Joseph P. (2009). "A community-based treatment for Native American historical trauma: Prospects for evidence-based practice".

8051:"Rates of Substance Use of American Indian Students in 8th, 10th, and 12th Grades Living on or Near Reservations: Update, 2009–2012" 6313: 5966: 5106:"New Chemical Analyses Take Confirmation Back 500 Years and Reveal that the Impetus for Cacao Cultivation was an Alcoholic Beverage" 4442: 4364: 4047: 115:

Native American and Native Alaskan youth are far more likely to experiment with alcohol at a younger age than non-Native youth. Low

12231: 10383: 7211: 5368: 3657:

Family and community play an essential role in any individual's motivation to stay in recovery. Family members, tribal elders, and

3523:, as of 2017, was over 4 decades old and was included in the 2-volume Encyclopedia of American Indian Issues Today, published 2013. 2637: 2538: 10353: 7339:"Epidemiology of DSM-5 Alcohol Use Disorder: Results From the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III" 3467: 12828: 12347: 10616: 10574:"Szlemko, William J & Wood, James W & Thurman, Pamela Jumper. "Native Americans and alcohol: past, present, and future." 7337:

Grant, BF; Goldstein, RB; Saha, TD; Chou, SP; Jung, J; Zhang, H; Pickering, RP; Ruan, WJ; Smith, SM; Huang, B; Hasin, DS (2015).

6628:, Vol 4 of Colonial Records of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Provincial Council, Pennsylvania Committee of Safety; J. Severns, 1851" 5712:. University of California Publications in Culture and Society, vol 2, No. 6. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1954. 5144:"General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún: The Florentine Codex — Viewer — World Digital Library" 4069: 3573: 3152: 2262: 1367: 442: 10305: 7643:"Silk-Walker P., Walker R. D., and Kivlahan, D. "Alcoholism, alcohol abuse, and health in American Indians and Alaska Natives," 7176:"Harold Wattel, Patricia Putman, "Intoxicating Liquor Laws in Hawaii," Legislative Reference Bureau, University of Hawaii, 1969" 6722: 5996:, vol. 5, July 1, 1753, through March 31, 1755, ed. Leonard W. Labaree. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962, pp. 84–107]" 3813:

training, talking circle paradigms, and "Healing the Canoe," a substance abuse prevention program based on promoting a sense of

60:

and biases based on race and social class, generalizations and myths abound around the topic of Native American alcohol misuse.

12710: 10236:"Vick, Ronald D., Smith, Linda M., Herrera, Carol Iron Rope. "The Healing Circle: An alternative path to alcoholism recovery." 9048: 8151: 7427: 7164:. United States Congress House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1964. 6155: 3909: 2702: 1226: 11714: 5284:"Jeff Dodge, "Rabbit revelry: An Aztec drunkfest that rivals St. Patrick's Day," Colorado State University News, 13 Mar, 2017" 3638:

appropriate for each client in terms of verbal communication (greetings, humor, establishing rapport) and non-verbal signals (

3551:

is an interconnected web carrying the message of cultural knowledge about recovery for individuals, families, and communities.

1913:

made a mild beer by soaking corn in water to produce a fermented gruel to be consumed at tribal feasts. In the northwest, the

13412: 13397: 13387: 12811: 11779: 11675: 10431: 7182: 6916: 5460: 4425: 4114: 3120: 2917: 1246: 1163: 1013: 948: 923: 891: 467: 237: 167: 140: 45: 10207: 10174: 9342: 9285: 8356: 7849: 7820: 7139: 7086: 7058: 6999: 6969: 6890:""Native American Nations & State Alcohol Policies: An Analysis," National Alcohol Beverage Control Association (NABCA)" 6752: 6660: 6364: 6214: 6109: 5935: 5428: 2992:

These very traits produced immediate, devastating effects when alcohol was introduced to Native tribes via European contact.

2747:

systems. Women also had to contend with resistance from partners who did not want them to start treatment. Many women cited

2361:

The problem with this law was that it did not prevent the sale of alcohol to Native Americans, but only that which occurred

12324: 11914: 11909: 6237: 5151: 3889: 3506: 2602: 2010:

described the effects of alcohol on the tribes of North Carolina, which he observed during his travels there in 1700-1708:

1412: 1092: 963: 367: 10915:

Jilek W.G. (1978). "Native renaissance: The survival of indigenous therapeutic ceremonials among North American Indians".

9981:"Mangum BP. "The social epidemiology and construction of risk for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in Native American communities." 8024: 6688:, vol. 36, 1 December 1801–3 March 1802, ed. Barbara B. Oberg. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009, pp. 440–443.)" 2274:

prohibited the sale of rum to the Indians, however as the law was poorly enforced and the penalty was light—a fine of ten

13045: 12970: 11934: 11789: 11613: 10199:

Research on Alcoholism Treatment: Methodology, Psychosocial Treatment, Selected Treatment Topics, and Research Priorities

8270: 7456:, Volume 20 of Contemporary Native American communities. Altamira Press, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2007. 6859: 3491:, provide clinical evaluation, substance use disorder education, psychotherapy, art therapy, adventure-based counseling, 2391: 2127:

cheap individual pleasure be substituted for the desire for collective feelings and ideals based on a higher morality."

1342: 1028: 7389: 5752: 4695: 3313:

model, in which standard treatments are employed in a Native American setting operated by Native American practitioners.

2854: 2577:

In Alaska, liquor sales have been regulated by individual communities since 1986 as long as they conform to state laws.

2446:" (which had included wine since 1834) were not to be sold or given to Indians. The result was a sudden introduction of 12943: 12769: 12381: 12043: 11774: 11603: 11354: 11306: 10522: 8196: 5083: 4464: 3543: 3495:, medication management, evidence-based treatment, aftercare relapse prevention, and post-treatment follow-up services. 1991: 1276: 1256: 1053: 1048: 10573: 9860:"Consumption of Alcohol Beverages and Binge Drinking Among Pregnant Women Aged 18–44 Years — United States, 2015–2017" 8104:"Initiation of alcohol, marijuana, and inhalant use by American-Indian and white youth living on or near reservations" 7490:

Peterson S, Berkowitz G, Cart CU, Brindis C (2002). "Native American women in alcohol and substance abuse treatment".

5830: 5283: 13328: 13308: 13068: 12751: 11631: 11074: 7886: 6399: 6281: 6075: 5553: 5403: 3026:

resulting from physically and emotionally harmful or threatening experiences shared by a group over the lifespan and

2889: 1325: 1271: 886: 337: 322: 64: 8017:"Preventing Underage Drinking in American Indian and Alaska Native Communities: Contexts, Epidemiology, and Culture" 2748: 13422: 12762: 12558: 11982: 11724: 10331: 9091: 8909:"Association of the firewater myth with drinking behavior among American Indian and Alaska Native college students" 3530:

provides Native American communities with tools for preventing mental illness, substance use disorders and suicide.

3425: 3367: 2736: 2119: 2028: 1221: 342: 9683:"Prevalence of adult domestic violence among women seeking routine care in a Native American health care facility" 9162: 6833: 6803: 5648: 3331:

model, which has primarily a Native American orientation, including the use of traditional modalities such as the

135:

in ritual settings and rarely for personal enjoyment. Liquor was unknown until introduced by Europeans, therefore

13427: 13417: 12938: 12418: 12371: 11857: 11802: 11764: 11744: 11424: 10409: 9544: 7983: 5854:"The Perfect Colonizer: Understanding Alcoholism and its Treatments in Native America through Humanistic Inquiry" 2834:

play a significant role in alcohol use among Native adolescents. Of 89 Native American adolescents admitted to a

2754:

A primary motivation for Native American women to enter and complete treatment included maintaining or regaining

1310: 277: 105: 6889: 5175:"Pulque, a Traditional Mexican Alcoholic Fermented Beverage: Historical, Microbiological, and Technical Aspects" 4809: 1909:

of the Carolinas used berries and other fruits to make alcoholic beverages, and there is some evidence that the

1426:

and was invested with expectations of improved well-being, as opposed to individual enjoyment or entertainment.

176: 12583: 12401: 12205: 11919: 11847: 11837: 11822: 11749: 11590: 10279: 10218: 10185: 10061: 9797:"Suicides Among American Indian/Alaska Natives — National Violent Death Reporting System, 18 States, 2003–2014" 9760:

May Philip A; et al. (2002). "Alcohol and suicide death among American Indians of New Mexico: 1980–1998".

8675: 7860: 7831: 7469: 7119: 7097: 6671: 6375: 6194: 6120: 5914: 5770: 5681: 5439: 5356: 5131: 4990: 4959: 4739: 3762: 3031: 1315: 1241: 733: 317: 207: 17: 6652:"Regulations for the Better Carrying on the Trade with the Indian Tribes in the Southern District." Quoted in 6575: 3151:

between 1980 and 1998. From 2003 to 2014, Native American suicide rates in the 18 states participating in the

2236:

unemployed, in poverty, without a strong cultural base or community and unable to achieve economic stability.

12103: 11852: 11827: 11807: 11754: 6747:

Annual report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the fiscal year 1861

3533: 3400: 2408: 2232: 1231: 1216: 1018: 846: 5317: 5173:

Escalante, A; López Soto, DR; Velázquez Gutiérrez, JE; Giles-Gómez, M; Bolívar, F; López-Munguía, A (2016).

4489:

Beauvais F (1998). "Cultural identification and substance use in North America--an annotated bibliography".

3578: 3034:

has argued that historical trauma plays a significant role in motivating substance misuse as a pathological

13432: 13024: 12991: 12779: 12253: 12195: 12113: 12098: 11832: 11812: 11769: 11759: 11719: 7878:

Revenge of the Windigo: The Construction of the Mind and Mental Health of North American Aboriginal Peoples

7713: 7082:

In League Against King Alcohol: Native American Women and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 1874–1933

3383: 3279: 2960: 2835: 2352:

An 1847 amendment introduced prison terms for those convicted of selling or attempting to sell alcohol "in

1871: 876: 689: 663: 257: 8671:"Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors for Alcohol Use Disorders in American Indians and Alaskan Natives" 8626:

Caetano Raul, Clark Catherine L., Tam Tammy (1998). "Alcohol consumption among racial/ethnic minorities".

8382: 5509:

Córdova, James M. (2015). "Drinking the fifth cup: notes on the drunken Indian image in colonial Mexico".

4563: 4278:

Spicer, Paul; Beals, Janette; Croy, Calvin D.; Mitchell, Christina M.; Novins, Douglas K.; Moore, Laurie;

3996:"Alcohol-attributable mortality among Native Americans and Alaska Natives in the United States, 1999-2009" 3380:

where the patient continues to reside at home, but commutes to a treatment center up to seven days a week.

13366: 12718: 12032: 11975: 11877: 11817: 11566: 11510: 11383: 9614:

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and the Criminal Justice Response: What is known

6021: 5479: 3782: 3141: 3112: 2779: 2684:

combined tradition with Christianity to attract a wider following. Modern-day addiction specialists like

1793:

were brewing a weak beer made by fermenting kernels of corn. Gas chromatography analysis of 800-year-old

1678: 1008: 9569:

Wahab S, Olson L (2004). "Intimate partner violence and sexual assault in Native American communities".

8769:

Wilhelmsen KC, Ehlers C (2005). "Heritability of substance dependence in a native American population".

7235: 4226:"Prevalence of DSM-IV disorders and attendant help-seeking in 2 American Indian reservation populations" 3785:

actively engaged up to 1,000 members in increasing physical activity and healthy lifestyles, initiating

3766:

traditional Native American cultural values to encourage youth to avoid drinking, drug use and smoking.

108:

is as high as 1.5 to 2.5 per 1,000 live births, more than seven times the national average, while among

13234: 13197: 12975: 12226: 12118: 11842: 10854:"Drum-Assisted Recovery Therapy for Native Americans (DARTNA): results from a pretest and focus groups" 9632:"The distinctive characteristics and needs of domestic violence victims in a Native American community" 8575:"Ehlers CL, Gizer IR. "Evidence for a genetic component for substance dependence in Native Americans." 8050: 7255: 6134:"Cultural Impairment and the Genocidal Potential of Intoxicants: Alcohol use in Colonial North America" 3738: 3454: 3317: 2557:

alcohol was still illegal on Indian reservations. In 1945 the Commissioner of Indian Affairs reported:

918: 801: 559: 554: 11217:(2003). "Healthy nations: reducing substance abuse in American Indian and Alaska Native communities". 9794: 8436: 4979: 4856:

Abbott PJ (1996). "American Indian and Alaska native aboriginal use of alcohol in the United States".

4766:"Martin, Jill E., "The Greatest Evil:" Interpretations Of Indian Prohibition Laws, 1832-1953" (2003). 3631:, as well as the differing patterns of alcohol misuse and the multiple treatment modalities available. 3479: 13407: 13133: 12799: 12688: 12241: 12150: 12093: 11431: 10075:""The Poison That Ruined the Nation": Native American Men-Alcohol, Identity, and Traditional Healing" 7750: 7422:

2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health and National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services

7392:

2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health and National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services

4225: 3746: 3116: 2824: 2763: 2491: 2468: 2315: 2024: 615: 307: 9366: 8640: 7678: 6774: 6209:

Travels through Lower Canada and the United States of North America in the years 1806, 1807 and 1808

4602:

Lane DC, Simmons J (2011). "American Indian youth substance abuse: community-driven interventions".

3717: 3605:

nature of meetings, the encouragement of a critical attitude towards drinkers, and an emphasis on a

13262: 11505: 4564:"Intergenerational trauma: convergence of multiple processes among First Nations peoples in Canada" 4392: 4379: 3662: 3635: 3563: 3176: 3027: 2995:

The solutions to alcohol problems in Native communities lie in resources outside these communities.

2897: 2661: 2580:

It is now largely recognized that prohibition has been unsuccessful. As of 2007, 63 percent of the

2562:

tribes passed resolutions urging that sale of liquor be permitted to Indians off the reservations."

2494:

which banned the sale of alcohol to Indians, would not apply, as "regulation of liquor was a state

2320: 2207: 2206:

During subsequent years alcohol further destabilized Native American communities. The Sauk warrior

1634: 1023: 968: 913: 898: 745: 132: 120: 12664: 7547:

Levy Jerrold E., Kunitz Stephen J. (1971). "Indian Reservations, Anomie, and Social Pathologies".

6683: 5992:""Treaty of Carlisle, 1 November 1753," Founders Online, National Archives. [Original source: 3618:

approach. Therapy can be an opportunity for Native Americans to reaffirm their cultural heritage.

2791: 2241: 1728: 13313: 13118: 13055: 12953: 12928: 12200: 11924: 11520: 11452: 7590:

Stratton R, Zeiner A, Paredes A (1978). "Tribal affiliation and prevalence of alcohol problems".

6945: 6591: 6578:

Urban Indian America: The Status of American Indian and Alaska Native Children and Families Today

5991: 5853: 5109: 3724: 3377: 3137: 3060: 2676:

sought to achieve this by establishing alcohol-free communities. Religious movements such as the

1058: 741: 627: 457: 452: 417: 262: 11011: 10820: 10018: 9472: 4224:; Whitesell, Nancy R.; Spicer, Paul; Novins, Douglas K.; Mitchell, Christina M. (January 2005). 2549:. In 1924 all Native Americans living in the United States became US citizens by passage of the 2503:

The year following the Heff decision saw an increase of the liquor traffic among the Indians of

12886: 12833: 12789: 12674: 12642: 12433: 12406: 9092:"Brave Heart, Maria Yellow Horse. "Wakiksuyapi: carrying the historical trauma of the Lakota." 8635: 8188: 8182: 6966:, United States Office of Indian Affairs, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1892" 6179:

Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress

5226:"Pulque production from fermented agave sap as a dietary supplement in Prehispanic Mesoamerica" 4178:

Beals, Janette; Novins, Douglas K.; Whitesell, Nancy R.; Spicer, Paul; Mitchell, Christina M.;

3904: 3537: 3450: 3363: 3168: 2947: 2909: 2681: 2590: 2550: 2260:

Indians drinking whiskey spilled as authorities destroy a contraband shipment. Caricature from

2047: 2007: 1496: 973: 908: 851: 357: 252: 13075: 10851: 9992: 9980: 8293: 7908: 6623: 5663: 5224:

Correa-Ascencio, M; Robertson, IG; Cabrera-Cortés, O; Cabrera-Castro, R; Evershed, RP (2014).

3420:

The Office of Tribal Affairs and Policy (OTAP) serves as primary point of contact between the

2240:

typically experience higher rates of alcohol use compared to other ethnicities as a result of

2210:, (1767-1838), writes in his autobiography of the mistreatment of his people due to alcohol: 2135: 1504: 12679: 12263: 12258: 12162: 12124: 12017: 11929: 11608: 11515: 11164: 11123: 11055: 10895: 10687: 9960: 9901: 9838: 9396: 8857: 8814:"A Framework to Examine the Role of Epigenetics in Health Disparities among Native Americans" 8749: 8649: 8550: 8329: 7923: 7794: 7751:"Suicide attempts among American Indian and Alaska Native youth: risk and protective factors" 7714:"Philip A. May, "Overview of Alcohol Abuse Epidemiology for American Indian Populations," in 7619: 7527: 7136:, United States. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1945" 6556: 5896: 5597:"Tamara Stewart, "Ceramic analysis indicates fermented beverage was consumed in New Mexico," 5338: 4282:(2003). "The Prevalence of DSM-III-R Alcohol Dependence in Two American Indian Populations". 3874: 3602: 3488: 3437: 3310: 3156: 3056: 2951: 2943: 2881: 2875: 2802: 2744: 2521: 2490:

is immediately a citizen of the US and his state, and that the 1897 amendment to the Federal

2341: 2271: 856: 841: 836: 607: 549: 422: 392: 347: 8227: 7390:""Behavioral Health Barometer: United States, Volume 4: Indicators, as measured through the 7025:"197 U.S. 488 - In the Matter of the Application of Albert Heff for a Writ of Habeas Corpus" 6804:"Lewis H. St. John, "The Present Status and Probable Future of the Indians of Puget Sound," 5577:

Henderson Lucia A (2008). "Blood, Water, Vomit, and Wine: Pulque in Maya and Aztec Belief".

5343:. The Civilization of the American Indian series, University of Oklahoma Press, 1997; p. 72. 3705: 3286:

and medications in a clinical setting, the general approach of most US treatment facilities.

2384:

recommended that Congress take action to restrict the sale of alcohol near reservations. In

659: 13239: 13226: 13170: 12985: 12603: 12396: 12315: 12248: 12145: 11887: 11882: 11598: 11393: 10950:

Jilek-Aall, L. (1981). "Acculturation, alcoholism, and Indian-style Alcoholics Anonymous".

10620: 10538:

Armand French Laurence (2004). "Alcohol and Other Drug Addictions Among Native Americans".

9049:"Brown-Rice, Kathleen, "Examining the Theory of Historical Trauma Among Native Americans." 5237: 4096: 3838: 3643: 3597: 3303: 3267: 3023: 2831: 2698: 2677: 2542: 1974: 1462: 1419: 1129: 769: 564: 524: 486: 312: 12948: 10457: 8228:"Karen Chartier and Raul Caetano, "Ethnicity and health disparities in alcohol research," 5794: 4765: 8: 13318: 13192: 12933: 12918: 12868: 12573: 12563: 12342: 12272: 12060: 9612:

Ronet Bachman, Heather Zaykowski, Rachel Kallmyer, Margarita Poteyeva, Christina Lanier,

6996:, United States Department of State, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC 1893" 6335:

Unrau William E (1973). "The Depopulation of the Dheghia-Siouan Kansa Prior to Removal".

6305: 5957: 4696:

Gilbert Quintero "Making the Indian: Colonial Knowledge, Alcohol, and Native Americans."

4420: 4100: 3929: 3924: 3387: 3371: 2885: 2811: 2404: 2399:

and that bad white men, knowing this, would carry on the traffic in adjoining localities.

2374: 2287: 2103: 1867: 1700: 1579: 1134: 826: 781: 677: 647: 590: 499: 412: 10379: 7245:, Federal Indian Law Seminar, December 2010, p. 7, University of Nebraska College of Law 7207: 5241: 3668:

Treatment can be made more effective by combining Native and Western healing practices.

3159:

and 1.8 times the odds of having had a reported alcohol abuse problem prior to suicide.

13150: 13093: 13009: 12908: 12901: 12863: 12823: 12629: 12530: 12445: 12423: 12277: 12236: 11998: 11892: 11685: 11242: 11111: 11038: 11013: 10932: 10878: 10853: 10797: 10772: 10724: 10670: 10643: 10555: 10147: 10099: 10074: 9884: 9859: 9821: 9796: 9707: 9682: 9651: 9594: 9536: 9446: 9421: 9128:"Historical Trauma and The Effects of Learned Helplessness in Native American Children" 9030: 8982: 8957: 8933: 8908: 8840: 8813: 8794: 8697: 8670: 8603: 8574: 8533: 8508: 8484: 8467: 8128: 8103: 8075: 7975: 7572: 7564: 7515: 7363: 7338: 7319: 6539: 6514: 6487: 6462: 6438: 6413: 6287: 5827:"Thomas Ivan Dahlheimer, "Alcohol was used to commit atrocities against Native people"" 5596: 5559: 5526: 5372: 5260: 5225: 5201: 5174: 5026: 4919: 4881: 4670: 4645: 4295: 4152: 4135: 4020: 3995: 3976: 3914: 3810: 3356: 3283: 3230: 3206: 3089:

Several studies indicate that Native Americans are at greater risk for alcohol-related

2955: 2664:

to restore Native American dignity by reverting to traditional customs and ceremonies.

2275: 2256: 2190:

was shipping over 27,000 buffalo hides annually to St. Louis, most of them traded from

2150: 2035: 1987: 1978: 1859: 1805: 1708: 1645:

Culture (1100-900 BC) indicates that a weak alcoholic beverage was made from fermented

1534: 1482: 1122: 983: 903: 737: 725: 721: 602: 472: 352: 332: 267: 222: 149: 136: 89: 84: 9611: 8152:"Drinking Levels Defined | National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)" 6917:"Liquid genocide: alcohol destroyed the Pine Ridge Reservation--then they fought back" 6512: 3498: 13180: 13050: 12913: 12891: 12794: 12669: 12613: 12391: 12330: 12320: 12292: 12268: 11739: 11623: 11403: 11373: 11323: 11312: 11302: 11234: 11152: 11103: 11043: 10967: 10936: 10883: 10802: 10728: 10675: 10559: 10518: 10301: 10214: 10181: 10139: 10104: 10057: 9988: 9948: 9889: 9826: 9777: 9712: 9631: 9586: 9528: 9451: 9437: 9384: 9334: 9277: 9255:"American Indian and Alaska Native Substance Abuse: Co-Morbidity and Cultural Issues" 9235: 9227: 9034: 9022: 8987: 8938: 8877: 8845: 8786: 8782: 8737: 8702: 8608: 8538: 8489: 8402: 8398: 8305: 8262: 8192: 8133: 8119: 8080: 7967: 7882: 7856: 7827: 7770: 7748: 7607: 7576: 7507: 7465: 7368: 7354: 7311: 7115: 7093: 6714: 6667: 6544: 6492: 6443: 6395: 6371: 6356:

Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life

6277: 6190: 6116: 6071: 5910: 5766: 5677: 5549: 5530: 5456: 5435: 5399: 5352: 5265: 5206: 5127: 4986: 4955: 4873: 4735: 4675: 4619: 4544: 4506: 4434: 4347: 4299: 4245: 4199: 4157: 4110: 4025: 3968: 3818: 3802: 3790: 3786: 3270:

among Native Americans is usually based on one of the five common treatment models:

3250: 3097: 3090: 3043: 3019: 2980: 2719: 2345: 2336: 2245: 2166: 2158: 2123: 2115: 2043: 2031:

with Benjamin Franklin (right) observing Iroquois dancing at the Carlisle conference.

1817: 1809: 1514: 1446: 1434: 958: 655: 619: 145: 92:, including hearing and vision problems, kidney and bladder problems, head injuries, 68: 11246: 10641: 10151: 9655: 9598: 9540: 7979: 7419: 7323: 6133: 5223: 5030: 4885: 4136:"Alcohol-attributable deaths and years of potential life lost--11 States, 2006-2010" 3980: 3503: 3432: 3386:, either long-term (6–12 months) or short-term (3–6 weeks), commonly referred to as 3374:

induced by chronic alcohol misuse, usually implemented during a brief hospital stay.

2529:

to protect Native American interests when Native Americans are granted citizenship.

13163: 13113: 12757: 12693: 12659: 12652: 12535: 12502: 12492: 11897: 11571: 11230: 11226: 11115: 11093: 11085: 11033: 11025: 10994: 10959: 10924: 10873: 10865: 10792: 10784: 10720: 10665: 10655: 10547: 10131: 10094: 10086: 9940: 9879: 9871: 9816: 9808: 9769: 9702: 9694: 9643: 9578: 9520: 9441: 9433: 9376: 9326: 9269: 9219: 9018: 9014: 8977: 8969: 8928: 8920: 8835: 8825: 8798: 8778: 8729: 8692: 8684: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8528: 8520: 8509:"ADH and ALDH polymorphisms and alcohol dependence in Mexican and Native Americans" 8479: 8394: 8123: 8115: 8070: 8062: 7959: 7872: 7762: 7599: 7560: 7556: 7519: 7499: 7358: 7350: 7303: 6534: 6526: 6482: 6474: 6433: 6425: 6145: 5865: 5518: 5255: 5245: 5196: 5186: 5018: 4911: 4865: 4665: 4657: 4611: 4536: 4498: 4374: 4337: 4329: 4291: 4237: 4191: 4147: 4015: 4007: 3960: 3814: 3770: 3409: 3003: 2842: 2451: 2423: 2381: 2219: 2182: 2081: 1995: 1918: 1670: 1457: 1236: 1084: 1078: 756: 597: 544: 282: 232: 153: 128: 10998: 9254: 7175: 4915: 13333: 13014: 12999: 12980: 12485: 12480: 12354: 11576: 11296: 11098: 10512: 10211: 10196: 10178: 10167: 10054: 10043: 9311: 8973: 8524: 8349: 7876: 7853: 7842: 7824: 7813: 7462: 7451: 7242: 7160: 7131: 7108: 7090: 7079: 7050: 6991: 6961: 6744: 6664: 6653: 6530: 6391: 6368: 6353: 6243: 6206: 6187: 6176: 6113: 6102: 6065: 5927: 5907: 5763: 5674: 5652: 5522: 5432: 5421: 5349: 5172: 4732: 4721: 4399: 4371: 4104: 3852: 3774: 3606: 3567: 3510: 3242: 3238: 3144:

are three times more prevalent among Native Americans than in other ethnicities.

3051: 3035: 2508: 2455: 1929:, and tobacco. Despite the fact that they had little to no agriculture, both the 1829: 1704: 1646: 1638: 765: 749: 693: 539: 227: 212: 9773: 8719: 6150: 5755:

Alcohol Problems in Native America: The Untold Story of Resistance and Recovery,

5143: 4472: 4195: 3171:

recorded for any specific racial or ethnic subgroup in the US. According to the

13348: 13158: 13138: 13100: 12965: 12386: 12376: 12366: 12174: 12140: 12006: 11546: 11536: 11467: 11029: 10928: 9920:

Coughlin, Teresa A. "Health Policy for Low-Income People in Minnesota." (1997).

9795:

Leavitt RA, Ertl A, Sheats K, Petrosky E, Ivey-Stephenson A, Fowler KA (2018).

8291: 8258: 8066: 8016: 7766: 3994:

Landen, Michael; Roeber, Jim; Naimi, Tim; Nielsen, Larry; Sewell, Mack (2014).

3964: 3919: 3884: 3805:

among Native American youth and developed a series of interventions, including

3751: 3709: 3685: 3651: 3336: 3332: 3299: 3226: 3108: 2901: 2871: 2783: 2609: 2459: 2447: 2353: 2299: 2283: 2174: 2154: 2111: 2107: 2016: 1934: 1910: 1833: 1768: 1715:, dated to AD 200–550, found evidence that they once contained pulque. For the 1615: 1438: 1211: 1183: 831: 514: 509: 272: 109: 53: 49: 11316: 10963: 10869: 9647: 9524: 9330: 9273: 8733: 7963: 7716:

Changing Numbers, Changing Needs: American Indian Demography and Public Health

7603: 7307: 4540: 4502: 3665:

can be a significant factor in young people's substance use disorder patterns.

3527: 40:

doing business with Native Americans in 1777, with a barrel of rum to the left

13381: 13323: 13204: 13108: 13004: 12593: 12525: 12475: 12470: 12455: 12450: 12428: 12337: 12304: 12169: 12038: 11541: 11482: 11368: 10732: 10660: 10090: 9582: 9231: 6478: 6463:"The Intergenerational Effects of Relocation Policies on Indigenous Families" 6429: 5637: 5625: 5191: 4869: 4333: 4241: 4070:"World Health Organization: Global status report on alcohol and health, 2014" 4011: 3755: 3669: 3628: 3615: 3321: 3275: 2755: 2673: 2653: 2649: 2629: 2617: 2526: 2507:

undreamed-of before. It spelled almost absolute ruin and prostration for the

2463: 2311: 2237: 2162: 2060: 1938: 1798: 1786: 1509: 927: 811: 643: 623: 611: 586: 529: 397: 327: 217: 197: 72: 32: 9698: 9380: 7294:

Coyhis, D.; Simonelli, R. (2008). "The Native American Healing Experience".

6291: 5695:

Cherrington, EH. "Aborigines of North America." In E. H. Cherrington (Ed.),

5546:

Sweeping the Way: Divine Transformation in the Aztec Festival of Ochpaniztli

5480:"DiCesare, CR. "Dangers of the 'fifth cup': the Aztec approach to alcohol," 5250: 5075: 4418: 3103:

Alcohol consumption among Native Americans has also been linked to targeted

2972:

and potential solutions to Native alcohol problems. These myths claim that:

1941:

in Alaska were observed making alcoholic drinks from fermented raspberries.

681: 112:, the rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is 5.6 per 1,000 live births. 13283: 13273: 13063: 12359: 11734: 11472: 11462: 11457: 11238: 11214: 11156: 11107: 11047: 10887: 10806: 10679: 10108: 9952: 9893: 9875: 9830: 9812: 9781: 9590: 9532: 9455: 9417: 9338: 9281: 9239: 9026: 8991: 8942: 8849: 8790: 8741: 8706: 8625: 8612: 8542: 8493: 8406: 8309: 8266: 8137: 8084: 8012: 7774: 7511: 7489: 7372: 7315: 6994:

The Statutes at Large of the United States from December 1891 to March 1893

6548: 6496: 6447: 5826: 5563: 5269: 5210: 4679: 4646:"Historical and cultural roots of drinking problems among American Indians" 4623: 4548: 4438: 4421:"Fetal alcohol syndrome–Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, and New York, 1995-1997" 4351: 4303: 4279: 4249: 4221: 4203: 4179: 4161: 4029: 3972: 3866: 3798: 3794: 3697: 3673: 3661:

should be encouraged to participate in designing and delivering treatment.

3647: 3610: 3348: 3344: 3295: 3290: 2728: 2715: 2633: 2369: 2224: 2187: 2178: 1977:

were damaging Native American communities. Rum as well as brandy and other

1863: 1790: 1442: 1430: 953: 791: 729: 202: 101: 97: 10971: 10551: 10143: 9716: 9388: 8830: 8381:

Cunningham, James K.; Solomon, Teshia A.; Muramoto, Myra L. (March 2016).

8256: 7971: 7503: 5870: 5004:"Production of coyol wine from Acrocomia mexicana (Arecaceae) in Honduras" 4877: 4810:"Addiction and Recovery in Native America: Lost History, Enduring Lessons" 4661: 4510: 4106:"All the Real Indians Died Off": And 20 Other Myths about Native Americans 2904:, a practice associated with child neglect, violence, and impoverishment. 13214: 13209: 13080: 12960: 12850: 12743: 12515: 12460: 12065: 11142: 10302:""Overview of Substance Abuse Treatment Programs," Indian Health Service" 10019:""Thiamin," National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements" 8437:"A potential model of factors influencing alcoholism in American Indians" 7611: 6067:

Dealing with Alcohol: Indigenous Use in Australia, New Zealand and Canada

5062: 3806: 3693: 3689: 3681: 3658: 3639: 3492: 3340: 3324:

sessions with emphasis on Native American cultural and historical themes.

3104: 3039: 2759: 2665: 2613: 2585: 2504: 1712: 1621: 1400: 816: 651: 639: 579: 569: 534: 519: 494: 292: 116: 10327: 9931:

Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment Intervention".

2110:

proposed that distribution of alcohol was one of several tools (such as

1563: 13343: 13175: 13123: 12923: 12896: 12806: 12588: 12568: 12497: 12080: 12070: 11477: 11447: 10852:

Dickerson DL, Venner KL, Duran B, Annon JJ, Hale B, Funmaker G (2014).

10821:"Coyhis, D. "Medicine Wheel and 12 Steps for Women," White Bison, 2013" 10135: 9944: 8924: 8688: 7568: 6834:"United States v. Forty-Three Gallons of Whiskey, Opinion of the Court" 6656:

Deerskins and Duffels: Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815

5641: 5309: 5022: 4982:

Ethnobotany of Mexico: Interactions of People and Plants in Mesoamerica

4342: 3789:

projects and a school-based health promotion curriculum which included

3393: 3047: 2999: 2685: 2621: 2170: 1983: 1954: 1922: 1847: 1691: 1522: 786: 776: 761: 717: 685: 634: 504: 11089: 10482:

A 2015 eulogy mentions their former name, ..and Drug Abuse, re 1971 -

10405: 9154: 9153:

Beaulieu-Banks, Renee; Sundeen, Kim; Christopherson, Kyra (May 2018).

7845:

Drinking Careers: A Twenty-five Year Study of Three Navajo Populations

5646:, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Feb. 29, 1896), pp. 33-46; Torrey Botanical Society. 4923: 4615: 2790:

interactions and family structure were disrupted by modernization and

2636:) framed temperance in terms of Christianity, conforming to a broader 2519:

in 1906, and in 1916 the Supreme Court overruled the Heff decision in

13278: 13185: 13019: 12818: 12784: 12637: 12608: 12578: 12510: 12465: 12438: 12286: 12221: 12055: 12050: 11967: 11012:

Dickerson DL, Brown RA, Johnson CL, Schweigman K, D'Amico EJ (2016).

10788: 10432:"The Indian Alcohol and Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act" 9223: 6964:

Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1892

4393:"Native Americans with alcohol problems have more medical conditions" 3742: 3677: 3516:

Native American Indian General Service Office of Alcoholics Anonymous

3328: 3222: 3210: 3133: 2989:

American Indians are inordinately prone to violence when intoxicated.

2986:

American Indians are inordinately vulnerable to addiction to alcohol.

2762:

to avoid incarceration because of repeated criminal offenses such as

2724: 2669: 2516: 2487: 2427: 2357: 2278:

and confiscation of any illegal supplies—rum continued to be used to

2064: 1994:

for 16 May 1704 record a complaint submitted by Chief Ortiagh of the

1851: 1530: 1470: 1423: 1408: 978: 806: 796: 712: 701: 574: 93: 37: 9857: 6914: 5757:

Colorado Springs, CO: Coyhis Publishing & Consulting, Inc., 2006

3351:

is one example of a specifically Native American treatment approach.

1801:

in 2006 contained residues consistent with fermented corn products.

1490: 12878: 12542: 11729: 10709:"Issues in the Treatment of Native Americans With Alcohol Problems" 9152: 8184:

A Poison Stronger than Love: The Destruction of an Ojibwa Community

6860:"Taylor Barth, License renewal denied for Whiteclay liquor stores, 6775:"United States Statutes at Large Volume 13.djvu/57, March 15, 1864" 6411: 6388:

The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance

3701: 3246: 3218: 3202: 2939: 2645: 2295: 2291: 2195: 2191: 1958: 1914: 1906: 1902: 1735: 1724: 1720: 1541: 1474: 821: 705: 697: 673: 668: 407: 76: 7546: 7236:

James N. Hughes III, "Pine Ridge, Whiteclay and Indian Liquor Law"

3758:

and reduced substance misuse by 45% over the course of 8.5 weeks.

2442:

found that beer was not included in the law's specification that "

1816:, required to make stronger alcoholic beverages, was unknown. The 1595:

Traditional drinks made from fermented corn or corn flour include

1437:

while intoxicated was frequently forgiven (for example, among the

1004:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

13040: 12598: 12157: 10985:

Westermeyer J (1974). "The drunken Indian: Myths and realities".

8811: 8292:

Kanny Dafna, Liu Yong, Brewer Robert D., Lu Hua (November 2013).

4952:

Nectar & Ambrosia: An Encyclopedia of Food in World Mythology

2976:

American Indians have an inborn, insatiable appetite for alcohol.

2893: 2282:

for furs. In 1745, partly due to the complaints of Shawnee chief

2085: 2038: 1926: 1891: 1804:

Some Native American tribes produced weak beers, wine, and other

1686: 1597: 1574: 1555: 1547: 432: 427: 402: 80: 8956:

Gonzalez, Vivian M.; Bravo, Adrian J.; Crouch, Maria C. (2019).

5851: 10759:

Treatment and Prevention of Alcohol Problems: A Resource Manual

7589: 6513:

Whitesell NR, Beals J, Crow CB, Mitchell CM, Novins DK (2012).

6412:

Evans-Campbell, T; Lindhorst, T; Huang, B; Walters, KL (2006).

5339:

Bernardino de Sahagún, Henry B. Nicholson, Thelma D. Sullivan,

3773:, the Seattle Indian Health Board developed technology-focused 3688:. Therapeutic activities may make use of symbols including the 3554: 3415: 3234: 3189: 3185: 2798: 2657: 2641: 2443: 2279: 2130: 1930: 1895: 1838: 1825: 1754:

with a cup and then poured it before the hearth; he poured the

1716: 1682: 1666: 1609: 1588: 1466: 1404: 7816:

Indian Drinking: Navajo Practices and Anglo-Americans Theories

7749:

Borowsky I. W., Resnick M. D., Ireland M., Blum R. W. (1999).

7256:"White, W. "Native American addiction: A response to French." 7055:, United States Government Printing Office, 1907; pp. 2106–07" 3591: 3584: 13338: 13246: 12411: 10642:

Legha R., Raleigh-Cohn A., Fickenscher A., Novins D. (2014).

6310:

Edited by J. B. Patterson, Rock Island, Illinois Press, 1833"

3480:

National Indian Health Board: Tribal Behavioral Health Agenda

3214: 2199: 2141: 1887: 1879: 1875: 1858:

using sprouted corn kernels, dried and ground, flavored with

1821: 1813: 1794: 1661: 1642: 1603: 1569: 1477:

drinks from a jug using a straw. To the left, a woman vomits.

1003: 10122:

Lamarine RJ (1988). "Alcohol abuse among Native Americans".

9312:"Violence against Native women in substance abuse treatment" 8506: 8468:"Variations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians" 3732: 3520: 3515: 3484: 2251: 1878:

sap to create an alcoholic drink similar to pulque, and the

243:

Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

127:

Historically, those Native American tribes who manufactured

10278:. International Center for Alcohol Policies. Archived from 9415: 6915:

Oliver Laughland and Tom Silverstone (September 29, 2017).

5723:"Peter C. Mancall, "Indians and Alcohol," Encyclopedia.com" 3072: 2807: 2525:(241 U.S. 591), which declared that Congress still retains 2515:

Congress attempted to remedy this situation by passing the

1883: 1508:, made from honey produced from the nectar of a species of 10048:, Series: Food in American history, Greenwood Press, 2005. 9416:

Buchwald, D; Tomita, S; Hartman, S; Furman, R; Dudden, M;

9252: 4377:

article by Mary Clare Jalonick Washington, D.C. (AP) 9-08

4219: 4177: 4095: 3754:

among Cherokee adolescents in an Oklahoma school promoted

3548: 3468:

Indian Alcohol and Substance Abuse Memorandum of Agreement

3449:

and rehabilitation services for individuals covered under

2450:

into reservations across the west. The agent in Muskegee,

10602:

Alf H. Walle, "Native Americans and Alcoholism Therapy,"

9159:

Master of Arts in Holistic Health Studies Research Papers

8380: 6308:

Autobiography of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak, or Black Hawk

5398:. Mexico City: Minutiae Mexicana S.A de C.V. p. 18. 3422:

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

2073: 12775:

Ban on caffeinated alcoholic drinks in the United States

10858: