Female genital mutilation

4717:, 1996: "Footbinding and infibulation correspond as follows. Both customs are nearly universal where practised; they are persistent and are practised even by those who oppose them. Both control sexual access to females and ensure female chastity and fidelity. Both are necessary for proper marriage and family honor. Both are believed to be sanctioned by tradition. Both are said to be ethnic markers, and distinct ethnic minorities may lack the practices. Both seem to have a past of contagious diffusion. Both are exaggerated over time and both increase with status. Both are supported and transmitted by women, are performed on girls about six to eight years old, and are generally not initiation rites. Both are believed to promote health and fertility. Both are defined as aesthetically pleasing compared with the natural alternative. Both are said to properly exaggerate the complementarity of the sexes, and both are claimed to make intercourse more pleasurable for the male." 63: 1369:

ethnicity and individual practitioners; during a 1998 survey in Niger, women responded with over 50 terms when asked what was done to them. Translation problems are compounded by the women's confusion over which type of FGM they experienced, or even whether they experienced it. Studies have suggested that survey responses are unreliable. A 2003 study in Ghana found that in 1995 four percent said they had not undergone FGM, but in 2000 said they had, while 11 percent switched in the other direction. In Tanzania in 2005, 66 percent reported FGM, but a medical exam found that 73 percent had undergone it. In Sudan in 2006, a significant percentage of infibulated women and girls reported a less severe type.

4645:, 2005): "Women commonly undergo reinfibulation after a vaginal delivery. In addition to reinfibulation, many women in Sudan undergo a second type of re-suturing called El-Adel, which is performed to recreate the size of the vaginal orifice to be similar to the size created at the time of primary infibulation. Two small cuts are made around the vaginal orifice to expose new tissues to suture, and then sutures are placed to tighten the vaginal orifice and perineum. This procedure, also called re-circumcision, is primarily performed after vaginal delivery, but can also be performed before marriage, after cesarean section, after divorce, and sometimes even in elderly women as a preparation before death." 3062: 1626: 4665:

short-term period. Each of the most common complications occurred in more than one of every ten girls and women who undergo FGM/C. The participants in these studies had FGM/C types I through IV, thus immediate complications such as bleeding and swelling occur in setting with all forms of FGM/C. Even FGM/C type I and type IV 'nick', the forms of FGM/C with least anatomical extent, presented immediate complications. The results document that multiple immediate and quite serious complications can result from FGM/C. These results should be viewed in light of long-term complications, such as obstetric and gynecological problems, and protection of human rights."

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daughters aged 0 to 14, as reported by their mothers. Prevalence data for girls reflect their current – not final – FGM/C status, since many of them may not have reached the customary age for cutting at the time of the survey. They are reported as being uncut but are still at risk of undergoing the procedure. Statistics for girls under age 15 therefore need to be interpreted with a high degree of caution ..." An additional complication in judging prevalence among girls is that, in countries running campaigns against FGM, women might not report that their daughters have been cut.

2867: 1884: 1953: 957: 1967: 2540:

hand, the surgeon stretches it outward, while with the right hand, he cuts it off at the point next to the pincers of the forceps. It is proper to let a length remain from that cut off, about the size of the membrane that's between the nostrils, so as to take away the excess material only; as I have said, the part to be removed is at that point just above the pincers of the forceps. Because the clitoris is a skinlike structure and stretches out excessively, do not cut off too much, as a urinary fistula may result from cutting such large growths too deeply.

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United Kingdom, have banned it regardless of consent. Sweden, for example, has banned operations "on the outer female sexual organs with a view to mutilating them or bringing about some other permanent change in them, regardless of whether or not consent has been given for the operation". Gynaecologist Birgitta Essén and anthropologist Sara Johnsdotter argue that the law seems to distinguish between Western and African genitals, and deems only African women (such as those seeking reinfibulation after childbirth) unfit to make their own decisions.

2838:), wrote to the Local Native Council of South Nyeri on 25 December 1931: "e of the Ngo ya Tuiritu heard that there are men who talk of female circumcision, and we get astonished because they (men) do not give birth and feel the pain and even some die and even others become infertile, and the main cause is circumcision. Because of that, the issue of circumcision should not be forced. People are caught like sheep; one should be allowed to cut her own way of either agreeing to be circumcised or not without being dictated on one's own body." 4373: 4886:

asterisk indicates a ban:Benin (2003), Burkina Faso (1996*), Central African Republic (1966, amended 1996), Chad (2003), Côte d'Ivoire (1998), Djibouti (1995, amended 2009*), Egypt (2008*), Eritrea (2007*), Ethiopia (2004*), Ghana (1994, amended 2007), Guinea (1965, amended 2000*), Guinea-Bissau (2011*), Iraq (2011*), Kenya (2001, amended 2011*), Mauritania (2005), Niger (2003), Nigeria (2015*), Senegal (1999*), Somalia (2012*), Sudan, some states (2008–2009), Tanzania (1998), Togo (1998), Uganda (2010*), Yemen (2001*).

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percent within the 0–15 age group and eliminate it from at least one country by 2012, goals that were not met and which they later described as unrealistic. In 2008 several UN bodies recognized FGM as a human-rights violation, and in 2010 the UN called upon healthcare providers to stop carrying out the procedures, including reinfibulation after childbirth and symbolic nicking. In 2012 the General Assembly passed resolution 67/146, "Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations".

2042:, the prevalence within the 0–14 year old group fell in East Africa from 71.4 percent in 1995 to 8 percent in 2016; in North Africa from 57.7 percent in 1990 to 14.1 percent in 2015; and in West Africa from 73.6 percent in 1996 to 25.4 percent in 2017. If the current rate of decline continues, the number of girls cut will nevertheless continue to rise because of population growth, according to UNICEF in 2014; they estimate that the figure will increase from 3.6 million a year in 2013 to 4.1 million in 2050. 2158: 1308: 17204: 4179:, who had emigrated from Ethiopia, was sentenced to ten years for aggravated battery and cruelty to children after severing his two-year-old daughter's clitoris with a pair of scissors. A federal judge ruled in 2018 that the 1996 Act was unconstitutional, arguing that FGM is a "local criminal activity" that should be regulated by states. Twenty-four states had legislation banning FGM as of 2016, and in 2021 the STOP FGM Act of 2020 was signed into federal law. The 969: 4010:(1979), the first to offer global figures. She estimated that 110,529,000 women in 20 African countries had experienced FGM. The figures were speculative but consistent with later surveys. Describing FGM as a "training ground for male violence", Hosken accused female practitioners of "participating in the destruction of their own kind". The language caused a rift between Western and African feminists; African women boycotted a session featuring Hosken during the 4685:

million today to 4.1 million in 2050."In either scenario, the total number of girls and women cut will continue to increase due to population growth. If nothing is done, the number of girls and women affected will grow from 133 million today to 325 million in 2050. However, if the progress made so far is sustained, the number will grow from 133 million to 196 million in 2050, and almost 130 million girls will be spared this grave assault to their human rights."

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genital parts so that they do not revert back to their original size. The girl is instructed to pull her genitalia every day, to stretch them further, and to put additional sticks in to hold the stretched parts from time to time. This pulling procedure is repeated daily for a period of about two weeks, and usually, no more than four sticks are used to hold the stretched parts, as further pulling and stretching would make the genital parts unacceptably long."

495: 2587: 4247: 2205:

excision and infibulation over clitoridectomy. Attitudes are changing slowly. In Sudan in 2010, 42 percent of women who had heard of FGM said the practice should continue. In several surveys since 2006, over 50 percent of women in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, the Gambia, and Egypt supported FGM's continuance, while elsewhere in Africa, Iraq, and Yemen most said it should end, although in several countries only by a narrow margin.

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the age of five in Nigeria, Mali, Eritrea, Ghana and Mauritania. The 1997 Demographic and Health Survey in Yemen found that 76 percent of girls had been cut within two weeks of birth. The percentage is reversed in Somalia, Egypt, Chad, and the Central African Republic, where over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut between five and 14. Just as the type of FGM is often linked to ethnicity, so is the mean age. In Kenya, for example, the

13974: 4214:, who fled an FGM procedure in Mali. The practice is outlawed by several provisions of France's penal code that address bodily harm causing permanent mutilation or torture. The first civil suit was in 1982, and the first criminal prosecution in 1993. In 1999 a woman was given an eight-year sentence for having performed FGM on 48 girls. By 2014 over 100 parents and two practitioners had been prosecuted in over 40 criminal cases. 3397: 2672:. "Women are structurally inadequate for intercourse," he wrote; he said he would turn them into "horny little mice". In the 1960s and 1970s he performed these procedures without consent while repairing episiotomies and performing hysterectomies and other surgery; he said he had performed a variation of them on 4,000 women by 1975. Following complaints, he was required in 1989 to stop practicing medicine in the United States. 1578:

potency. Some who are unable to penetrate their wives manage to get them pregnant in spite of the infibulation, and the woman's vaginal passage is then cut open to allow birth to take place. ... Those men who do manage to penetrate their wives do so often, or perhaps always, with the help of the "little knife". This creates a tear which they gradually rip more and more until the opening is sufficient to admit the penis.

17157: 4805:"Sometime after this, Nephoris defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians. She asked that I give her 1,300 drachmae ... to clothe her ... and to provide her with a marriage dowry ... if she didn't do each of these or if she did not circumcise Tathemis in the month of Mecheir, year 18 , she would repay me 2,400 drachmae on the spot." 1907:(MICS) conducted with financial and technical help from UNICEF. These surveys have been carried out in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere roughly every five years since 1984 and 1995 respectively. The first to ask about FGM was the 1989–1990 DHS in northern Sudan. The first publication to estimate FGM prevalence based on DHS data (in seven countries) was written by Dara Carr of Macro International in 1997. 18371: 3979: 3072: 1416: 18359: 13962: 2789: 4531:), traditional birth attendants and, generally, older members of the community, usually women. This is true for over 80 percent of the girls who undergo the practice in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, and Yemen. In most countries, medical personnel, including doctors, nurses, and certified midwives, are not widely involved in the practice." 4022:(BBSAWS), "Female Circumcision Mutilates and Endangers Women – Combat it!" Another BBSAWS workshop in 1984 invited the international community to write a joint statement for the United Nations. It recommended that the "goal of all African women" should be the eradication of FGM and that, to sever the link between FGM and religion, clitoridectomy should no longer be referred to as 2578:, who in 1609 wrote of a group near Mogadishu who had a "custome to sew up their Females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their Masters put in them". Thus, Mackie argues, a "practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor". 4509:, 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature ... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision ..." 4632:, 2011): "In the case of infibulation, the urethral opening and part of the vaginal opening are covered by the scar. In a virgin infibulated woman the small opening left for the menstrual fluid and the urine is not wider than 2–3 mm; in sexually active women and after the delivery the vaginal opening is wider but the urethral orifice is often still covered by the scar." 2038:

asked women about the FGM status of all their living daughters. The highest concentrations among girls aged 0–14 were in Gambia (56 percent), Mauritania (54 percent), Indonesia (49 percent for 0–11) and Guinea (46 percent). The figures suggest that a girl was one third less likely in 2014 to undergo FGM than she was 30 years ago. According to a 2018 study published in

2849:("I will circumcise myself"), because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves. Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators. FGM was eventually outlawed in Kenya in 2001, although the practice continued, reportedly driven by older women. 4846:: "The Lydians arrived at such a state of delicacy that they were even the first to 'castrate' their women." Knight argues that the "castration", which is not described, may have kept women youthful, in the sense of allowing the Lydian king to have intercourse with them without pregnancy. Knight concludes that it may have been a reference to sterilization, not FGM. 2803:

as the "sexual mutilation of women", and a person's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty, either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association. The stand-off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement; the 1929–1931 period is known in the country's historiography as the female circumcision controversy. When

1657:. A 2014 systematic review of 56 studies suggested that over one in ten girls and women undergoing any form of FGM, including symbolic nicking of the clitoris (Type IV), experience immediate complications, although the risks increased with Type III. The review also suggested that there was under-reporting. Other short-term complications include fatal bleeding, 1426:

removed" category and involve complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans. The World Health Organization (a UN agency) created a more detailed typology in 1997: Types I–II vary in how much tissue is removed; Type III is equivalent to the UNICEF category "sewn closed"; and Type IV describes miscellaneous procedures, including symbolic nicking.

1855:. Feelings of shame and betrayal can develop when women leave the culture that practices FGM and learn that their condition is not the norm, but within the practicing culture, they may view their FGM with pride because for them it signifies beauty, respect for tradition, chastity and hygiene. Studies on sexual function have also been small. A 2013 6880:"Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Sierra Leone: The practice of female genital mutilation (FGM); the government's position with respect to the practice; consequences of refusing to become an FGM practitioner in Bondo Society, specifically, if a daughter of a practitioner refuses to succeed her mother, 27 March 2009, SLE103015.E" 4304:, required correction. African feminists "take strong exception to the imperialist, racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women", she wrote in 2011. Commentators highlight the voyeurism in the treatment of women's bodies as exhibits. Examples include images of women's vulvas after FGM or girls undergoing the procedure. The 1996 4701:(2007): "Female circumcision belongs to the women's world, and ordinarily men know little about it or how it is performed—a fact that is widely confirmed in ethnographic studies." Bettina Shell-Duncan (2008): "he fact that the decision to perform FGC is often firmly in the control of women weakens the claim of gender discrimination." 2290:

northeastern Africa are pre-Islamic, but the practice became associated with Islam because of that religion's focus on female chastity and seclusion. According to a 2013 UNICEF report, in 18 African countries at least 10 percent of Muslim females had experienced FGM, and in 13 of those countries, the figure rose to 50–99 percent.

1608:, usually performed seven days after birth. Gishiri cutting involves cutting the vagina's front or back wall with a blade or penknife, performed in response to infertility, obstructed labour, and other conditions. In a study by Nigerian physician Mairo Usman Mandara, over 30 percent of women with gishiri cuts were found to have 1920:

Somalia had experienced Type III. There is also a high prevalence of infibulation among girls in Niger and Senegal, and in 2013 it was estimated that in Nigeria three percent of the 0–14 age group had been infibulated. The type of procedure is often linked to ethnicity. In Eritrea, for example, a survey in 2002 found that all

2519:(c. 20 BCE – 50 CE) also made reference to it: "the Egyptians by the custom of their country circumcise the marriageable youth and maid in the fourteenth (year) of their age when the male begins to get seed, and the female to have a menstrual flow." It is mentioned briefly in a work attributed to the Greek physician 1573:). Reinfibulation can involve cutting the vagina again to restore the pinhole size of the first infibulation. This might be performed before marriage, and after childbirth, divorce and widowhood. Hanny Lightfoot-Klein interviewed hundreds of women and men in Sudan in the 1980s about sexual intercourse with Type III: 1406:

both female genital cosmetic surgeries and male circumcision in the discredit of prevention campaigns against FGM/C. However, participants had different views about whether or not female genital cosmetic surgeries should be banned and whether or not regular vulvar examination should be carried out in female children.

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died, it was attributed to evil spirits. When informed of the causal relationship between FGM and ill health, Mackie wrote, the women broke down and wept. He argued that surveys taken before and after this sharing of information would show very different levels of support for FGM. The American non-profit group

4823:, c. 25 BCE: "One of the customs most zealously observed among the Aegyptians is this, that they rear every child that is born, and circumcise the males, and excise the females, as is also customary among the Jews, who are also Aegyptians in origin, as I have already stated in my account of them." 4151:, the first Western country to do so. Several former colonial powers, including Belgium, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, introduced new laws or made clear that it was covered by existing legislation. As of 2013, legislation banning FGM had been passed in 33 countries outside Africa and the Middle East. 1729:, and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time. Urine may collect underneath the scar, leaving the area under the skin constantly wet, which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones. The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery, but the 1544:

to be applied. If a needle and thread are being used, close tight sutures will be placed to ensure that a flap of skin covers the vulva and extends from the mons veneris to the perineum, and which, after the wound heals, will form a bridge of scar tissue that will totally occlude the vaginal introitus.

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WHO 2008: "Some practices, such as genital cosmetic surgery and hymen repair, which are legally accepted in many countries and not generally considered to constitute female genital mutilation, actually fall under the definition used here. It has been considered important, however, to maintain a broad

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In the United States, an estimated 513,000 women and girls had experienced FGM or were at risk as of 2012. A Nigerian woman successfully contested deportation in March 1994, asking for "cultural asylum" on the grounds that her young daughters (who were American citizens) might be cut if she took them

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Beginning with the CSM in 1925, several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians; the CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated, which resulted in hundreds leaving or being expelled. In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM

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of the whole teaching of tribal law, religion and morality". No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised, he wrote. A woman's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation. Her age and place within tribal history were traced to

2204:

Common reasons for FGM cited by women in surveys are social acceptance, religion, hygiene, preservation of virginity, marriageability and enhancement of male sexual pleasure. In a study in northern Sudan, published in 1983, only 17.4 percent of women opposed FGM (558 out of 3,210), and most preferred

1987:

The highest concentrations among the 15–49 age group are in Somalia (98 percent), Guinea (97 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), and Sierra Leone (90 percent). As of 2013, 27.2 million women had undergone FGM in Egypt, 23.8 million in Ethiopia, and 19.9 million in Nigeria. There is a

1983:

called an "intriguingly contiguous" zone in Africa—east to west from Somalia to Senegal, and north to south from Egypt to Tanzania. Nationally representative figures are available for 27 countries in Africa, as well as Indonesia, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen. Over 200 million women and girls are thought

1543:

Having ensured that sufficient tissue has been removed to allow the desired fusion of the skin, the circumciser pulls together the opposite sides of the labia majora, ensuring that the raw edges where the skin has been removed are well approximated. The wound is now ready to be stitched or for thorns

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WHO 2005: "In some areas (e.g. parts of Congo and mainland Tanzania), FGM entails the pulling of the labia minora and/or clitoris over a period of about 2 to 3 weeks. The procedure is initiated by an old woman designated for this task, who puts sticks of a special type in place to hold the stretched

4618:

USAID 2008: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. ... Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in comes to 8,245,449, or just

4608:

WHO 2014: "Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and appositioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation)."Type IIIa, removal and apposition of the labia minora; Type IIIb, removal and apposition of the

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WHO (2008): " common tendency to describe Type I as removal of the prepuce, whereas this has not been documented as a traditional form of female genital mutilation. However, in some countries, medicalized female genital mutilation can include removal of the prepuce only (Type Ia) (Thabet and Thabet,

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about how communities reach decisions about FGM, and building on the work of Gerry Mackie on the demise of footbinding in China. In 2005 the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence published its first report on FGM. UNFPA and UNICEF launched a joint program in Africa in 2007 to reduce FGM by 40

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I did not know what they had cut off from my body, and I did not try to find out. I just wept, and called out to my mother for help. But the worst shock of all was when I looked around and found her standing by my side. Yes, it was her, I could not be mistaken, in flesh and blood, right in the midst

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initiation, argued in 2000 that it is a male-centred assumption that the clitoris is important to female sexuality. African female symbolism revolves instead around the concept of the womb. Infibulation draws on that idea of enclosure and fertility. "enital cutting completes the social definition of

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between childhood and adulthood but is often performed on much younger children. Girls are most commonly cut shortly after birth to age 15. In half the countries for which national figures were available in 2000–2010, most girls had been cut by age five. Over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut before

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is also categorized as Type IV. Common in southern and eastern Africa, the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to the sense of a woman as a closed space. From the age of eight, girls are encouraged to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage. Girls in Uganda

1539:

After the clitoris has been satisfactorily amputated ... the circumciser can proceed with the total removal of the labia minora and the paring of the inner walls of the labia majora. Since the entire skin on the inner walls of the labia majora has to be removed all the way down to the perineum,

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or pharaonic circumcision), the "sewn closed" category, is the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound. The inner and/or outer labia are cut away, with or without removal of the clitoral glans. Type III is found largely in northeast Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia,

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There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon FGM, and it has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs, although the laws are often poorly enforced. Since 2010, the United Nations has called upon healthcare providers to stop

1054:

Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade, FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond. In half of the countries for which national statistics are available, most girls are cut before the age of five. Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group.

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For example, UNICEF 2013 lists Mauritania as having passed legislation against FGM, but (as of that year) it was banned only from being conducted in government facilities or by medical personnel.The following are countries in which FGM is common and in which restrictions are in place as of 2013. An

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UNICEF 2014: "If there is no reduction in the practice between now and 2050, the number of girls cut each year will grow from 3.6 million in 2013 to 6.6 million in 2050. But if the rate of progress achieved over the last 30 years is maintained, the number of girls affected annually will go from 3.6

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Because of poor access to information, and because practitioners downplay the causal connection, women may not associate the health consequences with the procedure. Lala Baldé, president of a women's association in Medina Cherif, a village in Senegal, told Mackie in 1998 that when girls fell ill or

2050:

Surveys have found FGM to be more common in rural areas, less common in most countries among girls from the wealthiest homes, and (except in Sudan and Somalia) less common in girls whose mothers had access to primary or secondary/higher education. In Somalia and Sudan the situation was reversed: in

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is "ll other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes", including pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization. It includes nicking of the clitoris (symbolic circumcision), burning or scarring the genitals, and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten

1560:

The vagina is opened for sexual intercourse, for the first time either by a midwife with a knife or by the woman's husband with his penis. In some areas, including Somaliland, female relatives of the bride and groom might watch the opening of the vagina to check that the girl is a virgin. The woman

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The majority of the participants thinks that the FGM/C classification proposed by the WHO and other UN agencies in 2007 should be revised. They further agree with the legal prohibition of both reinfibulation and ritual pricking and express worries about the dangers represented by the lawfulness of

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Berg and Underland (Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, 2014): "There was evidence of under-reporting of complications. However, the findings show that the FGM/C procedure unequivocally causes immediate, and typically several, health complications during the FGM/C procedure and the

4205:

According to the European Parliament, 500,000 women in Europe had undergone FGM as of March 2009. In France up to 30,000 women were thought to have experienced it as of 1995. According to Colette Gallard, a family-planning counsellor, when FGM was first encountered in France, the reaction was

2539:

The surgery is performed in this way: Have the girl sit on a chair while a muscled young man standing behind her places his arms below the girl's thighs. Have him separate and steady her legs and whole body. Standing in front and taking hold of the clitoris with a broad-mouthed forceps in his left

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to object to FGM, but Christian communities in Africa do practise it. In 2013 UNICEF identified 19 African countries in which at least 10 percent of Christian females aged 15 to 49 had undergone FGM; in Niger, 55 percent of Christian women and girls had experienced it, compared with two percent of

1645:

depend on the type of FGM, whether the practitioner has had medical training, and whether they used antibiotics and sterilized or single-use surgical instruments. In the case of Type III, other factors include how small a hole was left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, whether surgical

1425:

from United Nations bodies ask women whether they or their daughters have undergone the following: (1) cut, no flesh removed (symbolic nicking); (2) cut, some flesh removed; (3) sewn closed; or (4) type not determined/unsure/doesn't know. The most common procedures fall within the "cut, some flesh

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argues that a key concern with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force. The distinction between social pressure and physical force is morally and legally salient, comparable to the distinction between seduction and rape. She argues further that the literacy of women in

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was amended to ban FGM, except where "the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm". As of February 2019, there had been no prosecutions. Officials have expressed concern that thousands of Canadian girls are at risk of being taken overseas to undergo the

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became the first to be officially granted asylum to escape FGM. In 1996 the Federal Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act made it illegal to perform FGM on minors for non-medical reasons, and in 2013 the Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act prohibited transporting a minor out of the

3953:

One of the earliest campaigns against FGM began in Egypt in the 1920s, when the Egyptian Doctors' Society called for a ban. There was a parallel campaign in Sudan, run by religious leaders and British women. Infibulation was banned there in 1946, but the law was unpopular and barely enforced. The

1919:

Type I is the most common form in Egypt, and in the southern parts of Nigeria. Type III (infibulation) is concentrated in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudan. In surveys in 2002–2006, 30 percent of cut girls in Djibouti, 38 percent in Eritrea, and 63 percent in

1577:

The penetration of the bride's infibulation takes anywhere from 3 or 4 days to several months. Some men are unable to penetrate their wives at all (in my study over 15%), and the task is often accomplished by a midwife under conditions of great secrecy, since this reflects negatively on the man's

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The WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA issued a joint statement in 1997 defining FGM as "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons". The procedures vary according to the

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UNICEF 2013: "The percentage of girls and women of reproductive age (15 to 49) who have experienced any form of FGM/C is the first indicator used to show how widespread the practice is in a particular country ... A second indicator of national prevalence measures the extent of cutting among

4391:

do fall within the WHO's definition of FGM, which aims to avoid loopholes, but the WHO notes that these elective practices are generally not regarded as FGM. Some legislation banning FGM, such as in Canada and the United States, covers minors only, but several countries, including Sweden and the

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was used to temporarily signal the virginity of girls, increasing their value on the slave market: "According to descriptions by early travellers, infibulated female slaves had a higher price on the market because infibulation was thought to ensure chastity and loyalty to the owner and prevented

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and female genital mutilation. An investigation combining contemporary from data on slave shipments from 1400 to 1900 with data from 28 African countries has found that women belonging to ethnic groups historically victimized by the Red Sea slave trade were "significantly" more likely to suffer

2037:

Prevalence figures for the 15–19 age group and younger show a downward trend. For example, Burkina Faso fell from 89 percent (1980) to 58 percent (2010); Egypt from 97 percent (1985) to 70 percent (2015); and Kenya from 41 percent (1984) to 11 percent (2014). Beginning in 2010, household surveys

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FGM may place women at higher risk of problems during pregnancy and childbirth, which are more common with the more extensive FGM procedures. Infibulated women may try to make childbirth easier by eating less during pregnancy to reduce the baby's size. In women with vesicovaginal or rectovaginal

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thorns, and might be covered with a poultice of raw egg, herbs, and sugar. To help the tissue bond, the girl's legs are tied together, often from hip to ankle; the bindings are usually loosened after a week and removed after two to six weeks. If the remaining hole is too large in the view of the

4438:

individuals, which has led to bills being drafted in Republican states equating the two. Criticism of these ideas include the fact that the gender-affirming surgeries are approved by American medical authorities, are rare for minors, and are done after reviews by multiple medical professionals.

4233:(CEDAW) asked the government in July 2013 to "ensure the full implementation of its legislation on FGM". The first charges were brought in 2014 against a physician and another man; the physician had stitched an infibulated woman after opening her for childbirth. Both men were acquitted in 2015. 2140:

Dahabo Musa, a Somali woman, described infibulation in a 1988 poem as the "three feminine sorrows": the procedure itself, the wedding night when the woman is cut open, then childbirth when she is cut again. Despite the evident suffering, it is women who organize all forms of FGM. Anthropologist

2033:

but there are no representative data on the prevalence in these countries. As of 2023, UNICEF reported that "The highest levels of support for FGM can be found in Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea, the Gambia, Somalia, and Egypt, where more than half of the female population thinks the practice should

1814:

is increased. The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional 10–20 babies die per 1,000 deliveries as a result of FGM. The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28,393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan. In those

2289:

Surveys have shown a widespread belief, particularly in Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, and Egypt, that FGM is a religious requirement. Gruenbaum has argued that practitioners may not distinguish between religion, tradition, and chastity, making it difficult to interpret the data. FGM's origins in

4311:

The debate has highlighted a tension between anthropology and feminism, with the former's focus on tolerance and the latter's on equal rights for women. According to the anthropologist Christine Walley, a common position in anti-FGM literature has been to present African women as victims of

4053:

As of 2023, UNICEF reported that "in most countries in Africa and the Middle East with representative data on attitudes (23 out of 30), the majority of girls and women think the practice should end", and that "even among communities that practice FGM, there is substantial opposition to its

1535:

The element of speed and surprise is vital and the circumciser immediately grabs the clitoris by pinching it between her nails aiming to amputate it with a slash. The organ is then shown to the senior female relatives of the child who will decide whether the amount that has been removed is

4703:

Bettina Shell-Duncan (2015): "hen you talk to people on the ground, you also hear people talking about the idea that it's women's business. As in, it's for women to decide this. If we look at the data across Africa, the support for the practice is stronger among women than among men."

11216:

Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries".

4939:: "A person is guilty of an offence if he excises, infibulates or otherwise mutilates the whole or any part of a girl's labia majora, labia minora or clitoris", unless "necessary for her physical or mental health". Although the legislation refers to girls, it applies to women too. 1130:

and the universality of human rights. According to the UNICEF, international FGM rates have risen significantly in recent years, from an estimated 200 million in 2016 to 230 million in 2024, with progress towards its abandonment stalling or reversing in many affected countries.

2192:

In communities where infibulation is common, there is a preference for women's genitals to be smooth, dry and without odour, and both women and men may find the natural vulva repulsive. Some men seem to enjoy the effort of penetrating an infibulation. The local preference for

2201:. The WHO includes this practice within Type IV FGM, because the added friction during intercourse can cause lacerations and increase the risk of infection. Because of the smooth appearance of an infibulated vulva, there is also a belief that infibulation increases hygiene. 1915:

Questions the women are asked during the surveys include: "Was the genital area just nicked/cut without removing any flesh? Was any flesh (or something) removed from the genital area? Was your genital area sewn?" Most women report "cut, some flesh removed" (Types I and II).

1350:

has assumed the role of health worker, he will also perform FGM. When traditional cutters are involved, non-sterile devices are likely to be used, including knives, razors, scissors, glass, sharpened rocks, and fingernails. According to a nurse in Uganda, quoted in 2007 in

9096: 2629:, spinal irritation, fits, idiocy, mania, and death. He, therefore "set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so", according to his obituary. Brown performed several clitoridectomies between 1859 and 1866. In the United States, 2091:(20 percent), giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent. The practice is sometimes an ethnic marker, but it may differ along national lines. For example, in the northeastern regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, which share a border with Somalia, the 9282: 8837: 2535:, grew too large or triggered sexual desire when rubbing against clothing. "On this account, it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged," Aëtius wrote, "especially at that time when the girls were about to be married": 1540:

this becomes a messy business. By now, the child is screaming, struggling, and bleeding profusely, which makes it difficult for the circumciser to hold with bare fingers and nails the slippery skin and parts that are to be cut or sutured together. ...

12223:

Jackson, Elizabeth F.; Akweongo, Patricia; Sakeah, Evelyn; Hodgson, Abraham; Asuru, Rofina; Phillips, James F. (September 2003). "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: explanatory factors and analytical consequences".

1527:

Somalia, and Sudan (although not in South Sudan). According to one 2008 estimate, over eight million women in Africa are living with Type III FGM. According to UNFPA in 2010, 20 percent of women with FGM have been infibulated. In Somalia, according to

1355:, a cutter would use one knife on up to 30 girls at a time. In several countries, health professionals are involved; in Egypt, 77 percent of FGM procedures, and in Indonesia over 50 percent, were performed by medical professionals as of 2008 and 2016. 4764:(sayings attributed to Mohammed) recommend attenuating the practice for the woman's sake, praise it as noble but not commanded, or advise that female converts refrain from mutilation because even if pleasing to the husband it is painful to the wife." 2099:

women responding to a survey in 2012 said they had experienced FGM, against 12 percent of the Fulani in Chad, while in Nigeria the Fulani are the only large ethnic group in the country not to practise it. In Sierra Leone, the predominantly Christian

4340:

Nnaemeka argues that the crucial question, broader than FGM, is why the female body is subjected to so much "abuse and indignity", including in the West. Several authors have drawn a parallel between FGM and cosmetic procedures. Ronán Conroy of the

4320:

and Hanny Lightfoot-Klein. It prompted the French Association of Anthropologists to issue a statement in 1981, at the height of the early debates, that "a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism".

9449: 2249:

was a storage pit for grain that was continually opened and closed, like an infibulated woman.) But despite throwing the insult back, the Zabarma girls would ask their mothers, "What's the matter? Don't we have razor blades like the Arabs?"

1996:

both say the clitoris should not be cut. The prevalence rate for the 0–11 group in Indonesia is 49 percent (13.4 million). Smaller studies or anecdotal reports suggest that various types of FGM are also practised in various circumstances in

1815:

settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby: 15 percent higher for Type I, 32 percent for Type II, and 55 percent for Type III. The reasons for this were unclear, but may be connected to genital and

4017:

In 1979, the WHO held a seminar, "Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children", in Khartoum, Sudan, and in 1981, also in Khartoum, 150 academics and activists signed a pledge to fight FGM after a workshop held by the

2515:(c. 64 BCE – c. 23 CE) wrote about FGM after visiting Egypt around 25 BCE: "This is one of the customs most zealously pursued by them : to raise every child that is born and to circumcise the males and excise the females ..." 14345: 4030: 3484: 1193: 2262:

in 1991, introduced community-empowerment programs in several countries that focus on local democracy, literacy, and education about healthcare, giving women the tools to make their own decisions. In 1997, using the Tostan program,

1102:, and ideas about purity, modesty, and beauty. It is usually initiated and carried out by women, who see it as a source of honour, and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to 9093: 4747:

Maggie Michael, Associated Press, 2007: " supreme religious authorities stressed that Islam is against female circumcision. It's prohibited, prohibited, prohibited," Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa said on the privately-owned al-Mahwar

1875:, international FGM rates have risen significantly in recent years, rising from an estimated 200 million in 2016 to 230 million in 2024, with progress towards its abandonment stalling or reversing in many effected countries. 10978:

Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals".

1372:

In March 2017, an international FGM expert meeting titled "Management and prevention of female genital mutilation/cutting: sharing data and experiences, improving collaboration" was organized by three universities :

4049:

on the rights of women, which supported the elimination of FGM. By 2015 laws restricting FGM had been passed in at least 23 of the 27 African countries in which it is concentrated, although several fell short of a ban.

1397:, policymakers, and activists. They were invited to respond to an online descriptive and explorative survey on hot topics. It included two parts, the first one was intended for all participants, the second one only for 2504:, who examined hundreds of mummies in the early 20th century, Knight writes that the genital area may resemble Type III because during mummification the skin of the outer labia was pulled toward the anus to cover the 1685:. It is not known how many girls and women die as a result of the practice, because complications may not be recognized or reported. The practitioners' use of shared instruments is thought to aid the transmission of 8834: 4585:

2003), but this form appears to be relatively rare (Satti et al., 2006). Almost all known forms of female genital mutilation that remove tissue from the clitoris also cut all or part of the clitoral glans itself."

2145:

wrote in 1975 that educated Sudanese men who did not want their daughters to be infibulated (preferring clitoridectomy) would find the girls had been sewn up after the grandmothers arranged a visit to relatives.

3989:

In 1975, Rose Oldfield Hayes, an American social scientist, became the first female academic to publish a detailed account of FGM, aided by her ability to discuss it directly with women in Sudan. Her article in

4895:

Fifteen countries joined the program: Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Senegal and Sudan in 2008; Burkina Faso, Gambia, Uganda and Somalia in 2009; and Eritrea, Mali and Mauritania in

18213: 4782:

The countries were Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and

1603:

and angurya cutting, found in Nigeria and Niger. These were removed from the WHO's 2008 definition because of insufficient information about prevalence and consequences. Angurya cutting is excision of the

9390: 8899: 4041:, marking it as a human-rights violation, rather than a medical issue. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s governments in Africa and the Middle East passed legislation banning or restricting FGM. In 2003 the 1500: 1495: 12927: 9446: 4927:

In 2010 the American Academy of Pediatrics suggested that "pricking or incising the clitoral skin" was a harmless procedure that might satisfy parents, but it withdrew the statement after complaints.

4230: 3335: 2508:, possibly to prevent a sexual violation. It was similarly not possible to determine whether Types I or II had been performed, because soft tissues had deteriorated or been removed by the embalmers. 1887:

Map showing the % of women and girls aged 15–49 years (unless otherwise stated) who have undergone FGM/C according to the March 2020 Global Response report. Grey countries' data are not covered.

14350: 4186:

Canada recognized FGM as a form of persecution in July 1994, when it granted refugee status to Khadra Hassan Farah, who had fled Somalia to avoid her daughter being cut. In 1997 section 268 of its

1548:

The amputated parts might be placed in a pouch for the girl to wear. A single hole of 2–3 mm is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid. The vulva is closed with surgical thread, or

6847: 4439:

Formerly, FGM was widely referred to as "female circumcision" in the academic literature, but this "was rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests a fallacious analogy to

2154:. Like FGM, footbinding was carried out on young girls, nearly universal where practised, tied to ideas about honour, chastity, and appropriate marriage, and "supported and transmitted" by women. 3957:

In 1959, the UN asked the WHO to investigate FGM, but the latter responded that it was not a medical matter. Feminists took up the issue throughout the 1970s. The Egyptian physician and feminist

2597:

Some gynaecologists in 19th-century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation. A British doctor, Robert Thomas, suggested clitoridectomy as a cure for

2168:

FGM practitioners see the procedures as marking not only ethnic boundaries but also gender differences. According to this view, male circumcision defeminizes men while FGM demasculinizes women.

9120: 1721:

formation (growth of nerve tissue) involving nerves that supplied the clitoris. An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2–3 mm, which can cause prolonged, drop-by-drop

12470: 5599:

Hot topic survey: Discussing the results of experts’ responses on controversial issues in FGM/C Abdulcadir, Jasmine et al. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, Volume 42, Issue 2, e26

2075:

A country's national prevalence often reflects a high sub-national prevalence among certain ethnicities, rather than a widespread practice. In Iraq, for example, FGM is found mostly among the

4828:, 16.4.9: "And then to the Harbour of Antiphilus, and, above this, to the Creophagi , of whom the males have their sexual glands mutilated and the women are excised in the Jewish fashion." 2051:

Somalia, the mothers' access to secondary/higher education was accompanied by a rise in prevalence of FGM in their daughters, and in Sudan, access to any education was accompanied by a rise.

1047:

estimates that worldwide 230 million girls and women (144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world) had been subjected to

13651: 13633: 8859: 6811: 2414:

The practice's origins are unknown. Gerry Mackie has suggested that, because FGM's east–west, north–south distribution in Africa meets in Sudan, infibulation may have begun there with the

1891:

Aid agencies define the prevalence of FGM as the percentage of the 15–49 age group that has experienced it. These figures are based on nationally representative household surveys known as

1646:

thread was used instead of agave or acacia thorns, and whether the procedure was performed more than once (for example, to close an opening regarded as too wide or re-open one too small).

6660: 10917:

Zabus, Chantal (2013). "'Writing with an Accent': From Early Decolonization to Contemporary Gender Issues in the African Novel in French, English, and Arabic". In Bertacco, Simon (ed.).

7491: 8334: 15534: 14494: 8662: 2418:(c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE), before the rise of Islam, to increase confidence in paternity. According to historian Mary Knight, Spell 1117 (c. 1991–1786 BCE) of the 14910: 14365: 4474: 4112: 2845:) announced a ban on FGM in 1956, thousands of girls cut each other's genitals with razor blades over the next three years as a symbol of defiance. The movement came to be known as 9302: 1283:

reportedly fastened clasps through the foreskins or labia of slaves to prevent sexual intercourse. The surgical infibulation of women came to be known as pharaonic circumcision in

10817:

Walley, Christine J. (2002). ""Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, Anthropology, and the Global Over Female Genital Operations"". In James, Stanlie M.; Robertson, Claire C. (eds.).

10140: 9358: 12204: 4217:

Around 137,000 women and girls living in England and Wales were born in countries where FGM is practised, as of 2011. Performing FGM on children or adults was outlawed under the

4206:

that Westerners ought not to intervene. It took the deaths of two girls in 1982, one of them three months old, for that attitude to change. In 1991 a French court ruled that the

1851:

there is little high-quality information available on the psychological effects of FGM. Several small studies have concluded that women with FGM develop anxiety, depression, and

14905: 10767:

Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.).

6569: 6392: 4738:, 1996: "FGM is pre-Islamic but was exaggerated by its intersection with the Islamic modesty code of family honor, female purity, virginity, chastity, fidelity, and seclusion." 3965:(1972); the book was banned in Egypt and El Saadawi lost her job as director-general of public health. She followed up with a chapter, "The Circumcision of Girls", in her book 2648:

Later in the 19th century, A. J. Bloch, a surgeon in New Orleans, removed the clitoris of a two-year-old girl who was reportedly masturbating. According to a 1985 paper in the

9693: 5825: 8071: 7274: 8959: 7811:

Corno, Lucia and La Ferrara, Eliana and Voena, Alessandra, Female Genital Cutting and the Slave Trade (December 2020). CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP15577, Available at SSRN:

1859:

of 15 studies involving 12,671 women from seven countries concluded that women with FGM were twice as likely to report no sexual desire and 52 percent more likely to report

14489: 14116: 10013: 4226: 2692: 10544:

Mandara, Mairo Usman (2000). "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.).

14330: 13104:

Rodriguez, Sarah (July 2008). "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century".

4582:

WHO (2018): Type 1 ... the partial or total removal of the clitoris ... and in very rare cases, only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris)."

3954:

Egyptian government banned infibulation in state-run hospitals in 1959, but allowed partial clitoridectomy if parents requested it. (Egypt banned FGM entirely in 2007.)

3296: 902: 108:

Over 230 million women and girls worldwide: 144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world (as of 2024)

3834:

Lynn M. Thomas, "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya" in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, 2000, p. 130.

14340: 9565: 4308:

of a 16-year-old Kenyan girl experiencing FGM were published by 12 American newspapers, without her consent either to be photographed or to have the images published.

3472: 1476:. Type IIa is removal of the inner labia; Type IIb, removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia; and Type IIc, removal of the clitoral glans, inner and outer labia. 9011: 8813: 7193: 6133: 4876:

Some states in Sudan banned FGM in 2008–2009, but as of 2013, there was no national legislation. The prevalence of FGM among women aged 14–49 was 89 percent in 2014.

11828: 9259: 9037: 8521: 8453: 4284:

had introduced "a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West's relevance (even indispensability) in purging ". According to Ugandan law professor

18218: 13846: 10083:(2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). 9579: 8102: 4108: 7366: 2523:(129 – c. 200 CE): "When sticks out to a great extent in their young women, Egyptians consider it appropriate to cut it out." Another Greek physician, 1741:

can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence,

15490: 14548: 13616: 13612: 13285:

Thomas, Lynn M. (November 1996). "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya".

10373:

Jacobs, Micah; Grady, Richard; Bolnick, David A. (2012). "Current Circumcision Trends and Guidelines". In Bolnick, David A.; Koyle, Martin; Yosha, Assaf (eds.).

9387: 8896: 8848: 13445: 12151:

Iavazzo, Christos; Sardi, Thalia A.; Gkegkes, Ioannis D. (June 2013). "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence".

3718:

Raqiya D. Abdalla, "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia," in Abusharaf 2007, p.

2668:, repositioning the vagina and urethra, and removing the clitoral hood, thereby making their genital area more appropriate, in his view, for intercourse in the 3410:: French Association of Anthropologists publishes statement that "a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism." 2919: 2812: 13851: 12963: 11366:"A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review" 9822: 9053: 5218: 9430: 5573:

Abdulcadir, J., Alexander, S., Dubuc, E. et al. Female genital mutilation/cutting: sharing data and experiences to accelerate eradication and improve care.

15566: 14515: 9589: 4345:

wrote in 2006 that cosmetic genital procedures were "driving the advance" of FGM by encouraging women to see natural variations as defects. Anthropologist

14964: 14012: 10522: 6854: 4357:, the French feminist, made a similar point in 1975, citing FGM and cosmetic surgery as sexist and patriarchal. Against this, the medical anthropologist 2565:

genital mutilation in the 21st-century, as well as "more in favour of continuing the practice". Women trafficked in the Red Sea slave trade were sold as

5930:

For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see

5650: 4288:, the early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo-Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices, including not only FGM but also 15576: 13750: 11819: 1900: 1389:

and Research of the WHO. Additional support and funding was received from the Swiss Network against Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C), and the

11451: 9117: 5242:

Many African countries have experienced a steady decline in the practice over the past few decades, but overall progress has stalled or been reversed.

4773:

Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, 2008: "Nowhere in all of Scripture or in any of recorded church history is there even a hint that women were to be circumcised."

2493:: "Sometime after this, Nephoris defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians." 13626:"Evaluation of the Long-term Impact of the TOSTAN Program on the Abandonment of FGM/C and Early Marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senega" 12462: 11733:

Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook".

3940: 2637:

and amputated her clitoris, "for the relief of the nervous or hysterical condition as recommended by Baker Brown". When Brown published his views in

13514:

Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen".

16692: 13886: 4527:

UNICEF 2005: "The large majority of girls and women are cut by a traditional practitioner, a category which includes local specialists (cutters or

12272: 11063: 9984: 3554:

Seham Abd el Salam, "A Comprehensive Approach for Communication about Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt," in George C. Denniston, et al. (eds.),

1106:. Adverse health effects depend on the type of procedure; they can include recurrent infections, difficulty urinating and passing menstrual flow, 14146: 12566:

Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt".

9073: 8856: 7828: 4200: 3974:

of these strangers, talking to them and smiling at them, as though they had not participated in slaughtering her daughter just a few moments ago.

2189:

wrote in 2007. "The female body is then covered, closed, and its productive blood bound within; the male body is unveiled, opened, and exposed."

13978: 10794:

wa Kihurani, Nyambura; Warigia wa Johanna, Raheli; Murigo wa Meshak, Alice (2007). "Letter Opposing Female Circumcision". In Lihamba, Amandina;

8650: 6652: 16447: 14151: 9533: 7507: 6544: 6416:"Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey" 4160: 1457:(the visible tip of the clitoris) and clitoral hood. The circumciser pulls the clitoral glans with her thumb and index finger and cuts it off. 12790: 12517:"Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections" 8326: 16153: 15571: 12486:

Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989). "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan".

9480: 4207: 1122:

after childbirth and symbolic "nicking" of the clitoral hood. The opposition to the practice is not without its critics, particularly among

18397: 14158: 13602: 9213: 8935: 4147:, Europe, and North America, all of which outlawed it entirely or restricted it to consenting adults. Sweden outlawed FGM in 1982 with the 2280: 1095: 938: 718: 11696:

Dave, Amish J.; Sethi, Aisha; Morrone, Aldo (January 2011). "Female genital mutilation: what every American dermatologist needs to know".

9167: 17193: 14541: 14479: 11584: 9830: 9299: 9231: 8626: 4218: 13754: 12979:

Rasheed, Salah M.; Abd-Ellah, Ahmed H.; Yousef, Fouad M. (July 2011). "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium".

10892: 10131: 2485:

probably refers instead to a menstruating woman.) The proposed circumcision of an Egyptian girl, Tathemis, is also mentioned on a Greek

2297:

in Cairo ruled that FGM had "no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions". There is no mention of the practice in the

2267:

in Senegal became the first village to abandon FGM. By August 2019, 8,800 communities in eight countries had pledged to abandon FGM and

1211:

In countries where FGM is common, the practice's many variants are reflected in dozens of terms, often alluding to purification. In the

18269: 13966: 13776: 13762: 12197: 9355: 6208: 5678: 3387: 13677: 5756: 1767:(where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood). The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy. 18417: 15549: 14136: 14101: 4066: 3999: 3051:: Guinean gynaecologist Aja Tounkara Diallo Fatimata begins 28-year practice of performing fake clitoridectomies to satisfy families. 2681: 2652:, clitoridectomy was performed in the United States into the 1960s to treat hysteria, erotomania and lesbianism. From the mid-1950s, 1988:

high concentration in Indonesia, where according to UNICEF Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type IV (symbolic nicking) are practised; the

999: 514: 12728: 9686: 8992: 6897: 6736: 2128: 1043:

varies worldwide, but is majorly present in some countries of Africa, Asia and Middle East, and within their diasporas. As of 2024,

18328: 16100: 15561: 14126: 13868: 8047: 7270: 4144: 661: 8956: 8124: 8063: 4599:(WHO, 1998): "he clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger, pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object." 2284: 1819:

and the presence of scar tissue. According to the study, FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother of damage to the

80:"Partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons" ( 18422: 18375: 18251: 14957: 14106: 14096: 14005: 10095:(2000). "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). 4229:, which added a prohibition on arranging FGM outside the country for British citizens or permanent residents. The United Nations 4138: 1937: 1641:

FGM harms women's physical and emotional health throughout their lives. It has no known health benefits. The short-term and late

1040: 2841:

Elsewhere, support for the practice from women was strong. In 1956 in Meru, eastern Kenya, when the council of male elders (the

2760:

for both girls and boys. It involved excision (Type II) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys. Unexcised Kikuyu women (

2455: 18289: 16669: 14534: 14121: 10005: 9957: 8718: 6779: 2450: 2447: 2444: 9931: 9909: 16986: 16457: 16270: 14900: 11429: 10886: 10807: 10757: 10649: 10614: 10578: 10487: 10452: 10429: 10390: 10342: 10274: 10172: 10120: 10058: 5247: 3933: 2908: 2458: 2452: 2321:

reported that Muhammad said circumcision was a "law for men and a preservation of honor for women", however some regard this

1792:

fistulae, it is difficult to obtain clear urine samples as part of prenatal care, making the diagnosis of conditions such as

1159: 13710:, UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO, FIGO, ICN, IOM, MWIA, WCPT, WMA, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010. 10655: 10620: 10584: 10493: 10458: 10280: 10178: 10064: 9562: 8039: 1346:) in the girls' homes, with or without anaesthesia. The cutter is usually an older woman, but in communities where the male 18407: 17084: 17054: 14131: 13563: 13227:

Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention".

9890: 8870: 8810: 5571: 4342: 527: 12075:"Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis" 9256: 9003: 8450: 7190: 4400:

practising countries is generally poorer than in developed nations, which reduces their ability to make informed choices.

18223: 17101: 17059: 16809: 16644: 16216: 11875: 9522: 9499: 8518: 7095: 4469: 4423: 3732: 1114:, an inability to get pregnant, complications during childbirth, and fatal bleeding. There are no known health benefits. 13732: 12028:(September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". 8738: 8094: 7363: 2197:

causes women to introduce substances into the vagina to reduce lubrication, including leaves, tree bark, toothpaste and

18402: 18363: 18333: 15809: 15544: 15539: 15399: 15208: 14950: 14510: 14484: 14141: 14111: 13998: 11416: 8957:"Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises" 4936: 4316:

participating in their own oppression, a position promoted by feminists in the 1970s and 1980s, including Fran Hosken,

4222: 3998:, who worked at the time for the Somalia Ministry of Health, discussed the health consequences of FGM in 1977 with the 2560:

Whatever the practice's origins, infibulation became linked to slavery. Research has indicated that linkes between the

2340: 1904: 561: 541: 8845: 6169: 2225:

Against the argument that women willingly choose FGM for their daughters, UNICEF calls the practice a "self-enforcing

1441:(the external and visible part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals), and/or the prepuce/ 18228: 17376: 17074: 16093: 15661: 15609: 13746: 13715: 13409: 13059:

Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)".

9034: 7425: 4427: 15962: 13613:"Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" 9819: 7976: 3994:

called it "female genital mutilation", rather than female circumcision, and brought it to wider academic attention.

2294: 1154:

Until the 1980s, FGM was widely known in English as "female circumcision", implying an equivalence in severity with

17561: 16536: 16110: 15514: 15446: 13814: 13806: 4265:

and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights. According to critics of the eradicationist position, the

4034: 3926: 1630: 1531:, the child squats on a stool or mat while adults pull her legs open; a local anaesthetic is applied if available: 890: 523: 62: 13615:, United Nations Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 26 July 2013 ( 9050: 8361: 6786:. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see 1378: 18412: 17930: 17753: 17527: 17186: 15586: 15509: 14932: 14621: 14616: 13743:

Joint Evaluation. UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change, 2008–2012

9798: 9713: 9651: 9427: 4104: 4011: 3179: 2975: 2393:

But if a man wants to know how to live, he should recite it every day, after his flesh has been rubbed with the

14942: 12809:

Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932".

10857: 9460:, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532. 8467: 17216: 16976: 16654: 16615: 16551: 16412: 15890: 15591: 13667: 9757: 9635: 8495: 6904: 4949:

definition of female genital mutilation in order to avoid loopholes that might allow the practice to continue."

4409: 4276:

Africans who object to the tone of FGM opposition risk appearing to defend the practice. The feminist theorist

4180: 3591:, "Revisiting Feminist Discourses on Inbulation: The Hosken Report," in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, p. 165. 1989: 1892: 1852: 1386: 537: 89: 11925:"Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study" 10533: 9619: 5809: 5778: 5425: 5370: 4365:

and male circumcision are. Despite the 2007 ban in Egypt, Egyptian women wanting FGM for their daughters seek

18311: 18279: 18177: 17049: 17039: 16981: 16556: 15529: 15519: 13592: 5642: 5574: 3118: 2622: 1828: 1324: 992: 740: 657: 8933:"Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: Updated Estimates of Women and Girls at Risk, 2012" 7726: 5010: 4726:

The eight countries are Djibouti, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Somalia, and the Gambia.

2774:

and later Kenya's first prime minister, wrote in 1938 that, for the Kikuyu, the institution of FGM was the "

1811: 1771:, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that a girl in Sudan with this condition was killed by her family. 18256: 18172: 17510: 17089: 17014: 16869: 16220: 16170: 16163: 15730: 15554: 15524: 14757: 14611: 14409: 11313:

Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. (21 November 2014).

10196:

The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America

4697:(1996): "Virtually every ethnography and report states that FGM is defended and transmitted by the women." 3655:

Nawal El Saadawi, "The Struggle to End Female Genital Mutilation," in Jennifer Browdy de Hernandez, et al,

2566: 2548:

powder and wine or cold water, and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in vinegar, until the seventh day when

752: 12375:"Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis" 9540:(legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women." 5354: 5338: 2664:

to make the vaginal opening smaller. From 1966 until 1989, he performed "love surgery" by cutting women's

1796:

harder. Cervical evaluation during labour may be impeded and labour prolonged or obstructed. Third-degree

17785: 17728: 17292: 17079: 17024: 17019: 16916: 16901: 16891: 16514: 16115: 15581: 15361: 15091: 14070: 3061: 1958:

Percentage of 15–49 group who have undergone FGM in 29 countries for which figures were available in 2016

1390: 1382: 787: 272: 13705: 4447:

infants and children, who are born with anomalies that physicians choose to "fix", is analogous to FGM.

1972:

Percentage of 0–14 group who have undergone FGM in 21 countries for which figures were available in 2016

18351: 18316: 18306: 17346: 17228: 17179: 17160: 16639: 16531: 14974: 14183: 12319: 10910:

Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies

10908:

Zabus, Chantal (2008). "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts". In Borch, Merete Falck (ed.).

10080: 9982: 6130: 4379:: a key moral and legal issue with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force. 4273:" practitioners and undermine their agency—in particular when parents are referred to as "mutilators". 3450: 2807:, an American missionary who opposed FGM in the girls' school she helped to run, was murdered in 1930, 2771: 622: 582: 11315:"Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 11025: 10728:

Strayer, Robert; Murray, Jocelyn (1978). "The CMS and Female Circumcision". In Strayer, Robert (ed.).

9070: 8647: 8593:

Shahira Ahmed, "Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies", in Abusharaf 2007, 176–180.

7648: 6131:"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth" 3253: 3026:: Egypt bans infibulation in state-run hospitals; allows partial clitoridectomy if parents request it. 18109: 17979: 17937: 16829: 16462: 15969: 14233: 10844: 9438: 4825: 3418: 3011: 2618: 2608: 1836: 1625: 1197: 577: 81: 13687: 12238: 9530: 8993:"In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings" 6471:

Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019).

3043:: Central African Republic, Ghana and Guinea, after gaining independence, pass laws restricting FGM. 1759:, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus. Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in 18321: 17845: 17661: 17628: 17520: 17096: 17034: 17029: 16931: 16727: 16664: 16225: 16028: 15984: 15957: 15804: 15715: 14735: 14715: 14401: 13641: 13594:

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change

13461:

Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013).

12751: 10840: 10567:"African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus" 4431: 4417: 3865:

Birgitte Bagnol, Esmeralda Mariano, "Politics of naming sexual practices," in Sylvia Tamale (ed.),

3588: 2745: 2741: 1993: 985: 809: 794: 449: 254: 13723: 11886:

El Dareer, A. (June 1983). "Attitudes of Sudanese people to the practice of female circumcision".

11424:. Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859. 18274: 18128: 17920: 17613: 16936: 16896: 16649: 16605: 16598: 15940: 15338: 15305: 14842: 14745: 14571: 13796: 13625: 11829:"Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" 9279: 8880: 4388: 2788: 2781:

that day, and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events, an

2478: 2403: 2371:

of Ethiopia. Judaism requires male circumcision but does not allow FGM. FGM is also practised by

2348: 1816: 1779: 1642: 713: 13857: 9992:"Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices 9183: 8932: 4062: 18187: 18055: 18045: 17910: 17633: 17566: 17541: 17477: 17351: 17044: 16744: 16659: 16509: 16437: 16372: 16350: 16340: 16315: 16305: 15868: 15737: 15693: 15636: 15474: 15392: 15096: 14557: 14360: 12619:

Kouba, Leonard J.; Muasher, Judith (March 1985). "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview".

12373:

Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018).

12233: 10935:

Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011).

10749: 9228: 9137: 7303: 4842:

in the fifth century BCE, that may allude to FGM outside Egypt. Xanthus wrote, in a history of

4361:

argued in 1999 that FGM may be conducive to a subject's social well-being in the same way that

4187: 4038: 2827: 2359: 1099: 961: 653: 612: 13463:"Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city" 11573: 9677: 8623: 8505: 8371: 8304: 8272: 8264: 8260: 8236: 8220: 8144: 8010: 7902: 7874: 7866: 7613: 7542: 7105: 7053: 7017: 6914: 5943: 5935: 5839: 5835: 5819: 5598: 5435: 4544:

describes a practice known as nicking or pricking, which currently is categorized as Type IV.

4430:

in the United States during the late 2010s and early 2020s have argued that FGM is similar to

3879: 3719: 3556:

Male and Female Circumcision: Medical, Legal, and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice

2213: 1705:

Late complications vary depending on the type of FGM. They include the formation of scars and

1393:. The 98 participants came from four continents and 23 countries. Among them were physicians, 1139: 18167: 17969: 17773: 17448: 17114: 16834: 16794: 16784: 16739: 16588: 16541: 16499: 16158: 16120: 15831: 15794: 15366: 14983: 14778: 14080: 11813: 10836: 10700:

Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy in the United States: A History of a Medical Treatment

9767: 9723: 9707: 9703: 9661: 9645: 9629: 9060:. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996. 8477: 8212: 8168: 7986: 7930: 7910: 7734: 7605: 7061: 7037: 5959: 5788: 5380: 5364: 5348: 5257: 4116: 3220:

of Somalia's Ministry of Health speaks against FGM to Somali Democratic Women's Organization.

2229:" to which families feel they must conform to avoid uncut daughters facing social exclusion. 1734: 1678: 1609: 1170:

missionary. References to the practice as mutilation increased throughout the 1970s. In 1975

933: 557: 509: 13269: 10741: 10476:"'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse" 6205: 5675: 2639:

On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females

2569:

in the Islamic Middle East up until as late as in the mid 20th-century, and the practice of

1883: 18182: 18133: 17453: 17443: 17371: 17366: 17341: 17326: 17321: 16956: 16911: 16881: 16864: 16854: 16702: 16622: 16610: 16546: 16519: 16401: 16320: 16300: 16250: 16105: 15821: 15769: 15458: 15441: 15431: 15152: 14864: 14750: 14444: 14346:

Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children

14075: 5753: 4353:, in which the maternal function of the breast becomes secondary to men's sexual pleasure. 4269:

of the opposition to FGM, and the failure to appreciate FGM's cultural context, serves to "

4258: 4031:

Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children

3639: 2665: 2501: 2426: 2233:

reported that, in Sudan in the 1970s, cut girls from an Arab ethnic group would mock uncut

2022: 1738: 1511: 1374: 1194:

Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children

1180: 757: 677: 31: 10571:

Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses

10480:

Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses

10445:

Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses

2835: 8: 17686: 17643: 17608: 17515: 17495: 16774: 16764: 16734: 16722: 16717: 16627: 16583: 16578: 16573: 16295: 16230: 16210: 16143: 16088: 16018: 15853: 15826: 15799: 15683: 15626: 15501: 15453: 15436: 15416: 15203: 15086: 15004: 14895: 14800: 14795: 14783: 14700: 14393: 14213: 13908: 13785: 13698:"Fresh progress toward the elimination of female genital mutilation and cutting in Egypt" 12697: 9682: 6893: 6733: 4839: 4350: 4313: 3325:

October: Cairo Family Planning Association holds seminar, "Bodily Mutilation of Females".

3129: 2866: 2669: 2642: 2561: 2142: 2101: 1824: 1332: 1171: 1127: 821: 804: 639: 17: 6831:, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people. 6414:

Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018).

4033:, founded in 1984 in Dakar, Senegal, called for an end to the practice, as did the UN's 3354:: British writer Scilla McLean writes report on FGM for Minority Rights Group in France. 2531:, citing the physician Philomenes. The procedure was performed in case the clitoris, or 431: 236: 18284: 18013: 17867: 17638: 17623: 16961: 16951: 16941: 16926: 16921: 16906: 16859: 16839: 16814: 16779: 16769: 16749: 16563: 16489: 16442: 16417: 16391: 16255: 16083: 15920: 15841: 15484: 15278: 15220: 15175: 15147: 14665: 13824:

WHO Guidelines on the Management of Health Complications from Female Genital Mutilation

13724:"67/146. Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations" 13707:

Global strategy to stop health-care providers from performing female genital mutilation

13497: 13462: 13437: 13353: 13298: 13273: 13244: 13207: 13137: 13092: 13047: 13012: 12955: 12909: 12874: 12856: 12839: 12826: 12774: 12720: 12681: 12644: 12636: 12607: 12591: 12554: 12503: 12449: 12429: 12416:

Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation".

12399: 12374: 12356: 12331: 12311: 12184: 12096: 12061: 12045: 12008: 11975: 11957: 11924: 11867: 11796: 11771: 11684: 11634: 11601: 11555: 11522: 11504: 11471: 11398: 11365: 11347: 11314: 11296: 11263: 11250: 11199: 11166: 11012: 10848: 10673:

Ethnic Patriotism and the East African Revival: A History of Dissent, c. 1935–1972

9475: 9374:

Jana Meredyth Talton, "Asylum for Genital-Mutilation Fugitives: Building a Precedent",

6505: 6472: 6448: 6415: 2749: 2552:, rose petals, date pits, or a "genital powder made from baked clay" might be applied. 2326: 2302: 2264: 2010: 1167: 1084: 863: 777: 747: 644: 634: 13659: 13425: 13332: 13315: 12291: 11230: 4867:

calls the Egyptian Doctors' Society opposition the "first known campaign" against FGM.

4266: 2834:("Shield of Young Girls"), the membership of which included Raheli Warigia (mother of 2744:(present-day Kenya) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century, when Dr. 2575: 2524: 1952: 18104: 18023: 17947: 17925: 17438: 17356: 17207: 17150: 17007: 16886: 16849: 16844: 16824: 16819: 16789: 16754: 16707: 16697: 16568: 16494: 16484: 16477: 16467: 16367: 16360: 16335: 16325: 16310: 16175: 16148: 15935: 15915: 15900: 15883: 15774: 15764: 15700: 15666: 15651: 15385: 15300: 15215: 15124: 14812: 14705: 14606: 14304: 13931: 13927: 13828: 13539: 13531: 13527: 13502: 13484: 13429: 13396: 13388: 13345: 13337: 13302: 13240: 13215: 13199: 13129: 13121: 13084: 13076: 13004: 12996: 12959: 12947: 12914: 12896: 12861: 12782: 12673: 12648: 12599: 12583: 12546: 12538: 12533: 12516: 12441: 12433: 12404: 12361: 12343: 12303: 12295: 12259: 12251: 12247: 12176: 12168: 12139: 12131: 12053: 12013: 11995: 11962: 11944: 11911: 11903: 11859: 11851: 11847: 11801: 11758: 11750: 11746: 11721: 11713: 11676: 11668: 11664: 11639: 11621: 11560: 11542: 11509: 11491: 11443: 11435: 11425: 11403: 11385: 11352: 11334: 11301: 11283: 11242: 11234: 11204: 11186: 11153: 11145: 11110: 11102: 11055: 11047: 11042: 11004: 10996: 10966: 10958: 10882: 10878: 10803: 10802:. New York: The Feminist Press at the City University of New York. pp. 118–120. 10753: 10742: 10740:(2011). "Researching and theorising sexualities in Africa". In Tamale, Sylvia (ed.). 10645: 10610: 10574: 10483: 10448: 10425: 10419: 10386: 10338: 10331: 10270: 10168: 10116: 10109: 10104: 10054: 9205: 9159: 7499: 7472: 6510: 6492: 6453: 6435: 5226: 4301: 4175:

country for the purpose of FGM. The first FGM conviction in the US was in 2006, when

4167: 2614: 2590: 2226: 1966: 1896: 1848: 1805: 1662: 1650: 1328: 1155: 1091: 912: 875: 816: 767: 735: 553: 549: 14208: 13779:, Innocenti Working Paper No. XXX, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008. 13441: 13357: 13096: 13072: 13051: 13016: 12685: 12611: 12558: 12188: 11871: 11688: 11016: 9507: 9094:"Judge rules that federal law banning female genital mutilation is unconstitutional" 8715: 7543:"From Heresy to Harm: Self-Castrators in the Civic Discourse of Late Tsarist Russia" 6776: 6216: 4354: 4210:

offered protection to FGM victims; the decision followed an asylum application from

3792: 3504: 3141: 2822:

There was some opposition from Kenyan women themselves. At the mission in Tumutumu,

1445:(the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans)". Type Ia involves removal of the 17666: 17433: 17428: 16971: 16966: 16876: 16804: 16799: 16759: 16712: 16687: 16632: 16526: 16422: 16355: 16240: 16205: 16125: 16045: 16013: 15974: 15947: 15910: 15846: 15816: 15752: 15747: 15725: 15705: 15646: 15631: 15479: 14695: 14452: 14238: 14228: 14223: 13946: 13903: 13523: 13492: 13474: 13421: 13378: 13327: 13294: 13265: 13236: 13194: 13189: 13177: 13162: 13141: 13113: 13068: 13037: 12988: 12939: 12904: 12886: 12851: 12818: 12766: 12712: 12665: 12628: 12575: 12528: 12495: 12453: 12425: 12394: 12386: 12351: 12315: 12287: 12243: 12160: 12121: 12086: 12065: 12037: 12003: 11987: 11952: 11936: 11895: 11843: 11791: 11783: 11742: 11705: 11660: 11629: 11613: 11550: 11534: 11499: 11483: 11393: 11377: 11342: 11326: 11291: 11275: 11254: 11226: 11194: 11178: 11135: 11092: 11037: 10988: 10948: 10874: 10870: 10707: 10378: 9906: 9195: 9149: 7462: 6500: 6484: 6443: 6427: 4479: 4457: 4335: 4262: 3995: 3982: 3958: 3217: 3086: 3075: 2904: 2871: 2752:

Mission (CSM) in Kikuyu. An important ethnic marker, the practice was known by the

2367:

their Muslim counterparts. The only Jewish group known to have practised it is the

2318: 1592: 1528: 1320: 1212: 1163: 1103: 956: 843: 672: 629: 572: 46: 16033: 13817:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013. 13718:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, February 2016. 13636:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013. 13178:"Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure" 11182: 7426:

https://www.mwnhelpline.co.uk//go_files/issue/968436-MWNU%20FGM%20leaflet_WEB..pdf

4372: 2907:, Church of Scotland missionary in Kenya, calls FGM "sexual mutilation of women." 18162: 18018: 17882: 17840: 17701: 17676: 17600: 17490: 17472: 17418: 17302: 17139: 16593: 16452: 16384: 16260: 16200: 16180: 16138: 16078: 16052: 16040: 15979: 15925: 15873: 15836: 15757: 15720: 15656: 15353: 14972: 14879: 14869: 14817: 14740: 14725: 14690: 14685: 14648: 14284: 14274: 14050: 13941: 12091: 12074: 12025: 11381: 10992: 10637: 10604: 10600: 10566: 10562: 10475: 10440: 10402:

The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church

10317: 10258: 10254: 10160: 10046: 9988: 9913: 9902: 9894: 9826: 9802: 9791: 9569: 9537: 9526: 9503: 9484: 9453: 9434: 9394: 9362: 9306: 9286: 9263: 9235: 9181: 9124: 9100: 9077: 9057: 9041: 8963: 8939: 8903: 8874: 8863: 8852: 8841: 8817: 8742: 8722: 8654: 8630: 8525: 8457: 7370: 7197: 6783: 6740: 6212: 6137: 5760: 5682: 4698: 4502: 4396: 4376: 4358: 4346: 4277: 4250: 4046: 3518:

The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church

2816: 2785:

that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years.

2626: 2593:"set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so". 2474: 2230: 2060: 1925: 1714: 1654: 1600: 1274: 1147: 907: 848: 597: 486: 17171: 13822: 13697: 13383: 13366: 12943: 12126: 12109: 11940: 11330: 11279: 11264:"Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted" 10382: 9887: 8867: 8736:"Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation" 6879: 6488: 3622: 3033:

UN asks the WHO to investigate FGM; WHO responds that it is not a medical issue.

2625:, believed that masturbation, or "unnatural irritation" of the clitoris, caused 2397:

of an uncircumcised girl and the flakes of skin of an uncircumcised bald man.

18427: 18205: 18032: 18008: 17952: 17830: 17825: 17815: 17803: 17681: 17465: 17336: 17282: 17107: 16946: 16396: 16245: 16057: 16008: 15858: 15742: 15343: 15108: 15042: 15032: 15014: 14874: 14857: 14832: 14773: 14658: 14596: 14581: 14299: 14269: 14203: 14055: 14035: 13777:"Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory" 13552: 13167: 13150: 13042: 13025: 12992: 12669: 11538: 10852: 10721:

From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era

10296: 10092: 9406: 9375: 8519:"Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'" 6175:. End FGM European Network, U.S. End FGM/C Network and Equality Now. March 2020 5968: 5129: 4796:, because there is no information about what constituted the circumcised state. 3733:"Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'" 3436: 3366: 3203: 3065: 2782: 2661: 2630: 2505: 2490: 2268: 2259: 2169: 2161: 2076: 1921: 1768: 1454: 1450: 1438: 1394: 1342:

The procedures are generally performed by a traditional circumciser (cutter or

1336: 1316: 1143: 1123: 1060: 880: 870: 826: 730: 567: 18214:

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

13809:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014. 13654:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014. 12770: 12499: 12390: 12164: 12041: 11991: 11709: 11487: 9519: 9496: 7467: 7450: 6431: 5127: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5113: 5111: 5109: 2095:

practise FGM at around the same rate as they do in Somalia. But in Guinea all

18391: 18243: 18157: 18118: 18094: 18003: 17887: 17820: 17691: 17595: 17556: 17413: 17248: 16330: 16290: 16285: 16195: 15991: 15863: 15671: 15295: 15268: 15027: 14915: 14807: 14638: 14586: 14474: 14417: 14309: 14253: 14198: 13920: 13535: 13488: 13479: 13392: 13341: 13203: 13125: 13080: 13000: 12951: 12900: 12587: 12542: 12437: 12347: 12299: 12255: 12172: 12135: 12108:

Horowitz, Carol R.; Jackson, J. Carey; Teklemariam, Mamae (19 January 1995).

11999: 11948: 11907: 11855: 11754: 11717: 11672: 11625: 11617: 11546: 11495: 11439: 11389: 11338: 11287: 11238: 11190: 11149: 11106: 11051: 11000: 10962: 10793: 10737: 9423: 8735: 8284: 7503: 7476: 6496: 6439: 5230: 4915: 4285: 4280:, herself strongly opposed to FGM, argued in 2005 that renaming the practice 4042: 4019: 3468: 3400: 2953: 2874:

criticized FGM in 1970, one of the first African feminists to do so publicly.

2767: 2753: 2732: 2714: 2653: 2419: 2313:(sayings attributed to Muhammad) as noble but not required. Islamic scholars 2198: 2181: 2105: 2092: 1856: 1793: 1446: 1442: 1220: 1056: 895: 706: 607: 602: 587: 383: 224: 13990: 12891: 12822: 12332:"Female genital mutilation/Female circumcision. Who is at risk in the U.S.?" 11787: 11523:"Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession" 8125:"Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960" 7936: 5578: 4548:

corresponds to Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type II (excision) combined. And

4253:

criticized the renaming of female circumcision to female genital mutilation.

2641:(1866), doctors in London accused him of quackery and expelled him from the 1649:

Common short-term complications include swelling, excessive bleeding, pain,

1449:

only. This is rarely performed alone. The more common procedure is Type Ib (

100:

Africa, Southeast Asia, Middle East, and within communities from these areas

18072: 18067: 17808: 17708: 17653: 17381: 17260: 17255: 16504: 16406: 16345: 16280: 16275: 16235: 16185: 15952: 15930: 15789: 15784: 15710: 15676: 15290: 15230: 15119: 15076: 15071: 15022: 14999: 14847: 14837: 14675: 14653: 14601: 14591: 14335: 14314: 14294: 14248: 14243: 14188: 14060: 14040: 13832: 13772: 13543: 13506: 13433: 13349: 13306: 13219: 13133: 13117: 13088: 13008: 12918: 12865: 12786: 12747: 12693: 12677: 12656:

Mandara, Mairo Usman (March 2004). "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria".

12603: 12550: 12445: 12408: 12307: 12263: 12180: 12057: 11966: 11899: 11863: 11805: 11725: 11643: 11447: 11407: 11356: 11305: 11246: 11208: 11157: 11140: 11123: 11097: 11080: 11059: 11008: 10970: 10953: 10936: 10518: 10224: 10212: 9442: 9209: 9200: 9154: 8615: 8611: 7492:"'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India" 6545:"'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India" 6514: 6457: 5106: 4905:

The Centers for Disease Control's previous estimate was 168,000 as of 1990.

4838:

Knight 2001 writes that there is one extant reference from antiquity, from

4757: 4735: 4714: 4694: 4596: 4464: 4440: 4413: 4211: 4115:, held every 6 February. UNICEF began in 2003 to promote an evidence-based 3969:(1980), which described her own clitoridectomy when she was six years old: 3904: 3900: 3529: 3362: 3191: 2933: 2808: 2804: 2792: 2776: 2570: 2545: 2422: 2234: 2217:

Keur Simbara, Senegal, abandoned FGM in 1998 after a three-year program by

2186: 2177: 2147: 2084: 2069: 2014: 1980: 1784: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1682: 1523: 1473: 1469: 1307: 1280: 1252: 1107: 1076: 1068: 1064: 858: 838: 831: 799: 667: 649: 419: 413: 194: 164: 38: 13880:

Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa

13400: 12365: 12143: 12017: 11915: 11762: 11680: 11564: 11513: 11418:

Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C)

11114: 9163: 3336:

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

2104:

people are the only ethnicity not known to practice FGM or participate in

1863:(painful sexual intercourse). One-third reported reduced sexual feelings. 18062: 17998: 17835: 17778: 17718: 17713: 17551: 17500: 17361: 15779: 15688: 15333: 15258: 15136: 15081: 14852: 14633: 14628: 14576: 14526: 14289: 14279: 14218: 14045: 13915: 11165:

Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016).

10798:; Mulokozi, Mugaybuso M.; Shitemi, Naomi L.; Yahya-Othman, Saida (eds.). 10795: 10691:

American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice

10352: 9820:"From Midwives to Doctors: Searching for 'Safer' Circumcisions in Egypt?" 7721: 7699: 4819: 4792:

Knight adds that Egyptologists are uncomfortable with the translation to

4435: 4384: 4362: 4297: 4183:

opposes all forms of the practice, including pricking the clitoral skin.

4176: 4120: 4086: Partial or subnational FGM criminalisation, or unclear legal status 4003: 3383: 3309: 3236: 3157: 2944:: Religious leaders and British women lead campaign against FGM in Sudan. 2598: 2470: 2406: 2368: 2336: 2173: 2157: 2151: 2096: 2065: 1860: 1764: 1746: 1742: 1690: 1686: 1666: 1231:("having your bath"). A common Arabic term for purification has the root 1185: 772: 617: 592: 545: 533: 50: 42: 17203: 14436: 13847:

FGM: Survivors narrate experiences dealing with absence of the clitoris.

13277: 13248: 5524: 4518:

For example, "a young woman must 'have her bath' before she has a baby."

1596:

are told they may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia.

1162:

referred to it as the sexual mutilation of women, following the lead of

17460: 17400: 17331: 16432: 16190: 15323: 15285: 15273: 15263: 15198: 15164: 13787:

Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation

13764:

Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change

12830: 12778: 12724: 12595: 12507: 12049: 10229:

Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan

9883: 9683:"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography" 9356:"France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer" 8844:, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia. New Zealand: 6894:"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography" 6653:"FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows" 6274: 3814: 3455:

Sisters in Affliction: Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa

2657: 2603: 2527:(mid-5th to mid-6th century CE), offered more detail in book 16 of his 2344: 2332: 2314: 1832: 1801: 1797: 1347: 973: 885: 519: 353: 212: 13211: 13151:"Female genital mutilation: A tragedy for women's reproductive health" 12640: 12100: 8846:"Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" 6793: 5450:, 42–44 and table 5, 181 (for cutters), 46 (for home and anaesthesia). 3668: 1269:, although none of the procedures are required within Islam. The term 17850: 17723: 17583: 17573: 17408: 17386: 17313: 16427: 16023: 14827: 14822: 14193: 9796:"Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable" 9795: 9458:

Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports

8973: 6473:"Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia" 4369:(cosmetic surgery) to remove what they see as excess genital tissue. 4317: 3286:, "Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children". 3248: 3231: 2656:, a gynaecologist in Dayton, Ohio, performed non-standard repairs of 1722: 1634: 1398: 917: 782: 725: 494: 359: 68: 12716: 12330:

Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, J.; Kieke, B.; Wilcox, L. (September 1997).

11079:

American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Bioethics (July 1998).

8946:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March–April 2016, 131. 7812: 4540:

UNICEF 2013: "These categories do not fully match the WHO typology.

4080: General criminal provision that might be used to prosecute FGM 2586: 1196:

began referring to it as female genital mutilation in 1990, and the

1071:

and closure of the vulva (type 3). In this last procedure, known as

968: 18233: 18050: 17964: 17942: 17862: 17763: 17671: 17578: 17505: 17423: 17243: 16472: 16265: 16133: 15878: 15408: 15224: 14710: 14670: 13553:"Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" 12632: 12579: 11312: 10322:

The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective

10247:

Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism

10006:"Should Surgeons Perform Irreversible Genital Surgery on Children?" 9071:"Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter" 7180:, 52. Also see figure 6.1, 54, and figures 8.1A – 8.1D, 90–91. 6112: 5974: 5548: 5514: 5512: 4444: 4293: 4270: 3978: 3283: 3071: 2922:

to take an oath against FGM; most leave to form their own churches.

2823: 2549: 2018: 1998: 1820: 1710: 1674: 1312: 1266: 701: 389: 314: 206: 158: 14495:

Children Act 1989 (Amendment) (Female Genital Mutilation) Act 2019

12515:

Klouman, Elise; Manongi, Rachel; Klepp, Knut-Inge (January 2005).

8716:"48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women" 7191:"Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal" 6262: 6048: 6046: 6044: 5219:"Dramatic rise in women and girls being cut, new FGM data reveals" 4246: 2415: 2358:

Christian sect in Europe practices FGM as part of redemption from

18152: 18123: 18099: 18081: 17877: 17857: 15641: 15235: 14680: 13973: 12873:

Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012).

10778:

Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya

10238:

Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community

9411:

Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery

9316: 8835:"Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" 8620:

Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide

6170:"Female genital mutilation/cutting: a call for a global response" 5754:"Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting" 4475:

International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation

4289: 4113:

International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation

4074: Specific criminal provision or national law prohibiting FGM 3909:

Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide

3602:

Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community

2486: 2372: 2355: 2285:

Khitan (circumcision) § Comparisons with female circumcision

2194: 1730: 1726: 1718: 1670: 1658: 1292: 853: 425: 395: 371: 248: 242: 218: 188: 146: 11923:

Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; Almroth, Lars (15 July 2006).

10934: 9182:

American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010).

8648:"A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women" 8430: 8428: 8021: 8019: 6920: 6187: 6031: 6029: 6027: 6018: 5509: 5133: 3396: 2500:

has shown no evidence of FGM. Citing the Australian pathologist

2208: 17990: 17872: 17696: 17618: 17277: 17272: 17267: 15250: 15187: 15052: 15037: 14730: 14720: 14355: 14065: 13961: 13643:

Eliminating Female genital mutilation: An Interagency Statement

12273:"Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" 11732: 11122:

American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (July 2010).

10866: 10862: 10769:

Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change

10546:

Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change

10530:

Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change

10097:

Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change

8327:"Kenyan girls taken to remote regions to undergo FGM in secret" 7942: 7922: 7829:"Female genital mutilation linked to Red Sea slave trade route" 7716: 7694: 7381: 7379: 6041: 5536: 5015: 4914:

The judge made his ruling during a case against members of the

4814: 4403: 3272: 2634: 2574:

undesired pregnancies". Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary

2512: 2322: 2309: 2255: 2218: 2088: 2002: 1928:, most of whom fell into the "cut, no flesh removed" category. 1872: 1706: 1553: 1257: 1080: 1044: 443: 365: 347: 308: 200: 152: 85: 13689:

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold?

13460: 13026:"Obstetric management of women with female genital mutilation" 11651:

Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation".

9563:"Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital" 9508:"Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005" 8877:, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. 6787: 5475: 5473: 5471: 17752: 17287: 17238: 15315: 14991: 11124:"Ritual genital cutting of female minors [withdrawn]" 8883:, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada. 8425: 8016: 7839: 7215: 7067: 6222: 6024: 5980: 5737: 5735: 5413: 4843: 2520: 2516: 2497: 2362:

and to remain chaste. Christian missionaries in Africa were

2298: 2080: 2026: 1924:

girls had been infibulated, compared with two percent of the

1605: 1549: 1288: 1284: 1265:

means "path or way" in Arabic and refers to the tradition of

1036: 467: 455: 437: 407: 401: 377: 302: 296: 278: 266: 260: 182: 176: 13726:, United Nations General Assembly, adopted 20 December 2012. 13256:

Silverman, Eric K. (2004). "Anthropology and Circumcision".

12372: 12222: 11024:

Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008).

9932:"US bill equates trans healthcare with 'genital mutilation'" 9864: 9118:"U.S. toughens ban on 'abhorrent' female genital mutilation" 8174: 7376: 6956: 6853:. 28TooMany, Registered Charity: No. 1150379. Archived from 6646: 6058: 5530: 5391: 5389: 4231:

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women

4227:

Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005

3487:

founded in Dakar, Senegal, calls for an end to the practice.

2693:

Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya

2185:

a child's sex by eliminating external traces of androgyny,"

2180:, who in 1992 underwent clitoridectomy as an adult during a 2083:(58 percent prevalence within age group 15–49, as of 2011), 1415: 17957: 15377: 14790: 13801:, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, October 2010. 12698:"Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" 11602:"Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?" 10555:

From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology

10357:

The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females

9333: 9331: 8285:

wa Kihurani, Warigia wa Johanna & Murigo wa Meshak 2007

7636: 6992: 5468: 4171: 4008:

The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females

3314:

The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females

2030: 2006: 1190:

The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females

1111: 461: 290: 284: 230: 170: 13985: 13672:, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016. 13410:"Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history" 12107: 10977: 9773: 9388:"Current situation of female genital mutilation in France" 8897:"Current situation of female genital mutilation in Sweden" 7776: 7227: 6980: 5992: 5845: 5732: 5702: 5629: 4566: 4037:

in Vienna in 1993. The conference listed FGM as a form of

3144:

calls FGM "the best kept secret in the world" in her book

2607:

described a clitoridectomy performed in 1822 in Berlin by

17768: 11026:"Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation" 10301:

Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences

9958:"'Gender Affirmation': The New Female Genital Mutilation" 9809:, 31(1), 1999, pp. 79–106 (hereafter Obermeyer 1999), 94. 9595: 9397:, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union. 9229:"Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" 8906:, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union. 8401: 8064:"Ohio Woman Still Scarred By 'Love' Doctor's Sex Surgery" 7737:

argues that Strabo conflated the Jews with the Egyptians.

7626: 7624: 7622: 7147: 7123: 6075: 6073: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5386: 5083: 5081: 5079: 3659:, University of Wisconsin Press, 2010, pp. 193, 195. 3441:

Woman, Why Do You Weep? Circumcision and its Consequences

3299:(BBSAWS) forms in Khartoum, aiming to fight FGM in Sudan. 2351:

Muslim community who practice it as a religious custom.

2331:(weak). FGM is regarded as an obligatory practice by the 1842: 1694: 1208:(FGM/C), preferred by those who work with practitioners. 1200:(WHO) followed suit in 1991. Other English terms include 18219:

Declaration on the elimination of violence against women

14331:

Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies

9328: 9300:"When will Canada take action for girls who endure FGM?" 7948: 7522: 7251: 6944: 6470: 5401: 4109:

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

4020:

Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies

3297:

Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies

2611:

on a 15-year-old girl who was masturbating excessively.

11922: 11215: 10821:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 54–86. 10139:. Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. 10133:

De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam

8535: 7313: 6932: 6118: 6085: 5799: 5797: 5554: 3843:

The International Crime of Female Genital Mutilation,"

3132:

calls it "female genital mutilation" in paper on Sudan.

1697:, although no epidemiological studies have shown this. 13869:"The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation" 13597:, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013. 13106:

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

12978: 12872: 10937:"Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" 10573:. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. 8547: 8186: 7880: 7788: 7764: 7752: 7740: 7676: 7619: 7451:"The Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in India" 6828: 6717: 6715: 6700: 6351: 6349: 6280: 6268: 6070: 5560: 5076: 3684:, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 146. 3194:

calls FGM "ritual mutilation of the female genitalia."

3002:

magazine editor Rabee' Gheith publish articles on FGM.

17909: 13662:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 31 January 2018. 12932:

Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde

12875:"An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria" 12329: 11164: 10333:

Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, Doping

10130:

Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008).

8979: 7430: 7407: 5297: 5295: 5185: 4855:

Knight adds that the attribution to Galen is suspect.

4443:." It has been argued that the genital alteration of 1468:(excision) is the complete or partial removal of the 27:

Ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva

15491:

Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)

13624:

Diop, Nafissatou J.; Moreau, Amadou; Benga, Hélène.

11415:

Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014).

10919:

Language and Translation in Postcolonial Literatures

10217:

Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan

9607: 9088: 9086: 8909: 8855:, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. Europe: 8725:, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993. 8559: 8483: 8413: 6834: 5794: 5747: 4257:

Anthropologists have accused FGM eradicationists of

3604:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 92, 103. 3534:

Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan

1472:, with or without removal of the clitoral glans and 1075:, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and 13790:, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005. 13767:, Annual report 2012, New York: UNFPA–UNICEF, 2012. 13669:

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern

13320:

International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics

13316:"Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?" 13314:Toubia, Nadia F.; Sharief, E. H. (September 2003). 12981:

International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics

12658:

International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics

12514: 12150: 10730:

The Making of Missionary Communities in East Africa

10532:. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from 10528:. In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). 10111:

The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present

9930:Cariboni, Diana; Bauer, Sydney (22 December 2022). 9745: 8389: 7822: 7820: 7559: 6968: 6814:(2012), UNICEF statistical profile, July 2014, 2/4. 6712: 6526: 6524: 6346: 6102: 6100: 6014: 5542: 4324: 2241:("Hey, unclean!"). The Zabarma girls would respond 13854:, The Kinsey Institute (bibliography 1960s–1980s). 11776:Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 10523:"Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" 10372: 10330: 10269:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 10108: 10053:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 9251: 9249: 6413: 6246: 5485: 5292: 4918:community in Michigan accused of carrying out FGM. 2798:was murdered in Kikuyu in 1930 after opposing FGM. 1901:United States Agency for International Development 1612:(holes that allow urine to seep into the vagina). 1599:A definition of FGM from the WHO in 1995 included 1251:. Communities may refer to FGM as "pharaonic" for 1035:) is the cutting or removal of some or all of the 17201: 13513: 13024:Rashid, Mumtaz; Rashid, Mohammed H (April 2007). 10830:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 10324:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 10087:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 9322: 9083: 8764: 8307:(131 for the girls as "central actors"); also in 7858: 7856: 7854: 6799: 6618: 6594: 6361: 6256: 6228: 6193: 5609: 5518: 5280: 4760:, 1996: "The Koran is silent on FGM, but several 2544:The genital area was then cleaned with a sponge, 2363: 2045: 1118:performing all forms of the procedure, including 18389: 13887:"Female circumcision and infibulation in Africa" 12270: 12198:"Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" 11827:Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). 11826: 11695: 10789:. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. 10609:. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9858: 9854: 9735: 9428:"Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" 9365:, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012. 8868:"18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" 8675: 8673: 8671: 8040:"Charges Against Doctor Bring Ire and Questions" 7817: 7657:, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). 6521: 6097: 6064: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5162: 5160: 5158: 4241: 3498: 3485:Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices 3275:calls on women's groups to mobilize against FGM. 2978:, bans infibulation; the law is barely enforced. 1733:opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue. 13058: 12840:"Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice" 12485: 12271:Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). 11167:"A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM" 10732:. New York: State University of New York Press. 10702:. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. 10267:Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives 10193: 10085:Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives 10051:Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives 9999:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 9246: 8006: 7449:Nanda, Anjani; Ramani, Vandanee (31 May 2022). 6153: 6035: 6010: 5986: 5902: 5900: 5863: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5066: 5064: 4422:FGM has been compared to other procedures that 4201:Female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom 4149:Act Prohibiting the Genital Mutilation of Women 3967:The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World 3825:, 5(4), Summer 1980 (pp. 807–809), p. 809. 3579:El Salam 1999, pp. 318–319; UNICEF 2013, p. 10. 2686: 2581: 1536:satisfactory or whether more is to be cut off. 13367:"Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue" 12879:Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research 12752:"Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" 11818:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 ( 11364:Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). 9004:"An Ancient Ritual and a Mother's Asylum Plea" 8892: 8890: 7851: 7009: 7007: 6570:"Q&A on what Female Genital Mutilation is" 6393:"Q&A on what Female Genital Mutilation is" 5177: 5175: 4161:Female genital mutilation in the United States 4143:Immigration spread the practice to Australia, 3985:raised the health consequences of FGM in 1977. 3894: 3575: 3573: 3382:July: African women boycott session featuring 2675: 2135: — Stephanie Welsh, Newhouse News Service 17187: 15393: 14958: 14542: 14020: 14006: 13551:Yoder, P. Stanley; Khan, Shane (March 2008). 13313: 11836:Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 11470:Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). 11414: 10727: 10159:Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). 10158: 9929: 8745:, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009. 8668: 8581: 8440: 8434: 8216: 8207:, 132; for the "sexual mutilation of women", 7101: 6219:, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF. 5998: 5939: 5766: 5763:, United Nations Population Fund, April 2010. 5458: 5456: 5319: 5263: 5155: 5149: 4261:, and have been criticized in turn for their 4208:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 3934: 3594: 2819:that the killer had tried to circumcise her. 2617:, an English gynaecologist, president of the 2354:There is no mention of FGM in the Bible. The 2209:Social obligation, poor access to information 1984:to be living with FGM in those 30 countries. 1755:are common because of the obstruction to the 993: 13679:Female Genital Mutilation: A Teachers' Guide 13226: 13023: 12925: 12618: 12521:Tropical Medicine & International Health 12418:Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 12415: 11469: 11023: 10828:The Language of Human Rights in West Germany 10819:Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood 10366:Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience 10337:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10240:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 10205:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion 9487:, legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives. 9463: 8451:"Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist" 8095:"Doctor Loses Practice Over Genital Surgery" 7807: 7805: 7803: 7654: 6962: 6157: 6106: 6052: 5897: 5665: 5583: 5479: 5419: 5197: 5061: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4997: 4643:Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 4404:Analogy to other genital-altering procedures 3682:The Language of Human Rights in West Germany 2936:murdered in Kenya during protests about FGM. 2735:dance-songs against church opposition to FGM 2295:Al-Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research 2281:Religious views on female genital mutilation 2164:chose to undergo clitoridectomy as an adult. 1174:, an American anthropologist, used the term 939:Sex offender registries in the United States 14516:Activists against female genital mutilation 14480:Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 13891:Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography 13827:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016. 13604:Classification of female genital mutilation 11363: 10780:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10359:. Lexington: Women's International Network. 10249:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 9831:The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy 9477:Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 9462:For an early article on FGM in the UK, see 9350: 9348: 9346: 9257:"Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status" 8928: 8926: 8924: 8887: 8062:Donaldson James, Susan (13 December 2012). 7490:Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018). 7448: 7004: 6149: 5172: 4219:Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 4127: 4006:, an Austrian-American feminist, published 3891:Wildenthal 2012, p.. 250, n.. 71. 3850: 3582: 3570: 3539: 3536:, Princeton University Press, 2007, p. 241. 2633:followed Brown's work and in 1862 slit the 2124:1996 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography 18270:International Center for Research on Women 17194: 17180: 16154:African-American women's suffrage movement 15400: 15386: 14965: 14951: 14556: 14549: 14535: 14013: 13999: 13757:, New York: UNFPA, UNICEF, September 2013. 13737:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998. 13682:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005. 13646:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008. 13607:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014. 12463:"Why Some Women Choose to Get Circumcised" 10825: 10706: 10557:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 10368:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 10263:Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?" 10129: 9779: 8473: 7401: 6882:. Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 6543:Cantera, Angel L Martínez (6 March 2018). 6295:, 47. For the years and country profiles: 5453: 5395: 4236: 3941: 3927: 3774:, Henry Holt & Co, 2012 , p. 324. 3705: 3703: 3561: 3548: 3510: 3388:Mid-Decade Conference on Women, Copenhagen 2998:: Egyptian journalist Amina al Sa'eed and 2865: 1557:girl's family, the procedure is repeated. 1453:), the complete or partial removal of the 1385:, in collaboration with the Department of 1000: 986: 30:"FGM" redirects here. For other uses, see 13696: 13550: 13496: 13478: 13382: 13331: 13255: 13193: 13166: 13103: 13041: 12908: 12890: 12855: 12532: 12398: 12355: 12237: 12125: 12090: 12024: 12007: 11956: 11885: 11795: 11770:Elduma, Adel Hussein (15 February 2018). 11633: 11554: 11503: 11397: 11346: 11295: 11198: 11139: 11096: 11041: 10952: 10697: 10316: 10295: 10253: 10231:. 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Adams Hillard ( 4191:procedure, so-called "vacation cutting". 4067:Female genital mutilation laws by country 3777: 3761:Wildenthal 2012, p. 250, n. 68. 3649: 3632: 3616: 3014:campaigns against FGM in their magazine, 2895:: Egyptian Doctors' Society call for ban. 2682:Female genital mutilation laws by country 2375:groups, particularly in Guinea and Mali. 1235:, used for male and female circumcision ( 16101:Discrimination against transgender women 13714: 11571: 11527:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 10834: 10800:Women Writing Africa: The Eastern Region 10670: 10599: 10561: 10552: 10508: 10441:"Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'" 10408: 10328: 10219:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 10115:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 9870: 9719: 9657: 9625: 9585: 9343: 8921: 8288: 8180: 8160: 8152: 8129:International Review of Scottish Studies 7982: 7954: 7862: 7528: 7413: 7330: 7328: 6697:, 28; for wealth, 40; for education, 41. 6355: 5703:Horowitz, Jackson & Teklemariam 1995 5087: 4371: 4245: 4061: 3977: 3885: 3872: 3725: 3687: 3520:, Cuvillier Verlag, 2009, p. 93, n. 631. 3395: 3070: 3060: 2787: 2721:And you will have to cook him his food. 2585: 2212: 2156: 1882: 1778: 1774: 1624: 1480:in French can refer to any form of FGM. 1306: 1215:, spoken mostly in Mali, it is known as 1188:called it mutilation in her influential 1138: 13632: 13270:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706 13175: 13148: 12655: 11973: 10718: 10675:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 10543: 10399: 10307: 10079: 9337: 8857:"Eliminating female genital mutilation" 8501: 8324: 8208: 8192: 7966: 7926: 7906: 7489: 6910: 6542: 6079: 5963: 5955: 5831: 5815: 5720: 5431: 5253: 4552:corresponds to Type III, infibulation." 4139:Prevalence of female genital mutilation 4107:included FGM in resolution 48/104, the 3859: 3828: 3807: 3786: 3772:Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions 3764: 3712: 3700: 3674: 3523: 3369:call it "female genital mutilation" in 3316:, the first to estimate global figures. 2852: 1938:Prevalence of female genital mutilation 1783:Materials used to teach communities in 1633:at the Walalah Biylooley refugee camp, 14: 18390: 13771: 13734:Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview 13407: 13364: 13284: 12808: 12746: 12692: 12565: 12460: 12210:from the original on 11 September 2017 12195: 11769: 11735:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 11653:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 11650: 11599: 11472:"Female genital mutilation in Britain" 10895:from the original on 30 September 2021 10858:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10816: 10784: 10775: 10766: 10736: 10688: 10682:Women in Islam: The Western Experience 10635: 10517: 10482:. 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It is also known in Arabic as 1206:female genital mutilation/cutting 1025:female genital mutilation/cutting 18418:Violence against women in Africa 18369: 18357: 18346: 18345: 17562:Assisted reproductive technology 17202: 17155: 17146: 17145: 17133: 16693:Democratic Republic of the Congo 16111:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 14927: 14926: 13972: 13960: 13528:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x 13448:from the original on 14 May 2013 13241:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x 12534:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x 12248:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00200.x 11848:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x 11747:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022 11665:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004 11600:Conroy, Ronán M (15 July 2006). 11043:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035 10879:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296 10310:Christianity and African Culture 9975: 9949: 9923: 9876: 9848: 9836: 9812: 9785: 9729: 9667: 9555: 9543: 9513: 9490: 9469: 9447:"Country Report: United Kingdom" 9416: 9400: 9381: 9368: 9292: 9273: 9130: 9110: 9064: 9027: 8985: 8949: 8827: 8788: 8776: 8748: 8728: 8709: 8697: 8685: 8640: 8605: 8596: 8587: 8571: 8511: 8377: 8349: 8318: 8294: 8278: 8250: 8226: 8198: 8134: 8117: 8087: 8031: 7992: 7960: 7916: 7892: 7710: 7703:, c. 25 BCE, cited in 7688: 7660: 7595: 7583: 7571: 7419: 7391: 7362:Michael, Maggie (29 June 2007). 7356: 7340: 7308:Mackie and LeJeune (UNICEF) 2008 7293: 7281: 7263: 7239: 7203: 7183: 7171: 7159: 7135: 7111: 7079: 7043: 7023: 6886: 6872: 6840: 6817: 6805: 6770: 6758: 6746: 6727: 6687: 6675: 6640: 6628: 6612: 6600: 6584: 6562: 6536: 6464: 6407: 6385: 6373: 6341:Mackie and LeJeune (UNICEF) 2008 5217:Kimeu, Caroline (8 March 2024). 5099:For the circumcisers and blade: 4942: 4930: 4921: 4908: 4899: 4889: 4879: 4870: 4858: 4849: 4832: 4808: 4799: 4786: 4776: 4767: 4751: 4741: 4729: 4720: 4708: 4688: 4678: 4668: 4325:Comparison with other procedures 4154: 4035:World Conference on Human Rights 3657:African Women Writing Resistance 1965: 1951: 1631:African Union Mission to Somalia 1615: 1569:), and closed again afterwards ( 1287:and as Sudanese circumcision in 967: 955: 493: 61: 17528:Breastfeeding and mental health 13878:Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989). 13794: 13783: 13686: 13666: 13590: 13182:Medical Anthropology Newsletter 13073:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009 12114:New England Journal of Medicine 12030:Culture, Health & Sexuality 10723:. 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In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). 10478:. In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). 10443:. In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). 10165:African Sexualities: A Reader 9981:Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, 9685:. The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. 8622:, New York: Zed Books, 2000, 7592:, cover page and p. 175. 7245: 6896:. The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. 5103:, 2, 44–46; for the ages: 50. 4485: 4305: 4242:Tolerance versus human rights 3867:African Sexualities: A Reader 3783:Wildenthal 2012, p. 145. 3251:writes about FGM in her book 2956:writes about FGM in his book 2473:of Sit-hedjhotep, now in the 2150:has compared the practice to 1990:Indonesian Ministry of Health 1931: 1620: 1379:Université libre de Bruxelles 1072: 18173:Gender disparities in health 17511:Mother-to-child transmission 17055:Suffragists and suffragettes 15407: 14758:Violence against prostitutes 14410:Possessing the Secret of Joy 13938:. New York: Delacorte Press. 13821: 13676: 13658: 13640: 13601: 12705:American Sociological Review 12092:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030 11572:J. F. C. (8 February 1873). 11382:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417 10993:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686 10698:Rodriguez, Sarah B. (2014). 9859:Essén & Johnsdotter 2004 9855:Johnsdotter & Essén 2010 9842: 9736:Johnsdotter & Essén 2010 9378:, January/February 1992, 17. 8794: 7117: 5918: 5906: 5879: 5726: 5714: 5694: 5671: 5625: 5274: 5166: 4976: 4955: 4562: 4383:Cosmetic procedures such as 4336:Labiaplasty § Criticism 4014:in Copenhagen in July 1980. 3160:begins writing about FGM in 2986:: Egyptian medical journal, 2687:Colonial opposition in Kenya 2582:Europe and the United States 2489:, from 163 BCE, in the 2409:, c. 1991–1786 BCE 2383: 1979:FGM is mostly found in what 1835:, perhaps because of a long 1700: 1681:(flesh-eating disease), and 1363: 1055:They include removal of the 753:Criminal transmission of HIV 7: 18408:Female genital modification 17786:Pelvic inflammatory disease 17729:Hormone replacement therapy 17293:Reproductive system disease 15362:Gynecologic ultrasonography 15092:Uterine artery embolization 14071:Pelvic inflammatory disease 13924:. New York: William Morrow. 13704: 13660:"Female genital mutilation" 13384:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106 13176:Sheehan, E. (August 1981). 12944:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166 12488:The Journal of Sex Research 12280:Reproductive Health Matters 12127:10.1056/nejm199501193320313 11980:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 11941:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55 11929:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 11790:(inactive 31 August 2024). 11331:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316 11280:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A 11081:"Female genital mutilation" 10981:Obstetrics & Gynecology 10671:Peterson, Derek R. (2012). 10383:10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_1 10245:Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). 9680:; for the photographs, see 9148:(1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. 9138:"Female Genital Mutilation" 7455:Journal of Student Research 6489:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684 6154:Reisel & Creighton 2015 6036:Reisel & Creighton 2015 6011:Reisel & Creighton 2015 5987:Reisel & Creighton 2015 5643:"Female genital mutilation" 5181: 4450: 4221:. This was replaced by the 4132: 3961:criticized FGM in her book 3804:el Salam 1999, p. 320. 3623:"Female genital mutilation" 3234:criticizes FGM in her book 2770:, general secretary of the 2740:Protestant missionaries in 2676:Opposition and legal status 2469:The spell was found on the 2429:to an uncircumcised girl (' 2274: 1501:Type IIIb (sexually active) 1483: 1391:Geneva University Hospitals 1178:in the title of a paper in 273:United Republic of Tanzania 116:Days after birth to puberty 10: 18444: 18280:Black Women's Health Study 17347:Complications of pregnancy 14975:female reproductive system 14184:Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla 13885:Westley, David M. (1999). 13516:Studies in Family Planning 13168:10.1016/j.afju.2013.03.002 13155:African Journal of Urology 13043:10.1576/toag.9.2.095.27310 12993:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003 12670:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001 12226:Studies in Family Planning 12196:Ismail, Edna Adan (2016). 11539:10.1177/014107689709000712 10424:. London: British Museum. 10413:. New York: Vintage Books. 9888:"Hands Off Clitoridectomy" 9529:, legislation.gov.uk, and 9289:. Criminal Code of Canada. 8734:Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs, 7580:, p. 73, figure 6.13. 4619:over eight million women." 4424:modify the human genitalia 4407: 4333: 4198: 4158: 4136: 4111:, and from 2003 sponsored 4092: FGM not criminalised 3451:Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla 3417:March: English researcher 3128:American social scientist 3119:International Women's Year 2772:Kikuyu Central Association 2690: 2679: 2621:and co-founder in 1845 of 2436: 2378: 2278: 2111: 2068:cut around age 10 and the 1935: 1582: 1460: 1302: 1090:The practice is rooted in 1048: 962:Human sexuality portal 583:Deviant sexual intercourse 36: 29: 18403:Female genital mutilation 18341: 18298: 18257:Women's Health Initiative 18242: 18204: 18195: 18144: 18110:Major depressive disorder 17978: 17938:Intimate partner violence 17900: 17799:Female genital mutilation 17794: 17743: 17652: 17594: 17540: 17486: 17399: 17312: 17301: 17227: 17214: 17127: 17067: 17006: 16999: 16678: 16383: 16130:Female genital mutilation 16069: 16002: 15899: 15619: 15608: 15535:Majority-Muslim countries 15500: 15467: 15424: 15415: 15352: 15329:Female genital mutilation 15314: 15249: 15184: 15161: 15133: 15105: 15060: 15051: 15013: 14990: 14981: 14924: 14888: 14766: 14644:Female genital mutilation 14564: 14511:Female genital mutilation 14503: 14467: 14428: 14385: 14378: 14323: 14262: 14234:Lilian Passmore Sanderson 14174: 14167: 14089: 14028: 14022:Female genital mutilation 13979:Female genital mutilation 13967:Female genital mutilation 12771:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135 12500:10.1080/00224498909551521 12391:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549 12165:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5 12042:10.1080/13691050500262953 11992:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1592 11710:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002 11577:Medical Times and Gazette 11521:Black, John (July 1997). 11488:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590 11171:Journal of Medical Ethics 11078: 10835:Wensinck, A. J. (2012) . 10826:Wildenthal, Lora (2012). 10689:Robert, Dana Lee (1996). 10680:Roald, Ann-Sofie (2003). 9907:"Double Moral Standards?" 9439:City University of London 8773:, "Executive Summary", 4. 8582:Bagnol & Mariano 2011 8456:26 September 2015 at the 8435:Bagnol & Mariano 2011 8217:Strayer & Murray 1978 7468:10.47611/jsrhs.v11i2.3285 7369:20 September 2017 at the 7273:. Tostan. February 2017. 7246:Diop et al. (UNICEF) 2008 7102:Bagnol & Mariano 2011 6739:28 September 2018 at the 6432:10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81 6299:, UNICEF, December 2013; 5999:Berg & Underland 2014 5940:Bagnol & Mariano 2011 5577:14 (Suppl 1), 96 (2017). 5150:Toubia & Sharief 2003 4282:female genital mutilation 4194: 3567:Boddy 2007, pp. 202, 299. 3558:, Springer, 1999, p. 318. 3419:Lilian Passmore Sanderson 2960:("What is Renaissance?"). 2920:require Kikuyu Christians 2660:after childbirth, adding 2619:Medical Society of London 2609:Karl Ferdinand von Graefe 2529:Sixteen Books on Medicine 2301:. It is praised in a few 1899:and funded mainly by the 1429: 1198:World Health Organization 1176:female genital mutilation 1039:for non-medical reasons. 1013:Female genital mutilation 926:Sex offender registration 763:Female genital mutilation 343: 339: 332: 328: 142: 138: 131: 127: 120: 112: 104: 96: 76: 60: 17846:Gynaecological disorders 17662:Culture and menstruation 17629:Contraceptive prevalence 17521:Compulsory sterilization 17102:Women's studies journals 17060:Women's rights activists 15611:Movements and ideologies 14736:Islamic religious police 14716:Murder of pregnant women 13480:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809 11618:10.1136/bmj.333.7559.106 10719:Shorter, Edward (2008). 10511:African Christian Ethics 10409:Kenyatta, Jomo (1962) . 9920:, October/November 1996. 9536:8 September 2013 at the 9464:Black & Debelle 1995 9076:2 September 2017 at the 8997:Saint Mary's Law Journal 8938:21 December 2017 at the 8851:23 November 2011 at the 8741:13 February 2010 at the 8215:, n. 631. Also see 7271:"Female Genital Cutting" 6420:Annals of Saudi Medicine 6307:, UNICEF, December 2013. 6158:Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 6107:Rashid & Rashid 2007 6053:Kelly & Hillard 2005 5681:8 September 2017 at the 5480:Kelly & Hillard 2005 5420:Kouba & Muasher 1985 4490: 4432:gender-affirming surgery 4418:Gender-affirming surgery 4166:to Nigeria, and in 1996 4128:Non-practising countries 3589:Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf 3545:Boddy 2007, pp. 269–270. 2635:neck of a woman's uterus 2059:FGM is not invariably a 1994:Indonesian Ulema Council 1817:urinary tract infections 1410: 1295:, it is known simply as 1160:Kenya Missionary Council 450:Central African Republic 255:Central African Republic 67:Anti-FGM road sign near 37:Not to be confused with 18129:Urinary tract infection 17921:Abuse during childbirth 16645:International relations 15339:Clitoral hood reduction 15306:Vaginal transplantation 14746:Kano State Hisbah Corps 14572:Abuse during childbirth 14402:Woman, Why Do You Weep? 13628:, UNICEF, January 2008. 13591:Cappa, Claudia, et al. 13229:American Anthropologist 12892:10.4103/2141-9248.96942 12838:Nour, Nawal M. (2008). 12823:10.1163/157006676X00075 11788:10.3889/oamjms.2018.099 11030:Fertility and Sterility 10785:Thomas, Robert (1813). 10400:Karanja, James (2009). 10308:Fiedler, Klaus (1996). 10038:Books and book chapters 9568:6 February 2018 at the 9552:, 6, paras 36, 37. 9393:7 February 2016 at the 9305:2 December 2020 at the 9234:18 January 2018 at the 8962:31 January 2018 at the 8721:2 February 2006 at the 6211:16 October 2014 at the 6150:Berg & Denison 2013 4569:, refers to Type 1a as 4546:Cut, some flesh removed 4389:clitoral hood reduction 4267:biological reductionism 4237:Criticism of opposition 3856:Boyle 2002, p. 47. 3600:Elizabeth Heger Boyle, 3259:Speak out Black Sisters 3254:La Parole aux Négresses 3107:The Naked Face of Women 2567:concubines (sex slaves) 2477:, and dates to Egypt's 2343:is prevalent among the 1827:, as well as a need to 1653:, and healing problems/ 1423:Standard questionnaires 1279:, Latin for clasp; the 1184:, and four years later 18413:Violence against women 18046:Cardiovascular disease 17634:Contraceptive security 17567:In vitro fertilization 17478:Postpartum confinement 17352:Hyperemesis gravidarum 17075:Conservative feminisms 16373:Women in the workforce 16341:Violence against women 16316:Sexual objectification 16276:Opposition to feminism 15475:Bicycling and feminism 14558:Violence against women 14361:Tahirih Justice Center 14239:Marion Scott Stevenson 14159:Religious views on FGM 13977:Quotations related to 13882:. New York: Routledge. 13852:"Circumcision, female" 13584:United Nations reports 12621:African Studies Review 11141:10.1542/peds.2010-1568 11098:10.1542/peds.102.1.153 10954:10.4414/smw.2011.13137 10921:. New York: Routledge. 10712:The Hidden Face of Eve 10636:Nzegwu, Nkiru (2011). 10606:Sex and Social Justice 10474:Korieh, Chima (2005). 10418:Kenyon, F. G. (1893). 10198:. New York: Routledge. 9483:1 January 2017 at the 9433:15 August 2015 at the 9422:Alison Macfarlane and 9361:1 January 2017 at the 9262:13 August 2017 at the 9201:10.1542/peds.2010-0187 9155:10.1542/peds.102.1.153 9123:8 January 2021 at the 9099:20 August 2020 at the 8816:1 January 2017 at the 8524:1 January 2017 at the 7402:Asmani & Abdi 2008 7373:, Associated Press, 2. 6019:Abdulcadir et al. 2011 5759:4 January 2015 at the 5676:Box 1.1 "Types of FGM" 5630:Abdulcadir et al. 2016 5396:Asmani & Abdi 2008 5134:Abdulcadir et al. 2011 4567:Abdulcadir et al. 2016 4507:Sex and Social Justice 4380: 4254: 4103:In December 1993, the 4100: 4039:violence against women 3986: 3976: 3878:Abdalla 2007, p. 3403: 3078: 3068: 3012:Sudanese Women's Union 2976:Anglo-Egyptian control 2918:Scottish missionaries 2905:Marion Scott Stevenson 2828:Marion Scott Stevenson 2799: 2724: 2711:Elders (of the church) 2594: 2542: 2399: 2222: 2165: 2132: 1888: 1837:second stage of labour 1788: 1638: 1610:vesicovaginal fistulae 1580: 1546: 1506: 1419: 1408: 1383:Université de Montréal 1339: 1223:in eastern Nigeria as 1202:female genital cutting 1164:Marion Scott Stevenson 1151: 1098:, attempts to control 1063:(1-b); removal of the 1021:female genital cutting 691:varies by jurisdiction 18168:Healthcare inequality 17970:Gender discrimination 17774:Human papilloma virus 17449:Vesicovaginal fistula 17115:Women in peacekeeping 16655:Revisionist mythology 16094:Children's literature 15367:Hysterosalpingography 14984:Gynecological surgery 14779:Campus sexual assault 14097:Prevalence by country 14081:Vesicovaginal fistula 12494:(3): (375–392), 380. 12336:Public Health Reports 12325:on 21 September 2013. 12110:"Female Circumcision" 11274:(7608): 1335.2–1335. 10776:Thomas, Lynn (2003). 10439:Kirby, Vicky (2005). 10364:Hyam, Ronald (1990). 9912:8 August 2014 at the 9893:8 August 2014 at the 9801:9 August 2020 at the 9510:, legislation.gov.uk. 9452:19 March 2017 at the 8944:Public Health Reports 8902:19 March 2017 at the 8873:3 August 2014 at the 8862:8 August 2014 at the 8661:, 15 September 2004; 8629:1 August 2020 at the 8542:Yoder & Khan 2008 7196:11 March 2017 at the 6848:"FMG in Sierra Leone" 6303:, UNICEF, July 2013; 5742:Yoder & Khan 2008 4542:Cut, no flesh removed 4461:(a short film on FGM) 4408:Further information: 4375: 4249: 4199:Further information: 4159:Further information: 4137:Further information: 4117:social norms approach 4065: 3981: 3971: 3847:magazine, March 1980. 3399: 3074: 3064: 2791: 2777:conditio sine qua non 2702: 2691:Further information: 2680:Further information: 2589: 2537: 2511:The Greek geographer 2391: 2279:Further information: 2216: 2160: 2126: 1936:Further information: 1886: 1804:damage and emergency 1782: 1775:Pregnancy, childbirth 1739:rectovaginal fistulae 1679:necrotizing fasciitis 1628: 1575: 1533: 1491: 1418: 1403: 1310: 1142: 1110:, the development of 934:Sex offender registry 18275:Nurses' Health Study 18183:Reproductive justice 18134:Urinary incontinence 17754:Sexually transmitted 17609:Intrauterine devices 17454:Rectovaginal fistula 17444:Obstetrical fistulae 17372:Gestational diabetes 17367:Obstetrical bleeding 17342:Adolescent pregnancy 17327:Gravidity and parity 17322:Unintended pregnancy 16557:Pathways perspective 16402:Gender mainstreaming 16321:Substantive equality 16301:Reproductive justice 16251:Matriarchal religion 16106:Diversity (politics) 15153:Endometrial ablation 14865:Cybersex trafficking 14767:Sexual assault, rape 14751:Polisi Syariat Islam 14076:Rectovaginal fistula 13969:at Wikimedia Commons 13912:. London: Zed Books. 13118:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044 12079:American Ethnologist 11900:10.1093/ije/12.2.138 11698:Dermatologic Clinics 10941:Swiss Medical Weekly 10714:. London: Zed Books. 10684:. London: Routledge. 10303:. London: Zed Books. 9833:, 25 September 2014. 9825:30 July 2017 at the 9525:14 July 2017 at the 9502:14 July 2017 at the 9056:4 March 2017 at the 9040:21 June 2020 at the 8840:5 March 2016 at the 8007:Barker-Benfield 1999 7943:Elchalal et al. 1997 7923:Elchalal et al. 1997 7347:UNICEF press release 6782:5 April 2015 at the 6331:, UNICEF, July 2014. 5864:Lightfoot-Klein 1989 4630:Swiss Medical Weekly 4628:Jasmine Abdulcadir ( 4259:cultural colonialism 3992:American Ethnologist 3709:Thomas 2000, p. 130. 2882:1920s–1980s timeline 2853:Growth of opposition 2666:pubococcygeus muscle 2502:Grafton Elliot Smith 2416:Meroite civilization 2023:United Arab Emirates 1895:(DHS), developed by 1847:According to a 2015 1825:excessive blood loss 1727:pain while urinating 1512:Swiss Medical Weekly 1375:University of Geneva 1181:American Ethnologist 1150:plateau, Kenya, 2004 903:UK Section 63 (2008) 758:Cybersex trafficking 32:FGM (disambiguation) 18188:Women's empowerment 18056:Alzheimer's disease 17687:Cloth menstrual pad 17644:Fertility awareness 17614:Oral contraceptives 17496:Perinatal mortality 17140:Feminism portal 17020:Ecofeminist authors 16870:Trinidad and Tobago 16810:Republic of Ireland 16670:Composition studies 16351:Women's empowerment 16306:Sex workers' rights 16231:Feminist capitalism 16211:Internalized sexism 16144:Feminism in culture 16024:Kurdish (Jineology) 15204:Cervical conization 15087:Pelvic exenteration 15005:Salpingoophorectomy 14896:Istanbul Convention 14784:Mass sexual assault 14701:Forced prostitution 14490:2005 (Scotland) Act 14394:Woman at Point Zero 14214:Rose Oldfield Hayes 13909:Woman at Point Zero 13755:"Executive Summary" 13420:(9567): 1069–1070. 11986:(6994): 1592–1593. 11482:(6994): 1590–1592. 11225:(9525): 1835–1841. 11091:(1 Pt 1): 153–156. 10912:. New York: Rodopi. 10539:on 29 October 2013. 9987:17 May 2017 at the 9445:, 21 July 2014, 3. 9105:The Washington Post 8824:, 19 December 2012. 8653:31 May 2015 at the 7727:Book VII, chapter 2 7541:Engelstein, Laura. 6860:on 22 December 2021 6647:Kandala et al. 2018 5531:Jackson et al. 2003 4826:Book XVI, chapter 4 4330:Cosmetic procedures 4314:false consciousness 4119:, using ideas from 3731:Alexandra Topping, 3669:Oldfield Hayes 1975 3271:: UN conference in 3130:Rose Oldfield Hayes 3091:Al-Mar'a wa Al-Jins 2815:, told the British 2742:British East Africa 2670:missionary position 2643:Obstetrical Society 2623:St. Mary's Hospital 2562:Red Sea slave trade 2556:Red Sea slave trade 2517:Philo of Alexandria 2496:The examination of 2143:Rose Oldfield Hayes 2129:Kenyan FGM ceremony 2025:, India, and among 1897:Macro International 1387:Reproductive Health 1172:Rose Oldfield Hayes 1128:cultural relativism 1033:female circumcision 640:Reproductive rights 515:Reproductive rights 18285:Cartwright Inquiry 18196:Politics, research 18014:Endometrial cancer 17868:Sexual intercourse 17639:Planned parenthood 17624:Male contraceptive 16515:Literary criticism 16392:Complementarianism 16116:Effects on society 16084:Complementarianism 15891:Women's liberation 15221:Cervical screening 15176:Uterine myomectomy 15148:Endometrial biopsy 14666:Female infanticide 14366:Zero Tolerance Day 13932:Miller-Muro, Layli 13928:Kassindja, Fauziya 13560:DHS Working Papers 13287:Gender and History 10873:. pp. 20–22. 10411:Facing Mount Kenya 10105:Allen, Peter Lewis 10081:Abdalla, Raqiya D. 9818:Sara Abdel Rahim, 9576:, 4 February 2015. 9311:The Globe and Mail 9285:2 May 2019 at the 9268:The New York Times 9240:The New York Times 9180:Withdrawn policy: 9046:The New York Times 9008:The New York Times 8968:The New York Times 8822:The New York Times 8659:The New York Times 8099:The New York Times 8044:The New York Times 7510:on 8 December 2023 6827:, 35–36; Nigeria: 6136:2 May 2019 at the 4381: 4351:breast enhancement 4255: 4101: 4002:. Two years later 3987: 3613:Boyle 2002, p. 41. 3404: 3247:Senegalese writer 3089:criticizes FGM in 3079: 3069: 2800: 2750:Church of Scotland 2709:The time has come. 2595: 2265:Malicounda Bambara 2223: 2166: 2117:Support from women 1889: 1812:Neonatal mortality 1789: 1639: 1496:Type IIIb (virgin) 1420: 1340: 1168:Church of Scotland 1152: 748:Child prostitution 714:Anti-miscegenation 645:Right to sexuality 635:Red-light district 578:Pedophile advocacy 538:Conversion therapy 528:Capital punishment 18385: 18384: 18265: 18264: 18090: 18089: 18041: 18040: 18024:Papanicolaou test 17980:Non-communicable 17948:Sexual harassment 17926:Domestic violence 17896: 17895: 17739: 17738: 17536: 17535: 17439:Retained placenta 17357:Ectopic pregnancy 17169: 17168: 17123: 17122: 16532:Political ecology 16438:Écriture féminine 16336:Triple oppression 16326:Toxic masculinity 16311:Sexual harassment 16171:Feminist stripper 16149:Feminist movement 16065: 16064: 16003:Ethnic and racial 15604: 15603: 15375: 15374: 15301:Vaginal wet mount 15245: 15244: 15216:Cervical cerclage 15125:Vacuum aspiration 14940: 14939: 14706:Human trafficking 14607:Domestic violence 14524: 14523: 14475:Matter of Kasinga 14463: 14462: 14374: 14373: 14305:Layli Miller-Muro 14107:FGM in the Gambia 13965:Media related to 13904:El Saadawi, Nawal 13775:; LeJeune, John. 13467:BMC Public Health 12696:(December 1996). 12379:BMJ Global Health 11881:on 14 April 2013. 11612:(7559): 106–107. 11431:978-82-8121-856-7 10888:978-90-04-07819-2 10845:van Donzel, E. J. 10809:978-1-55861-534-2 10759:978-0-85749-016-2 10708:El Saadawi, Nawal 10651:978-0-85749-016-2 10616:978-0-19-535501-7 10580:978-0-89789-864-5 10489:978-0-89789-864-5 10454:978-0-89789-864-5 10431:978-0-7141-0486-7 10392:978-1-4471-2857-1 10344:978-0-520-22151-2 10276:978-0-8122-0102-4 10174:978-0-85749-016-2 10122:978-0-226-01460-9 10060:978-0-8122-0102-4 8980:Jones et al. 1997 8785:, Volume 1, viii. 6963:Shell-Duncan 2008 6788:Yasin et al. 2013 6693:For rural areas, 6255:, 47, table 5.2; 6119:Banks et al. 2006 5946:(272 for Uganda). 5198:Shell-Duncan 2008 5186:Askew et al. 2016 4441:male circumcision 4302:levirate marriage 3951: 3950: 3817:The Hosken Report 3680:Lora Wildenthal, 3627:New International 2836:Gakaara wa Wanjaũ 2813:governor of Kenya 2764:) were outcasts. 2615:Isaac Baker Brown 2601:in 1813. In 1825 2591:Isaac Baker Brown 2466: 2465: 2462: 2461: 2227:social convention 2199:Vicks menthol rub 2087:(54 percent) and 2040:BMJ Global Health 1879:Household surveys 1871:According to the 1849:systematic review 1806:caesarean section 1713:and obstruction, 1663:urinary infection 1395:social scientists 1337:urethral openings 1325:corpora cavernosa 1156:male circumcision 1096:religious beliefs 1092:gender inequality 1049:one or more types 1019:) (also known as 1010: 1009: 876:Sexual harassment 768:Forcible touching 736:Child pornography 686:Specific offences 658:Decriminalization 550:Same-sex marriage 542:Decriminalization 481: 480: 477: 476: 324: 323: 16:(Redirected from 18435: 18373: 18372: 18361: 18360: 18349: 18348: 18202: 18201: 17987: 17986: 17907: 17906: 17901:Non-reproductive 17750: 17749: 17667:Feminine hygiene 17434:Cesarian section 17429:Obstructed labor 17310: 17309: 17225: 17224: 17206: 17196: 17189: 17182: 17173: 17172: 17159: 17158: 17149: 17148: 17138: 17137: 17136: 17004: 17003: 16987:History of women 16463:Political theory 16363: 16356:Women-only space 16241:Likeability trap 16206:Invisible labour 16126:Female education 15617: 15616: 15612: 15572:African-American 15502:Women's suffrage 15493: 15480:Feminist history 15422: 15421: 15402: 15395: 15388: 15379: 15378: 15192: 15169: 15141: 15113: 15065: 15058: 15057: 14967: 14960: 14953: 14944: 14943: 14930: 14929: 14696:Forced pregnancy 14551: 14544: 14537: 14528: 14527: 14453:My Body My Rules 14383: 14382: 14229:Nawal El Saadawi 14224:Edna Adan Ismail 14172: 14171: 14015: 14008: 14001: 13992: 13991: 13976: 13964: 13947:Infidel: My Life 13942:Ali, Ayaan Hirsi 13898:Personal stories 13835: 13818: 13810: 13802: 13791: 13780: 13768: 13758: 13738: 13727: 13719: 13711: 13701: 13693: 13683: 13673: 13663: 13655: 13647: 13637: 13629: 13620: 13608: 13598: 13578: 13576: 13574: 13568: 13557: 13547: 13510: 13500: 13482: 13457: 13455: 13453: 13404: 13386: 13361: 13335: 13310: 13281: 13252: 13223: 13197: 13172: 13170: 13145: 13100: 13055: 13045: 13020: 12975: 12973: 12971: 12962:. Archived from 12928:"The 'm't-Woman" 12922: 12912: 12894: 12869: 12859: 12834: 12805: 12803: 12801: 12795: 12756: 12743: 12741: 12739: 12733: 12702: 12689: 12652: 12615: 12562: 12536: 12511: 12482: 12480: 12478: 12457: 12412: 12402: 12369: 12359: 12326: 12324: 12318:. Archived from 12277: 12267: 12241: 12219: 12217: 12215: 12209: 12202: 12192: 12159:(6): 1137–1149. 12147: 12129: 12104: 12094: 12069: 12026:Gruenbaum, Ellen 12021: 12011: 11970: 11960: 11919: 11882: 11880: 11874:. Archived from 11833: 11823: 11817: 11809: 11799: 11766: 11729: 11692: 11647: 11637: 11596: 11594: 11592: 11568: 11558: 11517: 11507: 11466: 11464: 11462: 11456: 11423: 11411: 11401: 11360: 11350: 11309: 11299: 11258: 11212: 11202: 11161: 11143: 11118: 11100: 11075: 11073: 11071: 11045: 11020: 10974: 10956: 10928:Journal articles 10922: 10913: 10904: 10902: 10900: 10871:Brill Publishers 10849:Heinrichs, W. P. 10831: 10822: 10813: 10790: 10781: 10772: 10763: 10747: 10733: 10724: 10715: 10703: 10694: 10685: 10676: 10667: 10665: 10663: 10632: 10630: 10628: 10601:Nussbaum, Martha 10596: 10594: 10592: 10563:Nnaemeka, Obioma 10558: 10549: 10540: 10538: 10527: 10514: 10505: 10503: 10501: 10470: 10468: 10466: 10435: 10414: 10405: 10396: 10369: 10360: 10348: 10336: 10325: 10318:Gruenbaum, Ellen 10313: 10312:. Leiden: Brill. 10304: 10292: 10290: 10288: 10255:El Guindi, Fadwa 10250: 10241: 10232: 10220: 10208: 10199: 10190: 10188: 10186: 10155: 10153: 10151: 10145: 10138: 10126: 10114: 10100: 10088: 10076: 10074: 10072: 10027: 10025: 10023: 10021: 9996: 9993: 9979: 9973: 9972: 9970: 9968: 9953: 9947: 9946: 9944: 9942: 9927: 9921: 9880: 9874: 9868: 9862: 9852: 9846: 9840: 9834: 9816: 9810: 9792:Obermeyer, Carla 9789: 9783: 9777: 9771: 9761: 9755: 9749: 9743: 9733: 9727: 9717: 9711: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9671: 9665: 9655: 9649: 9639: 9633: 9623: 9617: 9611: 9605: 9599: 9593: 9583: 9577: 9561:Sandra Laville, 9559: 9553: 9550:CEDAW, July 2013 9547: 9541: 9517: 9511: 9494: 9488: 9473: 9467: 9420: 9414: 9404: 9398: 9385: 9379: 9372: 9366: 9352: 9341: 9335: 9326: 9320: 9314: 9296: 9290: 9277: 9271: 9253: 9244: 9225: 9223: 9221: 9203: 9194:(5): 1088–1093. 9179: 9177: 9175: 9157: 9134: 9128: 9114: 9108: 9090: 9081: 9068: 9062: 9031: 9025: 9023: 9021: 9019: 8989: 8983: 8977: 8971: 8953: 8947: 8930: 8919: 8913: 8907: 8894: 8885: 8831: 8825: 8804: 8798: 8792: 8786: 8780: 8774: 8768: 8762: 8752: 8746: 8732: 8726: 8713: 8707: 8701: 8695: 8689: 8683: 8677: 8666: 8644: 8638: 8609: 8603: 8602:Ahmed 2007, 180. 8600: 8594: 8591: 8585: 8575: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8551: 8545: 8539: 8533: 8515: 8509: 8499: 8493: 8487: 8481: 8471: 8465: 8444: 8438: 8432: 8423: 8417: 8411: 8405: 8399: 8393: 8387: 8381: 8375: 8365: 8359: 8353: 8347: 8346: 8344: 8342: 8322: 8316: 8298: 8292: 8282: 8276: 8254: 8248: 8230: 8224: 8202: 8196: 8190: 8184: 8178: 8172: 8163:, 127. Also see 8138: 8132: 8123:Kenneth Mufuka, 8121: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8110: 8091: 8085: 8083: 8081: 8079: 8059: 8057: 8055: 8035: 8029: 8023: 8014: 7996: 7990: 7980: 7974: 7964: 7958: 7952: 7946: 7940: 7934: 7920: 7914: 7896: 7890: 7884: 7878: 7860: 7849: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7824: 7815: 7809: 7798: 7792: 7786: 7780: 7774: 7768: 7762: 7756: 7750: 7744: 7738: 7714: 7708: 7692: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7664: 7658: 7652: 7646: 7640: 7634: 7628: 7617: 7599: 7593: 7587: 7581: 7575: 7569: 7563: 7557: 7556: 7554: 7552: 7547: 7538: 7532: 7526: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7515: 7506:. Archived from 7487: 7481: 7480: 7470: 7446: 7440: 7434: 7428: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7395: 7389: 7383: 7374: 7360: 7354: 7344: 7338: 7332: 7323: 7317: 7311: 7297: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7278: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7237: 7231: 7225: 7219: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7169: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7145: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7121: 7115: 7109: 7099: 7093: 7083: 7077: 7071: 7065: 7047: 7041: 7027: 7021: 7011: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6924: 6918: 6908: 6902: 6901: 6890: 6884: 6883: 6876: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6859: 6852: 6844: 6838: 6832: 6821: 6815: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6774: 6768: 6762: 6756: 6750: 6744: 6731: 6725: 6719: 6710: 6704: 6698: 6691: 6685: 6679: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6668: 6644: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6616: 6610: 6604: 6598: 6588: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6577: 6566: 6560: 6559: 6557: 6555: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6519: 6518: 6508: 6468: 6462: 6461: 6451: 6411: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6389: 6383: 6377: 6371: 6365: 6359: 6358:, February 2016. 6356:UNICEF Indonesia 6353: 6344: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6290: 6284: 6278: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6250: 6244: 6238: 6232: 6226: 6220: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6174: 6166: 6160: 6147: 6141: 6128: 6122: 6116: 6110: 6104: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6077: 6068: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6039: 6033: 6022: 6008: 6002: 5996: 5990: 5984: 5978: 5975:Berg et al. 2014 5972: 5966: 5953: 5947: 5938:; for the rest, 5928: 5922: 5916: 5910: 5904: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5866:, 380; also see 5861: 5855: 5849: 5843: 5829: 5823: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5792: 5782: 5776: 5770: 5764: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5712: 5706: 5692: 5686: 5669: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5658: 5639: 5633: 5623: 5617: 5607: 5601: 5596: 5581: 5569: 5558: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5528: 5522: 5516: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5466: 5460: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5384: 5374: 5368: 5358: 5352: 5342: 5336: 5330: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5261: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5237: 5214: 5205: 5195: 5189: 5179: 5170: 5164: 5153: 5143: 5137: 5131: 5104: 5097: 5091: 5085: 5074: 5068: 5059: 5053: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5007: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4974: 4950: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4919: 4912: 4906: 4903: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4874: 4868: 4862: 4856: 4853: 4847: 4840:Xanthus of Lydia 4836: 4830: 4812: 4806: 4803: 4797: 4790: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4771: 4765: 4755: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4733: 4727: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4706: 4692: 4686: 4682: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4652: 4646: 4639: 4633: 4626: 4620: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4600: 4595:Susan Izett and 4593: 4587: 4580: 4574: 4559: 4553: 4538: 4532: 4525: 4519: 4516: 4510: 4500: 4480:No FGM Australia 4395:The philosopher 4349:compared FGM to 4263:moral relativism 4097: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4073: 3996:Edna Adan Ismail 3983:Edna Adan Ismail 3959:Nawal El Saadawi 3943: 3936: 3929: 3912: 3898: 3892: 3889: 3883: 3876: 3870: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3848: 3841: 3835: 3832: 3826: 3811: 3805: 3802: 3796: 3790: 3784: 3781: 3775: 3770:Gloria Steinem, 3768: 3762: 3759: 3753: 3746: 3740: 3729: 3723: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3698: 3691: 3685: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3653: 3647: 3646:, 14 March 2011. 3638:Jenna Krajeski, 3636: 3630: 3620: 3614: 3611: 3605: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3577: 3568: 3565: 3559: 3552: 3546: 3543: 3537: 3527: 3521: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3218:Edna Adan Ismail 3087:Nawal El Saadawi 3076:Edna Adan Ismail 2958:Ma Heia al Nahda 2872:Nawal El Saadawi 2869: 2857: 2856: 2736: 2441: 2440: 2437: 2420:Ancient Egyptian 2410: 2319:Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal 2136: 1969: 1955: 1715:epidermoid cysts 1593:Labia stretching 1529:Edna Adan Ismail 1515: 1329:vestibular bulbs 1213:Bambara language 1158:. From 1929 the 1104:social exclusion 1100:female sexuality 1002: 995: 988: 972: 971: 960: 959: 817:Public indecency 694: 673:Bodily integrity 630:Prostitution law 573:Marriageable age 497: 483: 482: 330: 329: 129: 128: 65: 58: 57: 47:Labia stretching 21: 18443: 18442: 18438: 18437: 18436: 18434: 18433: 18432: 18388: 18387: 18386: 18381: 18337: 18322:Family planning 18300: 18294: 18261: 18238: 18197: 18191: 18163:Gender equality 18146: 18140: 18086: 18037: 18019:Cervical cancer 17981: 17974: 17912: 17902: 17892: 17883:Sex differences 17841:Forced marriage 17790: 17755: 17745: 17735: 17677:Menstrual cycle 17648: 17601:Family planning 17599: 17590: 17543: 17532: 17491:Maternal deaths 17482: 17473:Postpartum care 17419:Multiple births 17395: 17304: 17297: 17230: 17221: 17218: 17210: 17200: 17170: 17165: 17156: 17134: 17132: 17119: 17063: 16995: 16994: 16993: 16902:Northern Cyprus 16674: 16665:Science fiction 16458:Oedipus complex 16418:Women's studies 16379: 16378: 16377: 16361: 16271:Oedipus complex 16261:Men in feminism 16226:Language reform 16201:Ideal womanhood 16181:Gender equality 16176:Formal equality 16139:Feminationalism 16079:Cognitive labor 16061: 16029:Native American 15998: 15997: 15996: 15895: 15805:Post-structural 15610: 15600: 15496: 15489: 15485:Women's history 15463: 15411: 15406: 15376: 15371: 15354:Medical imaging 15348: 15310: 15241: 15185: 15180: 15162: 15157: 15134: 15129: 15106: 15101: 15097:Transplantation 15061: 15047: 15015:Fallopian tubes 15009: 14986: 14977: 14971: 14941: 14936: 14920: 14884: 14880:Sexual violence 14870:Sex trafficking 14762: 14741:Guidance Patrol 14691:Forced marriage 14686:Forced abortion 14649:Gishiri cutting 14560: 14555: 14525: 14520: 14499: 14459: 14424: 14370: 14319: 14285:Ellen Gruenbaum 14275:Ayaan Hirsi Ali 14258: 14176: 14163: 14102:Laws by country 14085: 14051:Gishiri cutting 14024: 14019: 13957: 13843: 13841:Further reading 13838: 13581: 13572: 13570: 13566: 13555: 13451: 13449: 13377:(11): 712–716. 12969: 12967: 12799: 12797: 12793: 12754: 12737: 12735: 12731: 12717:10.2307/2096305 12711:(6): 999–1017. 12700: 12476: 12474: 12322: 12275: 12239:10.1.1.233.6248 12213: 12211: 12207: 12200: 11878: 11831: 11811: 11810: 11741:(10): 643–651. 11590: 11588: 11460: 11458: 11454: 11432: 11421: 11376:(10): 837–859. 11325:(11): e006316. 11121: 11069: 11067: 10925: 10898: 10896: 10889: 10861:. Vol. 5. 10841:Bosworth, C. E. 10810: 10796:Moyo, Fulata L. 10760: 10661: 10659: 10652: 10626: 10624: 10617: 10590: 10588: 10581: 10536: 10525: 10499: 10497: 10490: 10464: 10462: 10455: 10432: 10393: 10345: 10297:El Dareer, Asma 10286: 10284: 10277: 10184: 10182: 10175: 10149: 10147: 10143: 10136: 10123: 10093:Ahmadu, Fuambai 10070: 10068: 10061: 10035: 10030: 10019: 10017: 10003: 9994: 9991: 9989:Wayback Machine 9980: 9976: 9966: 9964: 9962:National Review 9954: 9950: 9940: 9938: 9928: 9924: 9914:Wayback Machine 9903:Martha Nussbaum 9901:, Summer 1996; 9895:Wayback Machine 9881: 9877: 9869: 9865: 9853: 9849: 9841: 9837: 9827:Wayback Machine 9817: 9813: 9803:Wayback Machine 9790: 9786: 9780:Wildenthal 2012 9778: 9774: 9762: 9758: 9750: 9746: 9734: 9730: 9718: 9714: 9698: 9694: 9681: 9672: 9668: 9656: 9652: 9640: 9636: 9624: 9620: 9612: 9608: 9600: 9596: 9584: 9580: 9570:Wayback Machine 9560: 9556: 9548: 9544: 9538:Wayback Machine 9527:Wayback Machine 9518: 9514: 9504:Wayback Machine 9495: 9491: 9485:Wayback Machine 9474: 9470: 9454:Wayback Machine 9435:Wayback Machine 9421: 9417: 9405: 9401: 9395:Wayback Machine 9386: 9382: 9373: 9369: 9363:Wayback Machine 9353: 9344: 9336: 9329: 9321: 9317: 9307:Wayback Machine 9297: 9293: 9287:Wayback Machine 9278: 9274: 9264:Wayback Machine 9254: 9247: 9236:Wayback Machine 9219: 9217: 9173: 9171: 9136: 9135: 9131: 9125:Wayback Machine 9115: 9111: 9101:Wayback Machine 9091: 9084: 9078:Wayback Machine 9069: 9065: 9058:Wayback Machine 9042:Wayback Machine 9032: 9028: 9017: 9015: 8990: 8986: 8978: 8974: 8964:Wayback Machine 8954: 8950: 8940:Wayback Machine 8931: 8922: 8914: 8910: 8904:Wayback Machine 8895: 8888: 8875:Wayback Machine 8864:Wayback Machine 8853:Wayback Machine 8842:Wayback Machine 8832: 8828: 8818:Wayback Machine 8809:; Emma Bonino, 8805: 8801: 8793: 8789: 8781: 8777: 8769: 8765: 8753: 8749: 8743:Wayback Machine 8733: 8729: 8723:Wayback Machine 8714: 8710: 8702: 8698: 8690: 8686: 8678: 8669: 8663:Maputo Protocol 8655:Wayback Machine 8645: 8641: 8631:Wayback Machine 8610: 8606: 8601: 8597: 8592: 8588: 8576: 8572: 8564: 8560: 8552: 8548: 8540: 8536: 8526:Wayback Machine 8516: 8512: 8500: 8496: 8488: 8484: 8474:El Saadawi 2007 8472: 8468: 8458:Wayback Machine 8445: 8441: 8433: 8426: 8418: 8414: 8406: 8402: 8394: 8390: 8382: 8378: 8366: 8362: 8354: 8350: 8340: 8338: 8323: 8319: 8299: 8295: 8283: 8279: 8255: 8251: 8231: 8227: 8203: 8199: 8191: 8187: 8179: 8175: 8139: 8135: 8131:, 28, 2003, 55. 8122: 8118: 8108: 8106: 8093: 8092: 8088: 8077: 8075: 8061: 8053: 8051: 8036: 8032: 8024: 8017: 7997: 7993: 7981: 7977: 7965: 7961: 7953: 7949: 7941: 7937: 7921: 7917: 7897: 7893: 7885: 7881: 7861: 7852: 7844: 7840: 7825: 7818: 7810: 7801: 7793: 7789: 7781: 7777: 7769: 7765: 7757: 7753: 7745: 7741: 7715: 7711: 7693: 7689: 7681: 7677: 7665: 7661: 7653: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7629: 7620: 7600: 7596: 7588: 7584: 7576: 7572: 7564: 7560: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7539: 7535: 7527: 7523: 7513: 7511: 7488: 7484: 7447: 7443: 7435: 7431: 7424: 7420: 7412: 7408: 7396: 7392: 7384: 7377: 7371:Wayback Machine 7361: 7357: 7349:, 2 July 2007; 7345: 7341: 7333: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7298: 7294: 7286: 7282: 7269: 7268: 7264: 7256: 7252: 7244: 7240: 7232: 7228: 7220: 7216: 7208: 7204: 7198:Wayback Machine 7188: 7184: 7176: 7172: 7164: 7160: 7152: 7148: 7140: 7136: 7128: 7124: 7116: 7112: 7100: 7096: 7084: 7080: 7072: 7068: 7048: 7044: 7028: 7024: 7012: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6949: 6945: 6937: 6933: 6925: 6921: 6909: 6905: 6892: 6891: 6887: 6878: 6877: 6873: 6863: 6861: 6857: 6850: 6846: 6845: 6841: 6835: 6822: 6818: 6810: 6806: 6798: 6794: 6784:Wayback Machine 6775: 6771: 6763: 6759: 6751: 6747: 6741:Wayback Machine 6732: 6728: 6720: 6713: 6705: 6701: 6692: 6688: 6680: 6676: 6666: 6664: 6645: 6641: 6633: 6629: 6617: 6613: 6605: 6601: 6589: 6585: 6575: 6573: 6568: 6567: 6563: 6553: 6551: 6541: 6537: 6529: 6522: 6469: 6465: 6412: 6408: 6398: 6396: 6391: 6390: 6386: 6378: 6374: 6366: 6362: 6354: 6347: 6339: 6335: 6327: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6291: 6287: 6279: 6275: 6267: 6263: 6251: 6247: 6239: 6235: 6227: 6223: 6213:Wayback Machine 6204: 6200: 6192: 6188: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6167: 6163: 6148: 6144: 6138:Wayback Machine 6129: 6125: 6117: 6113: 6105: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6078: 6071: 6063: 6059: 6051: 6042: 6034: 6025: 6009: 6005: 5997: 5993: 5985: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5954: 5950: 5929: 5925: 5917: 5913: 5905: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5862: 5858: 5850: 5846: 5830: 5826: 5814: 5810: 5802: 5795: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5761:Wayback Machine 5752: 5748: 5740: 5733: 5725: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5697:, 25. Also see 5693: 5689: 5683:Wayback Machine 5670: 5666: 5656: 5654: 5641: 5640: 5636: 5624: 5620: 5608: 5604: 5597: 5584: 5570: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5541: 5537: 5529: 5525: 5517: 5510: 5502: 5498: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5469: 5461: 5454: 5446: 5442: 5430: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5394: 5387: 5375: 5371: 5359: 5355: 5343: 5339: 5331: 5320: 5312: 5308: 5300: 5293: 5285: 5281: 5273: 5264: 5252: 5248: 5235: 5233: 5215: 5208: 5196: 5192: 5180: 5173: 5165: 5156: 5144: 5140: 5132: 5107: 5098: 5094: 5086: 5077: 5069: 5062: 5054: 5031: 5021: 5019: 5009: 5008: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4975: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4935: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4900: 4894: 4890: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4863: 4859: 4854: 4850: 4837: 4833: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4800: 4791: 4787: 4781: 4777: 4772: 4768: 4756: 4752: 4746: 4742: 4734: 4730: 4725: 4721: 4713: 4709: 4699:Fadwa El Guindi 4693: 4689: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4669: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4649: 4640: 4636: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4603: 4594: 4590: 4581: 4577: 4560: 4556: 4539: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4503:Martha Nussbaum 4501: 4497: 4493: 4488: 4453: 4420: 4406: 4397:Martha Nussbaum 4377:Martha Nussbaum 4367:amalyet tajmeel 4359:Carla Obermeyer 4347:Fadwa El Guindi 4338: 4332: 4327: 4278:Obioma Nnaemeka 4251:Obioma Nnaemeka 4244: 4239: 4203: 4197: 4168:Fauziya Kasinga 4163: 4157: 4141: 4135: 4130: 4099: 4095: 4093: 4089: 4087: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4075: 4071: 4060: 4054:continuation". 4047:Maputo Protocol 3947: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3877: 3873: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3813:Elizabeth Fee, 3812: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3756: 3747: 3743: 3739:, 23 June 2014. 3730: 3726: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3701: 3692: 3688: 3679: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3654: 3650: 3637: 3633: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3528: 3524: 3516:James Karanja, 3515: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3348: 3343: 3146:Ainsi soit-elle 3059: 3054: 2974:: Sudan, under 2968: 2963: 2889: 2883: 2875: 2855: 2817:Colonial Office 2738: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2689: 2684: 2678: 2584: 2576:João dos Santos 2558: 2525:Aëtius of Amida 2475:Egyptian Museum 2467: 2451: 2412: 2401: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2364:among the first 2347:members of the 2287: 2277: 2231:Ellen Gruenbaum 2211: 2138: 2134: 2125: 2119: 2114: 2061:rite of passage 2057: 2048: 2029:communities in 1977: 1976: 1975: 1974: 1973: 1970: 1961: 1960: 1959: 1956: 1947: 1946: 1940: 1934: 1913: 1881: 1869: 1845: 1777: 1753:Painful periods 1703: 1655:wound infection 1651:urine retention 1623: 1618: 1601:gishiri cutting 1585: 1517: 1508: 1505: 1490: 1489:External images 1486: 1463: 1432: 1413: 1366: 1361: 1311:Anatomy of the 1305: 1299:("to sew up"). 1137: 1124:anthropologists 1077:menstrual fluid 1059:(type 1-a) and 1006: 966: 954: 849:Sex trafficking 688: 687: 654:Workers' rights 613:Objectification 598:Public morality 524:Criminalization 487:Sex and the law 473: 335: 320: 134: 72: 54: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 18441: 18431: 18430: 18425: 18420: 18415: 18410: 18405: 18400: 18383: 18382: 18380: 18379: 18367: 18355: 18342: 18339: 18338: 18336: 18331: 18326: 18325: 18324: 18314: 18309: 18304: 18302: 18299:Women's health 18296: 18295: 18293: 18292: 18287: 18282: 18277: 18272: 18266: 18263: 18262: 18260: 18259: 18254: 18248: 18246: 18240: 18239: 18237: 18236: 18231: 18226: 18221: 18216: 18210: 18208: 18206:United Nations 18199: 18198:& advocacy 18193: 18192: 18190: 18185: 18180: 18175: 18170: 18165: 18160: 18155: 18150: 18148: 18145:Sociocultural 18142: 18141: 18139: 18138: 18137: 18136: 18131: 18126: 18116: 18115: 18114: 18113: 18112: 18102: 18091: 18088: 18087: 18085: 18084: 18079: 18078: 18077: 18076: 18075: 18060: 18059: 18058: 18048: 18042: 18039: 18038: 18036: 18035: 18033:Ovarian cancer 18030: 18029: 18028: 18027: 18026: 18016: 18009:Uterine cancer 18006: 18001: 17995: 17993: 17984: 17976: 17975: 17973: 17972: 17967: 17962: 17961: 17960: 17953:Sexual assault 17950: 17945: 17940: 17935: 17934: 17933: 17923: 17917: 17915: 17904: 17898: 17897: 17894: 17893: 17891: 17890: 17885: 17880: 17875: 17870: 17865: 17860: 17855: 17854: 17853: 17843: 17838: 17833: 17831:Child marriage 17828: 17826:Breast ironing 17823: 17818: 17816:Breast binding 17813: 17812: 17811: 17806: 17804:Clitoridectomy 17795: 17792: 17791: 17789: 17788: 17783: 17782: 17781: 17771: 17766: 17760: 17758: 17747: 17741: 17740: 17737: 17736: 17734: 17733: 17732: 17731: 17721: 17716: 17711: 17706: 17705: 17704: 17699: 17694: 17689: 17682:Menstrual aids 17679: 17674: 17669: 17664: 17658: 17656: 17650: 17649: 17647: 17646: 17641: 17636: 17631: 17626: 17621: 17616: 17611: 17605: 17603: 17592: 17591: 17589: 17588: 17587: 17586: 17581: 17571: 17570: 17569: 17564: 17559: 17548: 17546: 17538: 17537: 17534: 17533: 17531: 17530: 17525: 17524: 17523: 17513: 17508: 17503: 17498: 17493: 17487: 17484: 17483: 17481: 17480: 17475: 17470: 17469: 17468: 17466:Husband stitch 17458: 17457: 17456: 17451: 17441: 17436: 17431: 17426: 17421: 17416: 17411: 17405: 17403: 17397: 17396: 17394: 17393: 17392: 17391: 17390: 17389: 17384: 17374: 17369: 17364: 17359: 17354: 17344: 17339: 17337:Antenatal care 17334: 17329: 17324: 17318: 17316: 17307: 17299: 17298: 17296: 17295: 17290: 17285: 17283:Fallopian tube 17280: 17275: 17270: 17265: 17264: 17263: 17258: 17253: 17252: 17251: 17235: 17233: 17229:Reproductive 17222: 17215: 17212: 17211: 17208:Women's health 17199: 17198: 17191: 17184: 17176: 17167: 17166: 17164: 17163: 17153: 17143: 17128: 17125: 17124: 17121: 17120: 17118: 17117: 17112: 17108:SCUM Manifesto 17104: 17099: 17094: 17093: 17092: 17087: 17077: 17071: 17069: 17065: 17064: 17062: 17057: 17052: 17047: 17042: 17037: 17032: 17027: 17022: 17017: 17012: 17010: 17001: 16997: 16996: 16992: 16991: 16990: 16989: 16979: 16977:United Kingdom 16974: 16969: 16964: 16959: 16954: 16949: 16944: 16939: 16934: 16929: 16924: 16919: 16914: 16909: 16904: 16899: 16894: 16889: 16884: 16879: 16874: 16873: 16872: 16867: 16862: 16857: 16852: 16847: 16842: 16837: 16827: 16822: 16817: 16812: 16807: 16802: 16797: 16792: 16787: 16782: 16777: 16772: 16767: 16762: 16757: 16752: 16747: 16742: 16737: 16732: 16731: 16730: 16725: 16720: 16715: 16710: 16705: 16700: 16695: 16684: 16683: 16682: 16680: 16676: 16675: 16673: 16672: 16667: 16662: 16657: 16652: 16650:Existentialism 16647: 16642: 16637: 16636: 16635: 16625: 16620: 16619: 16618: 16613: 16608: 16606:Existentialism 16603: 16602: 16601: 16599:Justice ethics 16591: 16586: 16581: 16571: 16566: 16561: 16560: 16559: 16549: 16544: 16539: 16534: 16529: 16524: 16523: 16522: 16517: 16512: 16502: 16497: 16492: 16487: 16482: 16481: 16480: 16475: 16465: 16460: 16455: 16450: 16445: 16440: 16435: 16430: 16425: 16420: 16415: 16409: 16404: 16399: 16397:Gender studies 16394: 16389: 16387: 16381: 16380: 16376: 16375: 16370: 16368:Women's rights 16365: 16362:Women's health 16358: 16353: 16348: 16343: 16338: 16333: 16328: 16323: 16318: 16313: 16308: 16303: 16298: 16293: 16288: 16283: 16278: 16273: 16268: 16263: 16258: 16253: 16248: 16246:Male privilege 16243: 16238: 16233: 16228: 16223: 16215:International 16213: 16208: 16203: 16198: 16193: 16188: 16183: 16178: 16173: 16168: 16167: 16166: 16161: 16156: 16146: 16141: 16136: 16131: 16128: 16123: 16118: 16113: 16108: 16103: 16098: 16097: 16096: 16086: 16081: 16075: 16074: 16073: 16071: 16067: 16066: 16063: 16062: 16060: 16055: 16050: 16049: 16048: 16038: 16037: 16036: 16031: 16026: 16016: 16011: 16006: 16004: 16000: 15999: 15995: 15994: 15989: 15988: 15987: 15977: 15972: 15967: 15966: 15965: 15960: 15955: 15945: 15944: 15943: 15938: 15933: 15928: 15918: 15913: 15907: 15906: 15905: 15903: 15897: 15896: 15894: 15893: 15888: 15887: 15886: 15876: 15871: 15866: 15861: 15856: 15851: 15850: 15849: 15839: 15834: 15829: 15824: 15819: 15814: 15813: 15812: 15802: 15797: 15792: 15787: 15782: 15777: 15772: 15767: 15762: 15761: 15760: 15750: 15745: 15740: 15735: 15734: 15733: 15723: 15718: 15713: 15708: 15703: 15698: 15697: 15696: 15686: 15681: 15680: 15679: 15669: 15664: 15659: 15654: 15649: 15644: 15639: 15634: 15629: 15623: 15621: 15614: 15606: 15605: 15602: 15601: 15599: 15598: 15597: 15596: 15595: 15594: 15589: 15584: 15574: 15569: 15559: 15558: 15557: 15550:United Kingdom 15547: 15542: 15537: 15532: 15527: 15522: 15517: 15512: 15506: 15504: 15498: 15497: 15495: 15494: 15487: 15482: 15477: 15471: 15469: 15465: 15464: 15462: 15461: 15456: 15451: 15450: 15449: 15439: 15434: 15428: 15426: 15419: 15413: 15412: 15405: 15404: 15397: 15390: 15382: 15373: 15372: 15370: 15369: 15364: 15358: 15356: 15350: 15349: 15347: 15346: 15344:Vestibulectomy 15341: 15336: 15331: 15326: 15320: 15318: 15312: 15311: 15309: 15308: 15303: 15298: 15293: 15288: 15283: 15282: 15281: 15279:husband stitch 15271: 15266: 15261: 15255: 15253: 15247: 15246: 15243: 15242: 15240: 15239: 15233: 15228: 15218: 15213: 15212: 15211: 15201: 15195: 15193: 15182: 15181: 15179: 15178: 15172: 15170: 15159: 15158: 15156: 15155: 15150: 15144: 15142: 15131: 15130: 15128: 15127: 15122: 15116: 15114: 15109:Uterine cavity 15103: 15102: 15100: 15099: 15094: 15089: 15084: 15079: 15074: 15068: 15066: 15055: 15049: 15048: 15046: 15045: 15043:Tubal reversal 15040: 15035: 15033:Tubal ligation 15030: 15025: 15019: 15017: 15011: 15010: 15008: 15007: 15002: 14996: 14994: 14988: 14987: 14982: 14979: 14978: 14970: 14969: 14962: 14955: 14947: 14938: 14937: 14925: 14922: 14921: 14919: 14918: 14913: 14908: 14903: 14898: 14892: 14890: 14889:Related topics 14886: 14885: 14883: 14882: 14877: 14875:Sexual slavery 14872: 14867: 14862: 14861: 14860: 14855: 14850: 14845: 14840: 14835: 14830: 14825: 14820: 14815: 14805: 14804: 14803: 14798: 14788: 14787: 14786: 14781: 14774:Sexual assault 14770: 14768: 14764: 14763: 14761: 14760: 14755: 14754: 14753: 14748: 14743: 14738: 14728: 14723: 14718: 14713: 14708: 14703: 14698: 14693: 14688: 14683: 14678: 14673: 14668: 14663: 14662: 14661: 14659:Husband stitch 14656: 14651: 14641: 14636: 14631: 14626: 14625: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14604: 14599: 14597:Child marriage 14594: 14589: 14584: 14582:Breast ironing 14579: 14574: 14568: 14566: 14562: 14561: 14554: 14553: 14546: 14539: 14531: 14522: 14521: 14519: 14518: 14513: 14507: 14505: 14501: 14500: 14498: 14497: 14492: 14487: 14482: 14477: 14471: 14469: 14465: 14464: 14461: 14460: 14458: 14457: 14449: 14441: 14432: 14430: 14426: 14425: 14423: 14422: 14414: 14406: 14398: 14389: 14387: 14380: 14376: 14375: 14372: 14371: 14369: 14368: 14363: 14358: 14353: 14348: 14343: 14338: 14333: 14327: 14325: 14321: 14320: 14318: 14317: 14312: 14307: 14302: 14300:Molly Melching 14297: 14292: 14287: 14282: 14277: 14272: 14270:Fuambai Ahmadu 14266: 14264: 14260: 14259: 14257: 14256: 14251: 14246: 14241: 14236: 14231: 14226: 14221: 14216: 14211: 14209:Benoîte Groult 14206: 14204:Asma El Dareer 14201: 14196: 14191: 14186: 14180: 14178: 14169: 14168:Writers/groups 14165: 14164: 14162: 14161: 14156: 14155: 14154: 14149: 14147:United Kingdom 14144: 14139: 14134: 14129: 14124: 14119: 14117:colonial Kenya 14114: 14109: 14099: 14093: 14091: 14087: 14086: 14084: 14083: 14078: 14073: 14068: 14063: 14058: 14056:Husband stitch 14053: 14048: 14043: 14038: 14036:Clitoridectomy 14032: 14030: 14026: 14025: 14018: 14017: 14010: 14003: 13995: 13989: 13988: 13982: 13970: 13956: 13955:External links 13953: 13952: 13951: 13939: 13925: 13913: 13895: 13894: 13883: 13876: 13865: 13855: 13849: 13842: 13839: 13837: 13836: 13819: 13811: 13803: 13792: 13781: 13769: 13759: 13739: 13728: 13720: 13712: 13702: 13694: 13684: 13674: 13664: 13656: 13648: 13638: 13630: 13621: 13609: 13599: 13587: 13580: 13579: 13548: 13522:(2): 189–204. 13511: 13458: 13405: 13362: 13326:(3): 251–261. 13311: 13293:(3): 338–363. 13282: 13253: 13235:(2): 225–236. 13224: 13173: 13161:(3): 130–133. 13146: 13112:(3): 323–347. 13101: 13056: 13021: 12976: 12938:(2): 166–172. 12923: 12870: 12850:(3): 135–139. 12835: 12806: 12765:(2): 135–158. 12744: 12690: 12664:(3): 291–298. 12653: 12633:10.2307/524569 12627:(1): 95–1100. 12616: 12580:10.1086/385184 12574:(2): 317–338. 12563: 12527:(1): 105–115. 12512: 12483: 12458: 12424:(5): 490–494. 12413: 12385:(5): e000549. 12370: 12342:(5): 368–377. 12327: 12268: 12232:(3): 200–210. 12220: 12193: 12148: 12120:(3): 188–190. 12105: 12085:(4): 617–633. 12070: 12036:(5): 429–441. 12022: 11971: 11920: 11894:(2): 138–144. 11883: 11842:(7): 611–613. 11824: 11782:(2): 430–434. 11767: 11730: 11704:(1): 103–109. 11693: 11659:(7): 437–443. 11648: 11597: 11569: 11533:(7): 402–405. 11518: 11467: 11430: 11412: 11361: 11310: 11259: 11213: 11177:(9): 619–620. 11162: 11119: 11076: 11036:(3): 722–724. 11021: 10987:(5): 958–963. 10975: 10931: 10924: 10923: 10914: 10905: 10887: 10832: 10823: 10814: 10808: 10791: 10782: 10773: 10764: 10758: 10738:Tamale, Sylvia 10734: 10725: 10716: 10704: 10695: 10686: 10677: 10668: 10650: 10633: 10615: 10597: 10579: 10559: 10550: 10541: 10515: 10506: 10488: 10471: 10453: 10436: 10430: 10415: 10406: 10397: 10391: 10370: 10361: 10349: 10343: 10326: 10314: 10305: 10293: 10275: 10251: 10242: 10233: 10221: 10209: 10200: 10191: 10173: 10156: 10127: 10121: 10101: 10089: 10077: 10059: 10041: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10028: 9974: 9948: 9922: 9875: 9863: 9847: 9835: 9811: 9784: 9772: 9764:El Guindi 2007 9756: 9744: 9728: 9712: 9692: 9666: 9650: 9634: 9618: 9606: 9602:Silverman 2004 9594: 9578: 9554: 9542: 9512: 9489: 9468: 9415: 9407:David Gollaher 9399: 9380: 9367: 9354:Megan Rowling 9342: 9327: 9315: 9291: 9272: 9245: 9242:, 6 May 2010. 9129: 9109: 9082: 9063: 9026: 8984: 8972: 8948: 8920: 8908: 8886: 8826: 8799: 8787: 8775: 8763: 8747: 8727: 8708: 8696: 8684: 8667: 8639: 8633:; for Vienna, 8604: 8595: 8586: 8570: 8558: 8546: 8534: 8510: 8494: 8482: 8466: 8447:Gruenbaum 2001 8439: 8424: 8412: 8400: 8388: 8376: 8360: 8348: 8317: 8293: 8277: 8249: 8225: 8197: 8185: 8173: 8133: 8116: 8086: 8030: 8026:Rodriguez 2014 8015: 7991: 7975: 7959: 7947: 7935: 7915: 7891: 7887:Rodriguez 2008 7879: 7850: 7838: 7816: 7799: 7787: 7775: 7763: 7751: 7739: 7709: 7687: 7675: 7659: 7647: 7635: 7618: 7594: 7582: 7570: 7558: 7533: 7521: 7482: 7441: 7429: 7418: 7406: 7390: 7375: 7355: 7339: 7324: 7312: 7300:Gruenbaum 2001 7292: 7280: 7262: 7250: 7238: 7226: 7222:Gruenbaum 2005 7214: 7202: 7182: 7170: 7158: 7154:El Dareer 1983 7146: 7134: 7130:Gruenbaum 2005 7122: 7110: 7094: 7090:Gruenbaum 2001 7086:Gruenbaum 2005 7078: 7074:Gruenbaum 2005 7066: 7042: 7034:El Guindi 2007 7030:Abusharaf 2007 7022: 7003: 6991: 6979: 6967: 6955: 6951:El Guindi 2007 6943: 6931: 6927:El Guindi 2007 6919: 6903: 6885: 6871: 6839: 6833: 6816: 6804: 6792: 6769: 6757: 6745: 6726: 6711: 6699: 6686: 6674: 6639: 6627: 6611: 6599: 6583: 6572:. 16 June 2010 6561: 6535: 6520: 6483:(5): e024684. 6463: 6406: 6395:. 16 June 2010 6384: 6372: 6360: 6345: 6333: 6321: 6309: 6285: 6273: 6261: 6245: 6233: 6221: 6206:"DHS overview" 6198: 6186: 6161: 6142: 6123: 6111: 6096: 6092:El Dareer 1982 6084: 6069: 6057: 6040: 6023: 6003: 5991: 5979: 5967: 5948: 5923: 5911: 5896: 5884: 5872: 5868:El Dareer 1982 5856: 5852:El Dareer 1982 5844: 5824: 5808: 5793: 5785:El Guindi 2007 5777: 5765: 5746: 5731: 5719: 5707: 5687: 5664: 5634: 5618: 5602: 5582: 5559: 5547: 5535: 5523: 5508: 5496: 5484: 5467: 5452: 5440: 5424: 5412: 5408:Gruenbaum 2001 5400: 5385: 5377:El Guindi 2007 5369: 5353: 5337: 5318: 5306: 5291: 5279: 5262: 5260:, n. 631. 5246: 5206: 5202:Silverman 2004 5190: 5171: 5154: 5138: 5105: 5092: 5075: 5060: 5029: 4993: 4981: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4951: 4941: 4929: 4920: 4907: 4898: 4888: 4878: 4869: 4857: 4848: 4831: 4807: 4798: 4785: 4775: 4766: 4750: 4740: 4728: 4719: 4707: 4687: 4677: 4667: 4657: 4647: 4634: 4621: 4611: 4609:labia majora." 4601: 4588: 4575: 4565:, copied from 4554: 4533: 4520: 4511: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4452: 4449: 4405: 4402: 4355:Benoîte Groult 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4196: 4193: 4156: 4153: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4094: 4088: 4082: 4076: 4070: 4059: 4058:United Nations 4056: 3949: 3948: 3946: 3945: 3938: 3931: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3914: 3913: 3893: 3884: 3871: 3858: 3849: 3836: 3827: 3806: 3797: 3785: 3776: 3763: 3754: 3741: 3724: 3711: 3699: 3693:Jill Tweedie, 3686: 3673: 3671:, p. 618. 3661: 3648: 3644:The New Yorker 3631: 3629:, 5 June 1997. 3615: 3606: 3593: 3581: 3569: 3560: 3547: 3538: 3522: 3509: 3496: 3495: 3490: 3489: 3488: 3477: 3476: 3461: 3460: 3459: 3458: 3445: 3444: 3437:Asma El Dareer 3429: 3428: 3427: 3426: 3412: 3411: 3394: 3393: 3392: 3391: 3377: 3376: 3375: 3374: 3367:Gloria Steinem 3356: 3355: 3344: 3342: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3318: 3317: 3303: 3302: 3301: 3300: 3295:February: The 3290: 3289: 3288: 3287: 3277: 3276: 3265: 3264: 3263: 3262: 3242: 3241: 3224: 3223: 3222: 3221: 3208: 3207: 3204:Asma El Dareer 3196: 3195: 3184: 3183: 3172: 3171: 3170: 3169: 3152: 3151: 3150: 3149: 3142:Benoîte Groult 3136: 3135: 3134: 3133: 3123: 3122: 3111: 3110: 3099: 3098: 3066:Benoite Groult 3055: 3053: 3052: 3045: 3044: 3037: 3036: 3035: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3020: 3019: 3004: 3003: 2992: 2991: 2980: 2979: 2964: 2962: 2961: 2946: 2945: 2938: 2937: 2926: 2925: 2924: 2923: 2913: 2912: 2897: 2896: 2885: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2870: 2862: 2861: 2860:FGM opposition 2854: 2851: 2832:Ngo ya Tuiritu 2783:oral tradition 2703: 2697: 2696: 2688: 2685: 2677: 2674: 2631:J. Marion Sims 2583: 2580: 2557: 2554: 2506:pudendal cleft 2491:British Museum 2479:Middle Kingdom 2464: 2463: 2460: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2435: 2388: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2276: 2273: 2269:child marriage 2260:Molly Melching 2210: 2207: 2170:Fuambai Ahmadu 2162:Fuambai Ahmadu 2123: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2056: 2055:Age, ethnicity 2053: 2047: 2044: 1971: 1964: 1963: 1962: 1957: 1950: 1949: 1948: 1945:Downward trend 1944: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1933: 1930: 1912: 1909: 1880: 1877: 1868: 1865: 1844: 1841: 1831:the baby, and 1802:anal-sphincter 1776: 1773: 1769:Asma El Dareer 1757:menstrual flow 1702: 1699: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1584: 1581: 1571:reinfibulation 1567:deinfibulation 1504: 1503: 1498: 1492: 1488: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1462: 1459: 1455:clitoral glans 1451:clitoridectomy 1439:clitoral glans 1431: 1428: 1412: 1409: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1359:Classification 1357: 1321:clitoral crura 1317:clitoral glans 1315:, showing the 1304: 1301: 1281:Ancient Romans 1146:FGM ceremony, 1136: 1133: 1120:reinfibulation 1083:is opened for 1061:clitoral glans 1041:FGM prevalence 1008: 1007: 1005: 1004: 997: 990: 982: 979: 978: 977: 976: 974:Law portal 964: 949: 948: 944: 943: 942: 941: 936: 928: 927: 923: 922: 921: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 899: 898: 893: 883: 878: 873: 871:Sexual assault 868: 867: 866: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 835: 834: 829: 819: 814: 813: 812: 807: 797: 792: 791: 790: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 744: 743: 733: 731:Child grooming 728: 723: 722: 721: 711: 710: 709: 696: 695: 683: 682: 681: 680: 675: 670: 665: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 626: 625: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 568:Age of consent 565: 531: 517: 512: 504: 503: 499: 498: 490: 489: 479: 478: 475: 474: 472: 471: 465: 459: 453: 447: 441: 435: 429: 423: 417: 411: 405: 399: 393: 387: 381: 375: 369: 363: 357: 351: 344: 341: 340: 337: 336: 333: 326: 325: 322: 321: 319: 318: 312: 306: 300: 294: 288: 282: 276: 270: 264: 258: 252: 246: 240: 234: 228: 222: 216: 210: 204: 198: 192: 186: 180: 174: 168: 162: 156: 150: 143: 140: 139: 136: 135: 132: 125: 124: 122: 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 106: 102: 101: 98: 94: 93: 78: 74: 73: 71:, Uganda, 2004 66: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 18440: 18429: 18426: 18424: 18421: 18419: 18416: 18414: 18411: 18409: 18406: 18404: 18401: 18399: 18396: 18395: 18393: 18378: 18377: 18368: 18366: 18365: 18356: 18354: 18353: 18344: 18343: 18340: 18335: 18332: 18330: 18327: 18323: 18320: 18319: 18318: 18315: 18313: 18310: 18308: 18305: 18303: 18297: 18291: 18288: 18286: 18283: 18281: 18278: 18276: 18273: 18271: 18268: 18267: 18258: 18255: 18253: 18250: 18249: 18247: 18245: 18244:United States 18241: 18235: 18232: 18230: 18227: 18225: 18222: 18220: 18217: 18215: 18212: 18211: 18209: 18207: 18203: 18200: 18194: 18189: 18186: 18184: 18181: 18179: 18176: 18174: 18171: 18169: 18166: 18164: 18161: 18159: 18158:Disadvantaged 18156: 18154: 18151: 18149: 18143: 18135: 18132: 18130: 18127: 18125: 18122: 18121: 18120: 18119:Urinary tract 18117: 18111: 18108: 18107: 18106: 18103: 18101: 18098: 18097: 18096: 18095:Mental health 18093: 18092: 18083: 18080: 18074: 18071: 18070: 18069: 18066: 18065: 18064: 18061: 18057: 18054: 18053: 18052: 18049: 18047: 18044: 18043: 18034: 18031: 18025: 18022: 18021: 18020: 18017: 18015: 18012: 18011: 18010: 18007: 18005: 18004:Breast cancer 18002: 18000: 17997: 17996: 17994: 17992: 17988: 17985: 17983: 17977: 17971: 17968: 17966: 17963: 17959: 17956: 17955: 17954: 17951: 17949: 17946: 17944: 17941: 17939: 17936: 17932: 17929: 17928: 17927: 17924: 17922: 17919: 17918: 17916: 17914: 17913:against women 17908: 17905: 17899: 17889: 17888:Sex education 17886: 17884: 17881: 17879: 17876: 17874: 17871: 17869: 17866: 17864: 17861: 17859: 17856: 17852: 17849: 17848: 17847: 17844: 17842: 17839: 17837: 17834: 17832: 17829: 17827: 17824: 17822: 17821:Breast health 17819: 17817: 17814: 17810: 17807: 17805: 17802: 17801: 17800: 17797: 17796: 17793: 17787: 17784: 17780: 17777: 17776: 17775: 17772: 17770: 17767: 17765: 17762: 17761: 17759: 17757: 17751: 17748: 17742: 17730: 17727: 17726: 17725: 17722: 17720: 17717: 17715: 17712: 17710: 17707: 17703: 17700: 17698: 17695: 17693: 17692:Menstrual cup 17690: 17688: 17685: 17684: 17683: 17680: 17678: 17675: 17673: 17670: 17668: 17665: 17663: 17660: 17659: 17657: 17655: 17651: 17645: 17642: 17640: 17637: 17635: 17632: 17630: 17627: 17625: 17622: 17620: 17617: 17615: 17612: 17610: 17607: 17606: 17604: 17602: 17597: 17596:Contraception 17593: 17585: 17582: 17580: 17577: 17576: 17575: 17572: 17568: 17565: 17563: 17560: 17558: 17557:Childlessness 17555: 17554: 17553: 17550: 17549: 17547: 17545: 17542:Reproductive 17539: 17529: 17526: 17522: 17519: 17518: 17517: 17516:Sterilization 17514: 17512: 17509: 17507: 17504: 17502: 17499: 17497: 17494: 17492: 17489: 17488: 17485: 17479: 17476: 17474: 17471: 17467: 17464: 17463: 17462: 17459: 17455: 17452: 17450: 17447: 17446: 17445: 17442: 17440: 17437: 17435: 17432: 17430: 17427: 17425: 17422: 17420: 17417: 17415: 17414:Preterm birth 17412: 17410: 17407: 17406: 17404: 17402: 17398: 17388: 17385: 17383: 17380: 17379: 17378: 17375: 17373: 17370: 17368: 17365: 17363: 17360: 17358: 17355: 17353: 17350: 17349: 17348: 17345: 17343: 17340: 17338: 17335: 17333: 17330: 17328: 17325: 17323: 17320: 17319: 17317: 17315: 17311: 17308: 17306: 17300: 17294: 17291: 17289: 17286: 17284: 17281: 17279: 17276: 17274: 17271: 17269: 17266: 17262: 17259: 17257: 17254: 17250: 17249:Clitoral hood 17247: 17246: 17245: 17242: 17241: 17240: 17237: 17236: 17234: 17232: 17226: 17223: 17220: 17217:Reproductive 17213: 17209: 17205: 17197: 17192: 17190: 17185: 17183: 17178: 17177: 17174: 17162: 17154: 17152: 17144: 17142: 17141: 17130: 17129: 17126: 17116: 17113: 17110: 17109: 17105: 17103: 17100: 17098: 17095: 17091: 17088: 17086: 17083: 17082: 17081: 17078: 17076: 17073: 17072: 17070: 17066: 17061: 17058: 17056: 17053: 17051: 17048: 17046: 17043: 17041: 17038: 17036: 17033: 17031: 17028: 17026: 17023: 17021: 17018: 17016: 17013: 17011: 17009: 17005: 17002: 16998: 16988: 16985: 16984: 16983: 16982:United States 16980: 16978: 16975: 16973: 16970: 16968: 16965: 16963: 16960: 16958: 16955: 16953: 16950: 16948: 16945: 16943: 16940: 16938: 16935: 16933: 16930: 16928: 16925: 16923: 16920: 16918: 16915: 16913: 16910: 16908: 16905: 16903: 16900: 16898: 16895: 16893: 16890: 16888: 16885: 16883: 16880: 16878: 16875: 16871: 16868: 16866: 16863: 16861: 16858: 16856: 16853: 16851: 16848: 16846: 16843: 16841: 16838: 16836: 16833: 16832: 16831: 16830:Latin America 16828: 16826: 16823: 16821: 16818: 16816: 16813: 16811: 16808: 16806: 16803: 16801: 16798: 16796: 16793: 16791: 16788: 16786: 16783: 16781: 16778: 16776: 16773: 16771: 16768: 16766: 16763: 16761: 16758: 16756: 16753: 16751: 16748: 16746: 16743: 16741: 16738: 16736: 16733: 16729: 16726: 16724: 16721: 16719: 16716: 16714: 16711: 16709: 16706: 16704: 16701: 16699: 16696: 16694: 16691: 16690: 16689: 16686: 16685: 16681: 16677: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16660:Technoscience 16658: 16656: 16653: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16641: 16638: 16634: 16631: 16630: 16629: 16626: 16624: 16621: 16617: 16614: 16612: 16609: 16607: 16604: 16600: 16597: 16596: 16595: 16592: 16590: 16587: 16585: 16582: 16580: 16577: 16576: 16575: 16572: 16570: 16567: 16565: 16562: 16558: 16555: 16554: 16553: 16550: 16548: 16545: 16543: 16540: 16538: 16535: 16533: 16530: 16528: 16525: 16521: 16518: 16516: 16513: 16511: 16510:Art criticism 16508: 16507: 16506: 16503: 16501: 16498: 16496: 16493: 16491: 16488: 16486: 16483: 16479: 16476: 16474: 16471: 16470: 16469: 16466: 16464: 16461: 16459: 16456: 16454: 16451: 16449: 16446: 16444: 16441: 16439: 16436: 16434: 16431: 16429: 16426: 16424: 16423:Men's studies 16421: 16419: 16416: 16414: 16411: 16410: 16408: 16405: 16403: 16400: 16398: 16395: 16393: 16390: 16388: 16386: 16382: 16374: 16371: 16369: 16366: 16364: 16359: 16357: 16354: 16352: 16349: 16347: 16344: 16342: 16339: 16337: 16334: 16332: 16331:Transmisogyny 16329: 16327: 16324: 16322: 16319: 16317: 16314: 16312: 16309: 16307: 16304: 16302: 16299: 16297: 16294: 16292: 16291:Purplewashing 16289: 16287: 16286:Protofeminism 16284: 16282: 16279: 16277: 16274: 16272: 16269: 16267: 16264: 16262: 16259: 16257: 16254: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16237: 16234: 16232: 16229: 16227: 16224: 16222: 16218: 16214: 16212: 16209: 16207: 16204: 16202: 16199: 16197: 16196:Honor killing 16194: 16192: 16189: 16187: 16184: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16172: 16169: 16165: 16162: 16160: 16157: 16155: 16152: 16151: 16150: 16147: 16145: 16142: 16140: 16137: 16135: 16132: 16129: 16127: 16124: 16122: 16119: 16117: 16114: 16112: 16109: 16107: 16104: 16102: 16099: 16095: 16092: 16091: 16090: 16087: 16085: 16082: 16080: 16077: 16076: 16072: 16068: 16059: 16056: 16054: 16051: 16047: 16044: 16043: 16042: 16039: 16035: 16032: 16030: 16027: 16025: 16022: 16021: 16020: 16017: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16005: 16001: 15993: 15990: 15986: 15983: 15982: 15981: 15978: 15976: 15973: 15971: 15968: 15964: 15961: 15959: 15956: 15954: 15951: 15950: 15949: 15946: 15942: 15939: 15937: 15934: 15932: 15929: 15927: 15924: 15923: 15922: 15919: 15917: 15914: 15912: 15909: 15908: 15904: 15902: 15898: 15892: 15889: 15885: 15882: 15881: 15880: 15877: 15875: 15872: 15870: 15869:Transnational 15867: 15865: 15862: 15860: 15857: 15855: 15852: 15848: 15845: 15844: 15843: 15840: 15838: 15835: 15833: 15830: 15828: 15825: 15823: 15820: 15818: 15815: 15811: 15808: 15807: 15806: 15803: 15801: 15798: 15796: 15793: 15791: 15788: 15786: 15783: 15781: 15778: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15768: 15766: 15763: 15759: 15756: 15755: 15754: 15751: 15749: 15746: 15744: 15741: 15739: 15738:Individualist 15736: 15732: 15729: 15728: 15727: 15724: 15722: 15719: 15717: 15714: 15712: 15709: 15707: 15704: 15702: 15699: 15695: 15692: 15691: 15690: 15687: 15685: 15682: 15678: 15675: 15674: 15673: 15670: 15668: 15665: 15663: 15660: 15658: 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15638: 15637:Anti-abortion 15635: 15633: 15630: 15628: 15625: 15624: 15622: 15618: 15615: 15613: 15607: 15593: 15590: 15588: 15585: 15583: 15580: 15579: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15564: 15563: 15562:United States 15560: 15556: 15553: 15552: 15551: 15548: 15546: 15543: 15541: 15538: 15536: 15533: 15531: 15528: 15526: 15523: 15521: 15518: 15516: 15513: 15511: 15508: 15507: 15505: 15503: 15499: 15492: 15488: 15486: 15483: 15481: 15478: 15476: 15473: 15472: 15470: 15466: 15460: 15457: 15455: 15452: 15448: 15445: 15444: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15429: 15427: 15423: 15420: 15418: 15414: 15410: 15403: 15398: 15396: 15391: 15389: 15384: 15383: 15380: 15368: 15365: 15363: 15360: 15359: 15357: 15355: 15351: 15345: 15342: 15340: 15337: 15335: 15332: 15330: 15327: 15325: 15322: 15321: 15319: 15317: 15313: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15299: 15297: 15296:Hymenorrhaphy 15294: 15292: 15289: 15287: 15284: 15280: 15277: 15276: 15275: 15272: 15270: 15269:Culdocentesis 15267: 15265: 15262: 15260: 15257: 15256: 15254: 15252: 15248: 15237: 15234: 15232: 15229: 15226: 15222: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15210: 15207: 15206: 15205: 15202: 15200: 15197: 15196: 15194: 15191: 15189: 15183: 15177: 15174: 15173: 15171: 15168: 15166: 15160: 15154: 15151: 15149: 15146: 15145: 15143: 15140: 15138: 15132: 15126: 15123: 15121: 15118: 15117: 15115: 15112: 15110: 15104: 15098: 15095: 15093: 15090: 15088: 15085: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15070: 15069: 15067: 15064: 15059: 15056: 15054: 15050: 15044: 15041: 15039: 15036: 15034: 15031: 15029: 15028:Salpingectomy 15026: 15024: 15021: 15020: 15018: 15016: 15012: 15006: 15003: 15001: 14998: 14997: 14995: 14993: 14989: 14985: 14980: 14976: 14968: 14963: 14961: 14956: 14954: 14949: 14948: 14945: 14935: 14934: 14923: 14917: 14916:Serial rapist 14914: 14912: 14909: 14907: 14906:November 25th 14904: 14902: 14899: 14897: 14894: 14893: 14891: 14887: 14881: 14878: 14876: 14873: 14871: 14868: 14866: 14863: 14859: 14856: 14854: 14851: 14849: 14846: 14844: 14841: 14839: 14836: 14834: 14831: 14829: 14826: 14824: 14821: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14811: 14810: 14809: 14808:Types of rape 14806: 14802: 14799: 14797: 14796:and pregnancy 14794: 14793: 14792: 14789: 14785: 14782: 14780: 14777: 14776: 14775: 14772: 14771: 14769: 14765: 14759: 14756: 14752: 14749: 14747: 14744: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14733: 14732: 14729: 14727: 14724: 14722: 14719: 14717: 14714: 14712: 14709: 14707: 14704: 14702: 14699: 14697: 14694: 14692: 14689: 14687: 14684: 14682: 14681:Force-feeding 14679: 14677: 14674: 14672: 14669: 14667: 14664: 14660: 14657: 14655: 14652: 14650: 14647: 14646: 14645: 14642: 14640: 14639:Honor killing 14637: 14635: 14632: 14630: 14627: 14623: 14622:and pregnancy 14620: 14618: 14615: 14613: 14610: 14609: 14608: 14605: 14603: 14600: 14598: 14595: 14593: 14590: 14588: 14587:Bride burning 14585: 14583: 14580: 14578: 14575: 14573: 14570: 14569: 14567: 14563: 14559: 14552: 14547: 14545: 14540: 14538: 14533: 14532: 14529: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14509: 14508: 14506: 14502: 14496: 14493: 14491: 14488: 14486: 14483: 14481: 14478: 14476: 14473: 14472: 14470: 14466: 14455: 14454: 14450: 14447: 14446: 14445:Desert Flower 14442: 14439: 14438: 14434: 14433: 14431: 14427: 14420: 14419: 14418:Desert Flower 14415: 14412: 14411: 14407: 14404: 14403: 14399: 14396: 14395: 14391: 14390: 14388: 14384: 14381: 14377: 14367: 14364: 14362: 14359: 14357: 14354: 14352: 14349: 14347: 14344: 14342: 14339: 14337: 14334: 14332: 14329: 14328: 14326: 14322: 14316: 14313: 14311: 14310:Comfort Momoh 14308: 14306: 14303: 14301: 14298: 14296: 14293: 14291: 14288: 14286: 14283: 14281: 14278: 14276: 14273: 14271: 14268: 14267: 14265: 14261: 14255: 14254:Amina Warsame 14252: 14250: 14247: 14245: 14242: 14240: 14237: 14235: 14232: 14230: 14227: 14225: 14222: 14220: 14217: 14215: 14212: 14210: 14207: 14205: 14202: 14200: 14199:Efua Dorkenoo 14197: 14195: 14192: 14190: 14187: 14185: 14182: 14181: 14179: 14177:and activists 14175:Early writers 14173: 14170: 14166: 14160: 14157: 14153: 14152:United States 14150: 14148: 14145: 14143: 14140: 14138: 14135: 14133: 14130: 14128: 14125: 14123: 14120: 14118: 14115: 14113: 14110: 14108: 14105: 14104: 14103: 14100: 14098: 14095: 14094: 14092: 14088: 14082: 14079: 14077: 14074: 14072: 14069: 14067: 14064: 14062: 14059: 14057: 14054: 14052: 14049: 14047: 14044: 14042: 14039: 14037: 14034: 14033: 14031: 14029:Health issues 14027: 14023: 14016: 14011: 14009: 14004: 14002: 13997: 13996: 13993: 13987: 13983: 13980: 13975: 13971: 13968: 13963: 13959: 13958: 13949: 13948: 13943: 13940: 13937: 13933: 13929: 13926: 13923: 13922: 13921:Desert Flower 13917: 13914: 13911: 13910: 13905: 13902: 13901: 13900: 13899: 13892: 13888: 13884: 13881: 13877: 13874: 13870: 13866: 13863: 13859: 13856: 13853: 13850: 13848: 13845: 13844: 13834: 13830: 13826: 13825: 13820: 13816: 13812: 13808: 13804: 13800: 13799: 13793: 13789: 13788: 13782: 13778: 13774: 13773:Mackie, Gerry 13770: 13766: 13765: 13760: 13756: 13752: 13748: 13744: 13740: 13736: 13735: 13729: 13725: 13721: 13717: 13713: 13709: 13708: 13703: 13699: 13695: 13691: 13690: 13685: 13681: 13680: 13675: 13671: 13670: 13665: 13661: 13657: 13653: 13649: 13645: 13644: 13639: 13635: 13631: 13627: 13622: 13618: 13614: 13610: 13606: 13605: 13600: 13596: 13595: 13589: 13588: 13586: 13585: 13565: 13562:(39). USAID. 13561: 13554: 13549: 13545: 13541: 13537: 13533: 13529: 13525: 13521: 13517: 13512: 13508: 13504: 13499: 13494: 13490: 13486: 13481: 13476: 13472: 13468: 13464: 13459: 13447: 13443: 13439: 13435: 13431: 13427: 13423: 13419: 13415: 13411: 13406: 13402: 13398: 13394: 13390: 13385: 13380: 13376: 13372: 13368: 13363: 13359: 13355: 13351: 13347: 13343: 13339: 13334: 13329: 13325: 13321: 13317: 13312: 13308: 13304: 13300: 13296: 13292: 13288: 13283: 13279: 13275: 13271: 13267: 13263: 13259: 13254: 13250: 13246: 13242: 13238: 13234: 13230: 13225: 13221: 13217: 13213: 13209: 13205: 13201: 13196: 13191: 13187: 13183: 13179: 13174: 13169: 13164: 13160: 13156: 13152: 13147: 13143: 13139: 13135: 13131: 13127: 13123: 13119: 13115: 13111: 13107: 13102: 13098: 13094: 13090: 13086: 13082: 13078: 13074: 13070: 13066: 13062: 13057: 13053: 13049: 13044: 13039: 13036:(2): 95–101. 13035: 13031: 13027: 13022: 13018: 13014: 13010: 13006: 13002: 12998: 12994: 12990: 12986: 12982: 12977: 12966:on 2 May 2019 12965: 12961: 12957: 12953: 12949: 12945: 12941: 12937: 12933: 12929: 12924: 12920: 12916: 12911: 12906: 12902: 12898: 12893: 12888: 12884: 12880: 12876: 12871: 12867: 12863: 12858: 12853: 12849: 12845: 12841: 12836: 12832: 12828: 12824: 12820: 12817:(2): 92–104. 12816: 12812: 12807: 12792: 12788: 12784: 12780: 12776: 12772: 12768: 12764: 12760: 12753: 12750:(June 2003). 12749: 12748:Mackie, Gerry 12745: 12730: 12726: 12722: 12718: 12714: 12710: 12706: 12699: 12695: 12694:Mackie, Gerry 12691: 12687: 12683: 12679: 12675: 12671: 12667: 12663: 12659: 12654: 12650: 12646: 12642: 12638: 12634: 12630: 12626: 12622: 12617: 12613: 12609: 12605: 12601: 12597: 12593: 12589: 12585: 12581: 12577: 12573: 12569: 12564: 12560: 12556: 12552: 12548: 12544: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12526: 12522: 12518: 12513: 12509: 12505: 12501: 12497: 12493: 12489: 12484: 12472: 12468: 12464: 12459: 12455: 12451: 12447: 12443: 12439: 12435: 12431: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12414: 12410: 12406: 12401: 12396: 12392: 12388: 12384: 12380: 12376: 12371: 12367: 12363: 12358: 12353: 12349: 12345: 12341: 12337: 12333: 12328: 12321: 12317: 12313: 12309: 12305: 12301: 12297: 12293: 12289: 12286:(35): 29–37. 12285: 12281: 12274: 12269: 12265: 12261: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12245: 12240: 12235: 12231: 12227: 12221: 12206: 12199: 12194: 12190: 12186: 12182: 12178: 12174: 12170: 12166: 12162: 12158: 12154: 12149: 12145: 12141: 12137: 12133: 12128: 12123: 12119: 12115: 12111: 12106: 12102: 12098: 12093: 12088: 12084: 12080: 12076: 12071: 12067: 12063: 12059: 12055: 12051: 12047: 12043: 12039: 12035: 12031: 12027: 12023: 12019: 12015: 12010: 12005: 12001: 11997: 11993: 11989: 11985: 11981: 11977: 11972: 11968: 11964: 11959: 11954: 11950: 11946: 11942: 11938: 11935:(7559): 124. 11934: 11930: 11926: 11921: 11917: 11913: 11909: 11905: 11901: 11897: 11893: 11889: 11884: 11877: 11873: 11869: 11865: 11861: 11857: 11853: 11849: 11845: 11841: 11837: 11830: 11825: 11821: 11815: 11807: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11789: 11785: 11781: 11777: 11773: 11768: 11764: 11760: 11756: 11752: 11748: 11744: 11740: 11736: 11731: 11727: 11723: 11719: 11715: 11711: 11707: 11703: 11699: 11694: 11690: 11686: 11682: 11678: 11674: 11670: 11666: 11662: 11658: 11654: 11649: 11645: 11641: 11636: 11631: 11627: 11623: 11619: 11615: 11611: 11607: 11603: 11598: 11586: 11582: 11578: 11575: 11570: 11566: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11548: 11544: 11540: 11536: 11532: 11528: 11524: 11519: 11515: 11511: 11506: 11501: 11497: 11493: 11489: 11485: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11468: 11453: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11437: 11433: 11427: 11420: 11419: 11413: 11409: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11391: 11387: 11383: 11379: 11375: 11371: 11367: 11362: 11358: 11354: 11349: 11344: 11340: 11336: 11332: 11328: 11324: 11320: 11316: 11311: 11307: 11303: 11298: 11293: 11289: 11285: 11281: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11265: 11260: 11256: 11252: 11248: 11244: 11240: 11236: 11232: 11228: 11224: 11220: 11214: 11210: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11192: 11188: 11184: 11180: 11176: 11172: 11168: 11163: 11159: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11133: 11129: 11125: 11120: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11104: 11099: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11082: 11077: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11049: 11044: 11039: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11022: 11018: 11014: 11010: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10994: 10990: 10986: 10982: 10976: 10972: 10968: 10964: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10946: 10942: 10938: 10933: 10932: 10930: 10929: 10920: 10915: 10911: 10906: 10894: 10890: 10884: 10880: 10876: 10872: 10868: 10864: 10860: 10859: 10854: 10850: 10847:; Lewis, B.; 10846: 10842: 10838: 10833: 10829: 10824: 10820: 10815: 10811: 10805: 10801: 10797: 10792: 10788: 10783: 10779: 10774: 10770: 10765: 10761: 10755: 10751: 10746: 10745: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10726: 10722: 10717: 10713: 10709: 10705: 10701: 10696: 10692: 10687: 10683: 10678: 10674: 10669: 10657: 10653: 10647: 10643: 10639: 10634: 10622: 10618: 10612: 10608: 10607: 10602: 10598: 10586: 10582: 10576: 10572: 10568: 10564: 10560: 10556: 10551: 10547: 10542: 10535: 10531: 10524: 10520: 10519:Mackie, Gerry 10516: 10512: 10507: 10495: 10491: 10485: 10481: 10477: 10472: 10460: 10456: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10437: 10433: 10427: 10423: 10422: 10416: 10412: 10407: 10403: 10398: 10394: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10376: 10371: 10367: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10340: 10335: 10334: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10315: 10311: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10282: 10278: 10272: 10268: 10264: 10262: 10256: 10252: 10248: 10243: 10239: 10234: 10230: 10226: 10225:Boddy, Janice 10222: 10218: 10214: 10213:Boddy, Janice 10210: 10206: 10201: 10197: 10192: 10180: 10176: 10170: 10166: 10162: 10157: 10142: 10135: 10134: 10128: 10124: 10118: 10113: 10112: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10094: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10078: 10066: 10062: 10056: 10052: 10048: 10043: 10042: 10040: 10039: 10026: 10015: 10011: 10007: 10000: 9990: 9986: 9983: 9978: 9963: 9959: 9952: 9937: 9936:openDemocracy 9933: 9926: 9919: 9918:Boston Review 9915: 9911: 9908: 9904: 9900: 9899:Boston Review 9896: 9892: 9889: 9885: 9879: 9872: 9871:Nussbaum 1999 9867: 9860: 9856: 9851: 9844: 9839: 9832: 9828: 9824: 9821: 9815: 9808: 9804: 9800: 9797: 9793: 9788: 9781: 9776: 9769: 9765: 9760: 9753: 9748: 9741: 9737: 9732: 9725: 9721: 9720:Nnaemeka 2005 9716: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9696: 9688: 9684: 9679: 9675: 9670: 9663: 9659: 9658:Nnaemeka 2005 9654: 9647: 9643: 9638: 9631: 9627: 9626:Nnaemeka 2005 9622: 9615: 9610: 9603: 9598: 9591: 9587: 9586:Nnaemeka 2005 9582: 9575: 9571: 9567: 9564: 9558: 9551: 9546: 9539: 9535: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9521: 9516: 9509: 9505: 9501: 9498: 9493: 9486: 9482: 9479: 9478: 9472: 9466: 9465: 9459: 9455: 9451: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9436: 9432: 9429: 9425: 9424:Efua Dorkenoo 9419: 9412: 9408: 9403: 9396: 9392: 9389: 9384: 9377: 9371: 9364: 9360: 9357: 9351: 9349: 9347: 9339: 9334: 9332: 9324: 9319: 9312: 9308: 9304: 9301: 9295: 9288: 9284: 9281: 9276: 9269: 9265: 9261: 9258: 9252: 9250: 9243: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9230: 9227:Pam Belluck, 9215: 9211: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9169: 9165: 9161: 9156: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9133: 9126: 9122: 9119: 9113: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9095: 9089: 9087: 9079: 9075: 9072: 9067: 9061: 9059: 9055: 9052: 9047: 9043: 9039: 9036: 9030: 9024: 9013: 9009: 9005: 8998: 8994: 8988: 8981: 8976: 8969: 8965: 8961: 8958: 8952: 8945: 8941: 8937: 8934: 8929: 8927: 8925: 8917: 8912: 8905: 8901: 8898: 8893: 8891: 8884: 8882: 8876: 8872: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8854: 8850: 8847: 8843: 8839: 8836: 8830: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8812: 8808: 8803: 8796: 8791: 8784: 8779: 8772: 8767: 8760: 8756: 8751: 8744: 8740: 8737: 8731: 8724: 8720: 8717: 8712: 8705: 8700: 8693: 8688: 8681: 8676: 8674: 8672: 8664: 8660: 8656: 8652: 8649: 8646:Emma Bonino, 8643: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8625: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8608: 8599: 8590: 8583: 8579: 8574: 8567: 8562: 8555: 8550: 8543: 8538: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8520: 8514: 8507: 8503: 8498: 8491: 8486: 8479: 8475: 8470: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8452: 8448: 8443: 8436: 8431: 8429: 8421: 8416: 8409: 8404: 8397: 8392: 8385: 8380: 8373: 8369: 8364: 8357: 8352: 8336: 8332: 8328: 8321: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8297: 8290: 8289:Peterson 2012 8286: 8281: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8253: 8246: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8229: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8201: 8194: 8189: 8182: 8181:Kenyatta 1962 8177: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8161:Kenyatta 1962 8159:as outcasts, 8158: 8154: 8153:Kenyatta 1962 8150: 8146: 8142: 8137: 8130: 8126: 8120: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8073: 8069: 8065: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8034: 8027: 8022: 8020: 8012: 8008: 8004: 8000: 7995: 7988: 7984: 7983:Hoberman 2005 7979: 7972: 7968: 7963: 7956: 7955:McGregor 1998 7951: 7944: 7939: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7919: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7895: 7888: 7883: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7863:J. F. C. 1873 7859: 7857: 7855: 7848:, 1003, 1009. 7847: 7842: 7834: 7833:The Telegraph 7830: 7823: 7821: 7814: 7808: 7806: 7804: 7796: 7791: 7784: 7779: 7772: 7767: 7760: 7755: 7748: 7743: 7736: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7706: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7684: 7679: 7672: 7668: 7663: 7656: 7655:O'Rourke 2007 7651: 7644: 7639: 7632: 7627: 7625: 7623: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7598: 7591: 7586: 7579: 7574: 7567: 7562: 7544: 7537: 7530: 7529:Kunhiyop 2008 7525: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7486: 7478: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7445: 7438: 7433: 7427: 7422: 7415: 7414:Wensinck 2012 7410: 7403: 7399: 7394: 7387: 7382: 7380: 7372: 7368: 7365: 7359: 7352: 7348: 7343: 7336: 7331: 7329: 7321: 7316: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7296: 7289: 7284: 7276: 7272: 7266: 7259: 7254: 7247: 7242: 7235: 7230: 7223: 7218: 7211: 7206: 7199: 7195: 7192: 7186: 7179: 7174: 7167: 7162: 7155: 7150: 7143: 7138: 7131: 7126: 7119: 7114: 7107: 7103: 7098: 7091: 7087: 7082: 7075: 7070: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7046: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7026: 7019: 7015: 7010: 7008: 7000: 6995: 6988: 6983: 6976: 6971: 6964: 6959: 6952: 6947: 6940: 6935: 6929:, 35, 42, 46. 6928: 6923: 6916: 6912: 6907: 6899: 6895: 6889: 6881: 6875: 6856: 6849: 6843: 6837: 6830: 6826: 6820: 6813: 6808: 6801: 6796: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6778: 6773: 6766: 6761: 6754: 6749: 6742: 6738: 6735: 6730: 6723: 6718: 6716: 6708: 6703: 6696: 6690: 6683: 6678: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6648: 6643: 6636: 6631: 6624: 6620: 6615: 6608: 6603: 6596: 6592: 6587: 6571: 6565: 6550: 6546: 6539: 6532: 6527: 6525: 6516: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6467: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6410: 6394: 6388: 6381: 6376: 6369: 6364: 6357: 6352: 6350: 6342: 6337: 6330: 6325: 6318: 6313: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6289: 6282: 6277: 6270: 6265: 6258: 6254: 6249: 6242: 6237: 6230: 6225: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6207: 6202: 6195: 6190: 6171: 6165: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6127: 6120: 6115: 6108: 6103: 6101: 6093: 6088: 6081: 6076: 6074: 6066: 6061: 6054: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6037: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6007: 6000: 5995: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5952: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5927: 5920: 5915: 5908: 5903: 5901: 5893: 5888: 5881: 5876: 5869: 5865: 5860: 5853: 5848: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5828: 5821: 5817: 5812: 5805: 5800: 5798: 5790: 5786: 5781: 5774: 5769: 5762: 5758: 5755: 5750: 5743: 5738: 5736: 5728: 5723: 5716: 5711: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5691: 5684: 5680: 5677: 5673: 5668: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5631: 5627: 5622: 5615: 5611: 5606: 5600: 5595: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5580: 5576: 5575:Reprod Health 5572: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5556: 5551: 5544: 5539: 5532: 5527: 5520: 5515: 5513: 5505: 5500: 5493: 5488: 5481: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5464: 5459: 5457: 5449: 5444: 5437: 5433: 5428: 5421: 5416: 5409: 5404: 5397: 5392: 5390: 5382: 5378: 5373: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5350: 5346: 5341: 5334: 5329: 5327: 5325: 5323: 5315: 5310: 5303: 5298: 5296: 5288: 5283: 5276: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5259: 5255: 5250: 5243: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5168: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5142: 5135: 5130: 5128: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5102: 5096: 5089: 5088:Nussbaum 1999 5084: 5082: 5080: 5072: 5067: 5065: 5057: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5018: 5017: 5012: 5006: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4998: 4990: 4985: 4978: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4960: 4945: 4938: 4933: 4924: 4917: 4916:Dawoodi Bohra 4911: 4902: 4892: 4882: 4873: 4866: 4861: 4852: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4829: 4827: 4822: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4802: 4795: 4794:uncircumcised 4789: 4779: 4770: 4763: 4759: 4754: 4744: 4737: 4732: 4723: 4716: 4711: 4705: 4700: 4696: 4691: 4681: 4671: 4661: 4651: 4644: 4638: 4631: 4625: 4615: 4605: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4579: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4561:A diagram in 4558: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4537: 4530: 4524: 4515: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4455: 4454: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4428:Conservatives 4425: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4401: 4398: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4337: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4286:Sylvia Tamale 4283: 4279: 4274: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4252: 4248: 4234: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4215: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4192: 4189: 4188:Criminal Code 4184: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4155:North America 4152: 4150: 4146: 4140: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4098: No data 4068: 4064: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4045:ratified the 4044: 4043:African Union 4040: 4036: 4032: 4027: 4025: 4021: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3984: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3963:Women and Sex 3960: 3955: 3944: 3939: 3937: 3932: 3930: 3925: 3924: 3922: 3921: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3897: 3888: 3881: 3875: 3868: 3862: 3853: 3846: 3840: 3831: 3824: 3820: 3818: 3810: 3801: 3794: 3789: 3780: 3773: 3767: 3758: 3751: 3745: 3738: 3734: 3728: 3721: 3715: 3706: 3704: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3677: 3670: 3665: 3658: 3652: 3645: 3641: 3635: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3610: 3603: 3597: 3590: 3585: 3576: 3574: 3564: 3557: 3551: 3542: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3519: 3513: 3506: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3469:Efua Dorkenoo 3466: 3463: 3462: 3456: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3431: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3415: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3406: 3405: 3402: 3401:Efua Dorkenoo 3398: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3380: 3379: 3378: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3359: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3337: 3333: 3332: 3331: 3330: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3321: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3306: 3305: 3304: 3298: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3291: 3285: 3281: 3280: 3279: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3267: 3266: 3260: 3256: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3245: 3244: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3226: 3225: 3219: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3174: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3154: 3153: 3147: 3143: 3140: 3139: 3138: 3137: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3113: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3095:Women and Sex 3092: 3088: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3050: 3047: 3046: 3042: 3039: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3016:Sawt el Maraa 3013: 3009: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2982: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2970: 2969: 2967: 2959: 2955: 2954:Salama Moussa 2951: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2921: 2917: 2916: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2858: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2843:Njuri Nchecke 2839: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2797: 2796:(bottom left) 2794: 2790: 2786: 2784: 2779: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2768:Jomo Kenyatta 2765: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2737: 2734: 2730: 2722: 2716: 2700: 2694: 2683: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2662:more stitches 2659: 2655: 2654:James C. Burt 2651: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2605: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2579: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2541: 2536: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2457: 2454: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2432: 2428: 2425:may refer in 2424: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2398: 2396: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2261: 2258:, founded by 2257: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2220: 2215: 2206: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2190: 2188: 2183: 2182:Sande society 2179: 2175: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2121: 2109: 2107: 2106:Bondo society 2103: 2098: 2094: 2093:Somali people 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2052: 2043: 2041: 2035: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1995: 1991: 1985: 1982: 1968: 1954: 1939: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1917: 1908: 1906: 1903:(USAID); and 1902: 1898: 1894: 1885: 1876: 1874: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1857:meta-analysis 1854: 1850: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1794:pre-eclampsia 1786: 1781: 1772: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1735:Vesicovaginal 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1709:that lead to 1708: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1647: 1644: 1643:complications 1636: 1632: 1627: 1616:Complications 1613: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1589: 1579: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1558: 1555: 1551: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1525: 1521: 1516: 1514: 1513: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1447:clitoral hood 1444: 1443:clitoral hood 1440: 1436: 1427: 1424: 1417: 1407: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1370: 1356: 1354: 1349: 1345: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1309: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1273:derives from 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1221:Igbo language 1218: 1214: 1209: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1132: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1057:clitoral hood 1052: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1003: 998: 996: 991: 989: 984: 983: 981: 980: 975: 970: 965: 963: 958: 953: 952: 951: 950: 946: 945: 940: 937: 935: 932: 931: 930: 929: 925: 924: 919: 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 897: 896:Female sodomy 894: 892: 889: 888: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 865: 862: 861: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 833: 830: 828: 825: 824: 823: 820: 818: 815: 811: 808: 806: 803: 802: 801: 798: 796: 793: 789: 786: 785: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 742: 739: 738: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 720: 717: 716: 715: 712: 708: 705: 704: 703: 700: 699: 698: 697: 692: 685: 684: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 663: 662:World Charter 659: 655: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 624: 621: 620: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 603:Antisexualism 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 588:Miscegenation 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 532: 529: 525: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 507: 506: 505: 502:Social issues 501: 500: 496: 492: 491: 488: 485: 484: 469: 466: 463: 460: 457: 454: 451: 448: 445: 442: 439: 436: 433: 432:Côte d'Ivoire 430: 427: 424: 421: 418: 415: 412: 409: 406: 403: 400: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 384:Guinea-Bissau 382: 379: 376: 373: 370: 367: 364: 361: 358: 355: 352: 349: 346: 345: 342: 338: 331: 327: 316: 313: 310: 307: 304: 301: 298: 295: 292: 289: 286: 283: 280: 277: 274: 271: 268: 265: 262: 259: 256: 253: 250: 247: 244: 241: 238: 237:Côte d'Ivoire 235: 232: 229: 226: 225:Guinea-Bissau 223: 220: 217: 214: 211: 208: 205: 202: 199: 196: 193: 190: 187: 184: 181: 178: 175: 172: 169: 166: 163: 160: 157: 154: 151: 148: 145: 144: 141: 137: 130: 126: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 70: 64: 59: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 18374: 18362: 18350: 18073:Hip fracture 18068:Osteoporosis 17809:Infibulation 17798: 17709:Dysmenorrhea 17702:Sanitary pad 17654:Menstruation 17382:Preeclampsia 17377:Hypertension 17261:Labia majora 17256:Labia minora 17131: 17106: 17050:Rhetoricians 17040:Philosophers 16932:Saudi Arabia 16728:South Africa 16589:Epistemology 16542:Anthropology 16537:Architecture 16500:Legal theory 16407:Gynocentrism 16346:War on women 16281:Pro-feminism 16236:Gender-blind 16186:Gender quota 16159:Art movement 15953:Dianic Wicca 15832:Sex-positive 15795:Postcolonial 15662:Conservative 15642:Anti-fascist 15328: 15291:Colpocleisis 15231:Cervicectomy 15186: 15163: 15135: 15120:Hysteroscopy 15107: 15077:Hysterectomy 15072:Genitoplasty 15062: 15023:Falloposcopy 15000:Oophorectomy 14931: 14911:February 6th 14813:by deception 14676:Foot binding 14654:Infibulation 14643: 14602:Dating abuse 14592:Bride buying 14451: 14443: 14435: 14416: 14408: 14400: 14392: 14336:Equality Now 14315:Alice Walker 14295:Gerry Mackie 14249:Nahid Toubia 14244:Hulda Stumpf 14189:Janice Boddy 14137:Sierra Leone 14066:Keloid scars 14061:Infibulation 14041:Dysmenorrhea 14021: 13986:Dishonour.ca 13981:at Wikiquote 13945: 13935: 13919: 13916:Dirie, Waris 13907: 13897: 13896: 13890: 13879: 13873:The Observer 13872: 13862:The Guardian 13861: 13823: 13797: 13786: 13763: 13742: 13733: 13706: 13688: 13678: 13668: 13642: 13603: 13593: 13583: 13582: 13571:. 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Retrieved 8067: 8060: 8052:. Retrieved 8043: 8033: 7994: 7978: 7967:Sheehan 1981 7962: 7950: 7938: 7927:Shorter 2008 7918: 7907:Shorter 2008 7894: 7882: 7841: 7832: 7790: 7778: 7766: 7754: 7742: 7720: 7712: 7698: 7690: 7678: 7662: 7650: 7638: 7597: 7585: 7573: 7561: 7549:. Retrieved 7536: 7524: 7512:. Retrieved 7508:the original 7496:The Guardian 7495: 7485: 7458: 7454: 7444: 7432: 7421: 7409: 7393: 7388:, 1004–1005. 7358: 7342: 7315: 7295: 7283: 7265: 7253: 7241: 7229: 7217: 7205: 7185: 7173: 7161: 7149: 7137: 7125: 7113: 7097: 7081: 7069: 7045: 7025: 6994: 6982: 6970: 6958: 6946: 6934: 6922: 6911:Abdalla 2007 6906: 6888: 6874: 6862:. Retrieved 6855:the original 6842: 6836: 6819: 6807: 6795: 6772: 6760: 6748: 6729: 6702: 6689: 6677: 6665:. Retrieved 6657:The Guardian 6656: 6642: 6630: 6614: 6602: 6586: 6574:. Retrieved 6564: 6552:. Retrieved 6549:The Guardian 6548: 6538: 6480: 6476: 6466: 6426:(2): 81–89. 6423: 6419: 6409: 6397:. Retrieved 6387: 6375: 6363: 6336: 6324: 6312: 6288: 6276: 6264: 6248: 6236: 6224: 6201: 6189: 6177:. Retrieved 6164: 6145: 6126: 6114: 6087: 6080:Rushwan 2013 6060: 6006: 5994: 5982: 5970: 5964:Mandara 2004 5956:Mandara 2000 5951: 5926: 5914: 5887: 5875: 5859: 5847: 5832:Abdalla 2007 5827: 5816:Abdalla 2007 5811: 5780: 5768: 5749: 5722: 5710: 5690: 5667: 5655:. Retrieved 5646: 5637: 5628:, 4, 23–28; 5621: 5605: 5550: 5538: 5526: 5499: 5487: 5443: 5432:Abdalla 2007 5427: 5415: 5403: 5372: 5356: 5340: 5309: 5282: 5254:Karanja 2009 5249: 5241: 5234:. Retrieved 5223:The Guardian 5222: 5193: 5141: 5095: 5020:. Retrieved 5014: 4984: 4944: 4932: 4923: 4910: 4901: 4891: 4881: 4872: 4860: 4851: 4834: 4824: 4818: 4810: 4801: 4793: 4788: 4778: 4769: 4761: 4758:Gerry Mackie 4753: 4743: 4736:Gerry Mackie 4731: 4722: 4715:Gerry Mackie 4710: 4702: 4695:Gerry Mackie 4690: 4680: 4670: 4660: 4650: 4642: 4637: 4629: 4624: 4614: 4604: 4597:Nahid Toubia 4591: 4583: 4578: 4571:circumcision 4570: 4557: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4528: 4523: 4514: 4506: 4498: 4465:Emasculation 4456: 4421: 4414:Circumcision 4394: 4382: 4366: 4339: 4310: 4281: 4275: 4256: 4216: 4212:Aminata Diop 4204: 4185: 4164: 4148: 4142: 4102: 4052: 4028: 4023: 4016: 4007: 3991: 3988: 3972: 3966: 3962: 3956: 3952: 3908: 3905:Nahid Toubia 3901:Anika Rahman 3896: 3887: 3874: 3866: 3861: 3852: 3844: 3839: 3830: 3822: 3816: 3809: 3800: 3795:, p. 3. 3788: 3779: 3771: 3766: 3757: 3749: 3744: 3737:The Guardian 3736: 3727: 3714: 3695:It's Only Me 3694: 3689: 3681: 3676: 3664: 3656: 3651: 3643: 3634: 3626: 3618: 3609: 3601: 3596: 3584: 3563: 3555: 3550: 3541: 3533: 3530:Janice Boddy 3525: 3517: 3512: 3500: 3491: 3480: 3464: 3454: 3440: 3432: 3422: 3407: 3370: 3363:Robin Morgan 3351: 3345: 3313: 3268: 3258: 3252: 3235: 3227: 3213: 3199: 3192:Jill Tweedie 3187: 3175: 3165: 3161: 3145: 3114: 3106: 3105:: Saadawi's 3102: 3094: 3090: 3082: 3056: 3048: 3040: 3023: 3015: 3007: 2999: 2995: 2987: 2983: 2971: 2965: 2957: 2949: 2941: 2934:Hulda Stumpf 2929: 2911:follow suit. 2900: 2892: 2886: 2846: 2842: 2840: 2831: 2821: 2809:Edward Grigg 2805:Hulda Stumpf 2801: 2795: 2793:Hulda Stumpf 2775: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2739: 2728: 2725: 2704: 2698: 2658:episiotomies 2649: 2647: 2638: 2613: 2602: 2596: 2571:infibulation 2559: 2546:frankincense 2543: 2538: 2532: 2528: 2510: 2495: 2482: 2468: 2430: 2423:Coffin Texts 2413: 2400: 2394: 2392: 2353: 2341:FGM in India 2327: 2308: 2303: 2293:In 2007 the 2292: 2288: 2252: 2246: 2243:Ya, mutmura! 2242: 2238: 2224: 2203: 2191: 2187:Janice Boddy 2178:Sierra Leone 2167: 2148:Gerry Mackie 2139: 2133: 2127: 2120: 2085:Sulaymaniyah 2074: 2058: 2049: 2039: 2036: 2015:Saudi Arabia 1986: 1981:Gerry Mackie 1978: 1918: 1914: 1890: 1870: 1867:Distribution 1846: 1810: 1790: 1785:Burkina Faso 1761:hematocolpos 1751: 1704: 1683:endometritis 1648: 1640: 1598: 1587: 1586: 1576: 1570: 1566: 1563:defibulation 1562: 1559: 1547: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1524:infibulation 1519: 1518: 1510: 1507: 1477: 1465: 1464: 1434: 1433: 1421: 1404: 1371: 1367: 1352: 1343: 1341: 1296: 1275: 1271:infibulation 1270: 1262: 1256: 1253:infibulation 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1216: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1189: 1179: 1175: 1153: 1116: 1108:chronic pain 1089: 1073:infibulation 1053: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1011: 859:Sexual abuse 839:Revenge porn 800:Prostitution 762: 690: 678:Circumcision 668:Survival sex 650:Sex industry 420:Sierra Leone 414:Burkina Faso 195:Burkina Faso 165:Sierra Leone 55: 39:Vaginoplasty 18376:WikiProject 18063:Bone health 17999:Lung cancer 17836:Dyspareunia 17779:HPV vaccine 17719:Amenorrhoea 17714:Menorrhagia 17552:Infertility 17501:Stillbirths 17362:Miscarriage 17090:Comic books 17015:Art critics 16937:South Korea 16917:Philippines 16897:New Zealand 16892:Netherlands 16623:Pornography 16611:Metaphysics 16552:Criminology 16547:Archaeology 16520:Film theory 16221:Women's Day 15963:Ecofeminist 15822:Reactionary 15770:Materialist 15545:Switzerland 15540:New Zealand 15459:Fourth-wave 15442:Second-wave 15334:Labiaplasty 15259:Vaginectomy 15137:Endometrium 15082:Hysterotomy 14634:Eve teasing 14629:Dowry death 14577:Acid attack 14468:Legislation 14290:Asha Ismail 14280:Waris Dirie 14219:Fran Hosken 14127:New Zealand 14046:Dyspareunia 13858:FGM archive 13716:"Indonesia" 13264:: 419–445. 13188:(4): 9–15. 12738:6 September 10853:Pellat, Ch. 10033:Works cited 9967:24 December 9752:Conroy 2006 9700:Walley 2002 9674:Korieh 2005 9642:Tamale 2011 9280:Section 268 9018:28 November 8881:Section 268 8833:Australia: 8759:UNICEF 2010 8755:UNICEF 2013 8692:UNICEF 2013 8680:UNICEF 2013 8635:UNICEF 2013 8566:Hosken 1994 8554:Mackie 2003 8396:Elduma 2018 8384:UNICEF 2013 8356:UNICEF 2013 8313:Thomas 2003 8309:Thomas 1996 8301:Thomas 2000 8287:, 118–120; 8269:Robert 1996 8245:Murray 1976 8205:Thomas 2000 8155:, 129; for 8141:Thomas 2000 8109:10 February 8054:10 February 8005:. Also see 8001:, cited in 7999:Cutner 1985 7899:Thomas 1813 7869:, cited in 7846:Mackie 1996 7795:Knight 2001 7783:Knight 2001 7771:Knight 2001 7759:Knight 2001 7747:Knight 2001 7722:Geographica 7705:Knight 2001 7700:Geographica 7683:Knight 2001 7671:Kenyon 1893 7669:, 329–330; 7667:Knight 2001 7645:, 264, 267. 7643:Mackie 2000 7631:Knight 2001 7610:Berlin 2011 7590:UNICEF 2013 7578:UNICEF 2013 7566:Murray 1976 7551:10 November 7386:Mackie 1996 7351:UNICEF 2013 7335:UNICEF 2013 7320:Mackie 1996 7288:UNICEF 2013 7258:Mackie 2000 7234:Mackie 2003 7210:UNICEF 2013 7178:UNICEF 2013 7166:UNICEF 2013 7142:UNICEF 2013 7056:; also see 7014:Ahmadu 2000 7001:, 999–1000. 6999:Mackie 1996 6989:, 620, 624. 6975:Khazan 2015 6939:Mackie 1996 6864:22 December 6825:UNICEF 2013 6802:, 196, 198. 6777:UNICEF 2013 6765:UNICEF 2013 6753:UNICEF 2013 6734:UNICEF 2005 6722:UNICEF 2013 6707:Mackie 2000 6695:UNICEF 2013 6682:UNICEF 2014 6635:UNICEF 2014 6623:UNICEF 2013 6607:UNICEF 2016 6593:, 25, 100; 6591:UNICEF 2013 6531:UNICEF 2013 6380:UNICEF 2013 6368:UNICEF 2014 6317:UNICEF 2013 6293:UNICEF 2013 6253:UNICEF 2013 6241:UNICEF 2013 5932:Nzegwu 2011 5892:UNICEF 2013 5804:Ismail 2016 5773:Ismail 2016 5699:Toubia 1994 5647:www.who.int 5614:UNICEF 2013 5504:UNICEF 2013 5492:Wakabi 2007 5463:UNICEF 2005 5448:UNICEF 2013 5333:UNICEF 2013 5314:UNICEF 2013 5302:Hosken 1994 5204:, 420, 427. 5146:UNICEF 2013 5101:UNICEF 2013 5071:UNICEF 2013 5056:UNICEF 2016 4989:UNICEF 2013 4865:UNICEF 2013 4820:Geographica 4550:sewn closed 4436:transgender 4385:labiaplasty 4363:rhinoplasty 4298:bride price 4177:Khalid Adem 4145:New Zealand 4121:game theory 4004:Fran Hosken 3815:"Review of 3793:UNICEF 2013 3750:Gyn/Ecology 3748:Mary Daly, 3640:"Rebellion" 3505:UNICEF 2013 3384:Fran Hosken 3310:Fran Hosken 3237:Gyn/Ecology 3158:Fran Hosken 2966:1940s–1960s 2887:1920s–1930s 2748:joined the 2746:John Arthur 2727:— From the 2599:nymphomania 2471:sarcophagus 2427:hieroglyphs 2407:sarcophagus 2369:Beta Israel 2337:Sunni Islam 2335:version of 2239:Ya, ghalfa! 2237:girls with 2174:Kono people 2152:footbinding 2034:continue". 1911:Type of FGM 1861:dyspareunia 1829:resuscitate 1765:hematometra 1747:infertility 1691:hepatitis C 1687:hepatitis B 1667:septicaemia 1474:outer labia 1470:inner labia 1186:Fran Hosken 1135:Terminology 1085:intercourse 1069:outer labia 1065:inner labia 913:Trafficking 773:Fornication 618:Pornography 562:Transgender 546:Civil union 534:LGBT rights 362:(49%, 0–11) 51:Vulvoplasty 43:Labiaplasty 18392:Categories 18301:by country 18105:Depression 17756:infections 17461:Episiotomy 17401:Childbirth 17332:Obstetrics 17080:Literature 17025:Economists 16745:Bangladesh 16679:By country 16628:Psychology 16584:Empiricism 16579:Aesthetics 16574:Philosophy 16433:Patriarchy 16413:Matriarchy 16217:Girl's Day 16191:Girl power 16164:In hip hop 16089:Literature 16019:Indigenous 15958:Reclaiming 15854:Standpoint 15827:Separatism 15800:Postmodern 15694:Vegetarian 15684:Difference 15627:Analytical 15454:Third-wave 15437:First-wave 15324:Vulvectomy 15286:Hymenotomy 15274:Episiotomy 15264:Culdoscopy 15199:Colposcopy 15165:Myometrium 14818:corrective 14617:management 14504:Categories 14090:By country 13634:"Djibouti" 12970:15 October 11134:(1): 191. 11128:Pediatrics 11085:Pediatrics 11070:28 October 10947:: w13137. 10899:7 February 10837:"K̲h̲itān" 10287:16 January 10071:16 January 9941:14 October 9884:Yael Tamir 9873:, 123–124. 9740:Berer 2007 9706:, 34, 43, 9614:Kirby 2005 9220:27 October 9188:Pediatrics 9174:22 October 9142:Pediatrics 9127:. Reuters. 8916:Boyle 2002 8783:UNFPA 2013 8771:UNFPA 2013 8578:Boyle 2002 8490:Hayes 1975 8420:Boyle 2002 8410:, 92, 103. 8408:Boyle 2002 8368:Boddy 2007 8341:17 January 8257:Boddy 2007 8233:Boddy 2007 8183:, 127–130. 8165:Zabus 2008 8078:6 February 8028:, 149–153. 7971:Black 1997 7871:Allen 2000 7785:, 327–328. 7731:Cohen 2005 7729:, 17.2.5. 7602:Cohen 2005 7514:1 December 7437:Roald 2003 7398:Roald 2003 7236:, 147–148. 7224:, 432–433. 7076:, 435–436. 7058:Boddy 1989 7050:Boddy 2007 6987:Hayes 1975 6724:, 47, 183. 6667:7 November 6554:9 November 6243:, 134–135. 6055:, 491–492. 5361:Zabus 2013 5345:Zabus 2008 5287:Hayes 1975 4529:exciseuses 4486:References 4334:See also: 3492:References 3475:in London. 3453:publishes 3439:publishes 3421:publishes 3312:publishes 3214:March 1977 3008:Late 1950s 2604:The Lancet 2389:Spell 1117 2345:Shia Islam 1932:Prevalence 1833:stillbirth 1798:laceration 1711:strictures 1621:Short term 1399:clinicians 1353:The Lancet 1204:(FGC) and 726:Bestiality 520:Homophobia 354:Mauritania 213:Mauritania 133:Ages 15–49 121:Prevalence 77:Definition 17931:Pregnancy 17911:Violence 17851:Vaginitis 17724:Menopause 17584:Fostering 17574:Parenting 17544:life plan 17409:Midwifery 17387:Eclampsia 17314:Pregnancy 17303:Maternal 16835:Argentina 16795:Indonesia 16785:Hong Kong 16740:Australia 16640:Seriality 16564:Geography 16490:Sociology 16443:Economics 16428:Kyriarchy 15921:Christian 15901:Religious 15842:Socialist 15632:Anarchist 15577:States of 15515:Australia 15238:insertion 14858:statutory 14833:genocidal 14194:Mary Daly 14122:Kurdistan 13815:"Somalia" 13807:"Nigeria" 13652:"Eritrea" 13536:0039-3665 13489:1471-2458 13393:0028-4793 13342:0020-7292 13204:0543-2499 13126:1468-4373 13081:1873-4111 13061:Maturitas 13001:1879-3479 12960:141166451 12952:2196-713X 12901:2141-9248 12800:8 January 12649:144705914 12588:0021-1753 12543:1360-2276 12477:27 August 12438:1040-872X 12348:0033-3549 12300:1460-9576 12256:0039-3665 12234:CiteSeerX 12173:1432-0711 12136:0028-4793 12000:0959-8138 11949:1756-1833 11908:0300-5771 11856:0001-6349 11755:0029-7828 11718:1558-0520 11673:0029-7828 11626:0959-8138 11591:27 August 11547:0141-0768 11496:0959-8138 11440:1890-1298 11390:1096-4665 11339:2044-6055 11288:1756-1833 11239:1474-547X 11191:0306-6800 11150:1098-4275 11107:0031-4005 11052:1556-5653 11001:1873-233X 10963:1424-3997 10710:(2007) . 10662:27 August 10627:27 August 10591:27 August 10500:27 August 10465:27 August 10355:(1994) . 10185:27 August 9882:Also see 8247:, 92–104. 8241:Hyam 1990 8003:Nour 2008 7504:0261-3077 7477:2167-1907 7200:, Tostan. 6576:15 August 6497:2044-6055 6440:0256-4947 6399:15 August 5231:0261-3077 4956:Citations 4783:Tanzania. 4748:network." 4458:Dishonour 4318:Mary Daly 3373:magazine. 3249:Awa Thiam 3232:Mary Daly 3176:1976–1985 2996:1957–1958 2988:Al Doktor 2729:Muthirigu 2699:Muthirigu 2402:—From an 2384:Antiquity 2315:Abū Dāwūd 2108:rituals. 2011:Palestine 1800:(tears), 1787:about FGM 1723:urination 1701:Long term 1635:Mogadishu 1364:Variation 1344:exciseuse 918:Voyeurism 891:U.S. laws 844:Seduction 827:statutory 810:procuring 783:Obscenity 719:U.S. laws 360:Indonesia 334:Ages 0–14 69:Kapchorwa 18352:Category 18312:Ethiopia 18234:UN Women 18051:Dementia 17982:diseases 17965:Femicide 17943:Misogyny 17863:Polygamy 17764:Safe sex 17672:Menarche 17579:Adoption 17506:Abortion 17424:Oxytocin 17244:Clitoris 17151:Category 17085:American 16957:Thailand 16912:Pakistan 16882:Malaysia 16865:Paraguay 16855:Honduras 16703:Ethiopia 16569:Pedagogy 16495:Rhetoric 16485:Sexology 16478:Womanist 16473:Thealogy 16468:Theology 16266:Misogyny 16134:Femicide 16121:Equality 16070:Concepts 15985:Orthodox 15948:Neopagan 15936:Womanist 15916:Buddhist 15884:Africana 15879:Womanism 15775:Maternal 15765:Lipstick 15731:Activism 15701:Equality 15667:Cultural 15652:Carceral 15587:Virginia 15567:Timeline 15510:Timeline 15447:timeline 15432:Timeline 15409:Feminism 15225:pap test 15063:General: 14933:Category 14711:Misogyny 14671:Femicide 14437:Moolaadé 13944:(2007). 13934:(1998). 13906:(1975). 13833:27359024 13751:Volume 2 13747:Volume 1 13564:Archived 13544:23720002 13507:24010850 13452:24 April 13446:Archived 13442:29006442 13434:17405200 13358:39607405 13350:14499972 13307:12322506 13278:25064860 13249:27563985 13220:12263443 13134:18065832 13097:40413987 13089:25466303 13052:58404665 13017:28600501 13009:21513937 12919:23209995 12866:19015765 12791:Archived 12787:12846114 12729:Archived 12686:20969247 12678:15001386 12612:38351439 12604:11590895 12559:12050442 12551:15655020 12471:Archived 12446:16141763 12409:30483404 12308:20541081 12264:14558322 12205:Archived 12189:11973412 12181:23315098 12058:16864214 11967:16803943 11872:44583626 11864:15225183 11806:29531618 11726:21095534 11689:22472191 11644:16840444 11585:Archived 11583:(1180). 11461:11 April 11452:Archived 11448:29320014 11408:23489149 11357:25416059 11319:BMJ Open 11306:17599983 11247:16753486 11209:27059789 11158:20530070 11064:Archived 11060:19028385 11017:46830711 11009:27741194 10971:21213149 10893:Archived 10855:(eds.). 10656:Archived 10621:Archived 10603:(1999). 10585:Archived 10565:(2005). 10521:(2000). 10494:Archived 10459:Archived 10320:(2001). 10299:(1982). 10281:Archived 10257:(2007). 10227:(1989). 10215:(2007). 10179:Archived 10141:Archived 10107:(2000). 10065:Archived 10014:Archived 10010:Newsweek 9985:Archived 9910:Archived 9891:Archived 9843:WHO 2008 9823:Archived 9799:Archived 9687:Archived 9566:Archived 9534:Archived 9523:Archived 9500:Archived 9481:Archived 9450:Archived 9431:Archived 9391:Archived 9359:Archived 9303:Archived 9283:Archived 9260:Archived 9232:Archived 9214:Archived 9210:20421257 9168:Archived 9121:Archived 9097:Archived 9074:Archived 9054:Archived 9038:Archived 9012:Archived 8960:Archived 8936:Archived 8900:Archived 8879:Canada: 8871:Archived 8860:Archived 8849:Archived 8838:Archived 8814:Archived 8795:WHO 2008 8739:Archived 8719:Archived 8651:Archived 8627:Archived 8522:Archived 8454:Archived 8335:Archived 8315:, 89–91. 8103:Archived 8072:Archived 8068:ABC News 8048:Archived 7367:Archived 7290:, 69–71. 7275:Archived 7260:, 256ff. 7194:Archived 7120:, 27–28. 7118:WHO 2008 6898:Archived 6812:"Guinea" 6780:Archived 6767:, 28–37. 6737:Archived 6661:Archived 6515:31154295 6477:BMJ Open 6458:29620540 6370:, 89–90. 6297:Djibouti 6283:, 70–73. 6209:Archived 6134:Archived 5919:WHO 2005 5907:WHO 2008 5880:WHO 2008 5870:, 42–49. 5854:, 56–64. 5757:Archived 5744:, 13–14. 5727:WHO 1998 5715:WHO 2008 5695:WHO 2008 5679:Archived 5672:WHO 2016 5657:29 April 5651:Archived 5626:WHO 2008 5506:, 43–45. 5422:, 96–97. 5277:, 4, 22. 5275:WHO 2008 5236:12 March 5167:WHO 2018 4977:WHO 2014 4563:WHO 2016 4451:See also 4445:intersex 4294:polygyny 4133:Overview 3507:, p. 10. 3386:at UN's 3308:Autumn: 3284:Khartoum 3261:, 1986). 3166:WIN News 2984:May 1951 2930:Jan 1930 2847:Ngaitana 2826:, where 2824:Karatina 2731:(1929), 2715:Kenyatta 2627:hysteria 2550:calamine 2404:Egyptian 2275:Religion 2019:Malaysia 1999:Colombia 1926:Tigrinya 1821:perineum 1675:gangrene 1520:Type III 1484:Type III 1478:Excision 1313:clitoris 1267:Muhammad 1217:bolokoli 1148:Laikipia 1051:of FGM. 908:Violence 788:U.S. law 702:Adultery 558:Intersex 554:Adoption 390:Ethiopia 315:Cameroon 207:Ethiopia 159:Djibouti 92:, 1997). 18364:Commons 18153:Poverty 18147:factors 18124:Urethra 18100:Anxiety 18082:Anaemia 17878:Puberty 17858:Leblouh 17744:Sexual 17619:Condoms 17097:Parties 16972:Ukraine 16967:Vietnam 16877:Lebanon 16775:Germany 16765:Finland 16760:Denmark 16735:Albania 16723:Senegal 16718:Nigeria 16633:Therapy 16616:Science 16527:Biology 16046:Mizrahi 16014:Chicana 15975:Islamic 15911:Atheist 15847:Marxist 15817:Radical 15753:Liberal 15748:Lesbian 15726:Hip hop 15706:Eugenic 15647:Atheist 15620:General 15592:Wyoming 15425:General 15417:History 15236:Pessary 14992:Ovaries 14848:marital 14612:outline 14341:FORWARD 14132:Nigeria 13617:WebCite 13573:29 July 13498:3844478 13473:: 809. 13401:8058079 13142:9234753 12910:3507121 12857:2582648 12831:1594780 12779:3655332 12725:2096305 12596:3080631 12508:3812643 12454:7706452 12400:6231106 12366:9323387 12357:1381943 12316:2261601 12144:7695718 12066:4999356 12050:4005473 12018:7787655 12009:2549952 11958:1502195 11916:6874206 11797:5839462 11763:9326757 11681:4022475 11635:1502236 11565:9290425 11556:1296388 11514:7787654 11505:2549951 11399:3783896 11348:4244458 11297:1906631 11255:1077505 11200:5013096 11115:9651425 10150:26 July 10020:9 April 9742:, 1335. 9678:121–122 9340:, 1592. 9164:9651425 8999:, 877. 8386:, 2, 9. 8305:129–131 8243:, 196; 8237:241–245 7903:585–586 7404:, 6–13. 7400:, 224; 7322:, 1008. 7106:277–281 7088:, 437; 7018:284–285 6941:, 1003. 6621:, 194; 6506:6549616 6449:6074365 6329:Nigeria 6305:Somalia 6301:Eritrea 5944:272–276 5836:190–191 5612:, 189; 5200:, 225; 5182:UN 2010 4290:dry sex 3473:FORWARD 3471:founds 3361:March: 2498:mummies 2487:papyrus 2379:History 2373:animist 2356:Skoptsy 2333:Shafi'i 2307:(weak) 2247:mutmura 2235:Zabarma 2195:dry sex 2112:Reasons 2072:at 16. 2027:Kurdish 1922:Hedareb 1731:urethra 1719:neuroma 1707:keloids 1671:tetanus 1659:anaemia 1588:Type IV 1583:Type IV 1466:Type II 1461:Type II 1333:vaginal 1303:Methods 1293:Somalia 1229:iwu aru 1225:isa aru 1144:Samburu 947:Portals 881:Slavery 854:Sexting 832:marital 795:Pimping 510:Consent 426:Senegal 396:Nigeria 372:Eritrea 249:Senegal 243:Nigeria 219:Liberia 189:Eritrea 147:Somalia 105:Numbers 18329:Russia 17991:Cancer 17903:health 17873:Orgasm 17746:health 17697:Tampon 17305:health 17278:Uterus 17273:Cervix 17268:Vagina 17219:health 17111:(1967) 17035:Muslim 17030:Jewish 17008:People 16962:Turkey 16952:Taiwan 16942:Sweden 16927:Russia 16922:Poland 16907:Norway 16860:Mexico 16840:Brazil 16815:Israel 16780:Greece 16770:France 16750:Canada 16688:Africa 16594:Ethics 16453:Method 16385:Theory 16296:Racism 16053:Romani 16041:Jewish 15980:Jewish 15926:Mormon 15874:Victim 15837:Social 15810:French 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