Exercise physiology

385:(Q) multiplied by the difference between arterial and venous oxygen concentrations. More simply put, oxygen consumption is dictated by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart as well as the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood; however, this is a bit of an oversimplification. Although cardiac output is thought to be the limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. That is, factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood must also be considered. Various pathologies and anomalies cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that can limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. In addition, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of exercise ( 417:

reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by

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A program that focuses on the scientific study of the physiological processes involved in physical or motor activity, including sensorimotor interactions, response mechanisms, and the effects of injury, disease, and disability. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Careers available with a degree in Exercise Physiology can include: non-clinical, client-based work; strength and conditioning specialists; cardiopulmonary treatment; and clinical-based research.

334:), moderate exercise can induce greater glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations. As stated above, the mechanism for this glucose disposal is independent of insulin, which makes it particularly well-suited for people with diabetes. In addition, there appears to be an increase in sensitivity to insulin for approximately 12–24 hours post-exercise. This is particularly useful for those who have type II diabetes and are producing sufficient insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to insulin signaling. However, during extreme hyperglycemic episodes, people with diabetes should avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with 294:, which removes a phosphate group from glucose-6-P to release free glucose. In order for glucose to exit a cell membrane, the removal of this phosphate group is essential. Although gluconeogenesis is an important component of hepatic glucose output, it alone cannot sustain exercise. For this reason, when glycogen stores are depleted during exercise, glucose levels fall and fatigue sets in. Glucose disposal, the other side of the equation, is controlled by the uptake of glucose by the working skeletal muscles. During exercise, despite decreased 5760: 278:

however, prolonged exercise or sufficiently intense exercise can result in an imbalance leaning towards a higher rate of disposal than appearance, at which point glucose levels fall producing the onset of fatigue. Rate of glucose appearance is dictated by the amount of glucose being absorbed at the gut as well as liver (hepatic) glucose output. Although glucose absorption from the gut is not typically a source of glucose appearance during exercise, the liver is capable of catabolizing stored

208: 5664: 5061: 264:. This resource is short lasting because oxygen is required for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase. Therefore, under anaerobic conditions, this substrate is finite and only lasts between approximately 10 to 30 seconds of high intensity work. Fast glycolysis, however, can function for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen is broken down rapidly via 633: 5674: 37: 991:: Coordinating exercise tests in order to measure body compositions, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength/endurance, and flexibility. Functional tests are also used in order to gain understanding of a more specific part of the body. Once the information is gathered about a client, exercise physiologists must also be able to interpret the test data and decide what health-related outcomes have been discovered. 997:: Forming training programs that best meet an individual's health and fitness goals. Must be able to take into account different types of exercises, the reasons/goal for a client's workout, and pre-screened assessments. Knowing how to prescribe exercises for special considerations and populations is also required. These may include age differences, pregnancy, joint diseases, obesity, pulmonary disease, etc. 4747: 5652: 430:

with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.

715:. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as 179:(resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg making a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. For short duration muscular exertion, energy expenditure can be far greater: an adult human male when jumping up from a squat can mechanically generate 314 W/kg. Such rapid movement can generate twice this amount in nonhuman animals such as 723:"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since ‘physiological catastrophes’ can and do occur suggesting that if it did exist, athletes (such as 985:: In order to safely work with a client on the job, you must first be able to know the benefits and risks associated with physical activity. Examples of this include knowing specific injuries the body can experience during exercise, how to properly screen a client before their training begins, and what factors to look for that may inhibit their performance. 191:) due to muscular expended energy is much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during the day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body. Physical activity energy expenditure correlates strongly with the gender, age, weight, heart rate, and 320:. All of these hormones stimulate liver (hepatic) glucose output, among other functions. For instance, both epinephrine and growth hormone also stimulate adipocyte lipase, which increases non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) release. By oxidizing fatty acids, this spares glucose utilization and helps to maintain blood sugar level during exercise. 342:

of people. In some people, this effect can be particularly potent and can result in normal glucose control. Although nobody is technically cured of diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications; however, regain of weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms.

562:. During intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain's energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain. 828:. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours (further research, however, is still needed). 62:, and involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education, lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions. 926:

Accreditation programs exist with professional bodies in most developed countries, ensuring the quality and consistency of education. In Canada, one may obtain the professional certification title – Certified Exercise Physiologist for those working with clients (both clinical and non clinical) in the

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Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all

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Type II diabetes is also intricately linked to obesity, and there may be a connection between type II diabetes and how fat is stored within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. Likely due to this connection, weight loss from both exercise and diet tends to increase insulin sensitivity in the majority

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Henry 2005 provides BMR formula various ages given body weight: those for BMR aged 18–30 in MJ/day (where mass is body weight in kg) are: male BMR = 0.0669 mass + 2.28; females BMR = 0.0546 mass + 2.33; 1 MJ per day = 11.6 W. The data providing these formula hide a high variance: for men weighing 70

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Colleges and universities offer exercise physiology as a program of study on various different levels, including undergraduate, graduate degrees and certificates, and doctoral programs. The basis of Exercise Physiology as a major is to prepare students for a career in the field of health sciences.

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on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have

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staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia

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of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Not only is a full

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Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the

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usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion:

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runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C)

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Plasma glucose is said to be maintained when there is an equal rate of glucose appearance (entry into the blood) and glucose disposal (removal from the blood). In the healthy individual, the rates of appearance and disposal are essentially equal during exercise of moderate intensity and duration;

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into individual glucose units during intense exercise. Glucose is then oxidized to pyruvate and under anaerobic conditions is reduced to lactic acid. This reaction oxidizes NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a hydrogen ion, promoting acidosis. For this reason, fast glycolysis can not be sustained for

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refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased

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for many hours during sustained exertion. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of 26.4 km/h (16.4 mph) through 8,204 km (5,098 mi) over 50 consecutive days expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal; 273,850 dieter calories) with an average power output of 173.8 W.

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evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of

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Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive

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also diffuse into the sarcoplasm to aid the repolarization phase. During intense muscle contraction, the ion pumps that maintain homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. This causes cellular membrane depolarization,

1018:. The purpose of the classes selected for this major is to have a proficient understanding of human anatomy, human physiology, and exercise physiology. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; 154:

In some countries it is a Primary Health Care Provider. Accredited Exercise Physiologists (AEP's) are university-trained professionals who prescribe exercise-based interventions to treat various conditions using dose response prescriptions specific to each individual.

308:: As mentioned above, insulin secretion is reduced during exercise, and does not play a major role in maintaining normal blood glucose concentration during exercise, but its counter-regulatory hormones appear in increasing concentrations. Principle among these are 2654:

Lubow, JM; Piñón, IG; Avogaro, A; Cobelli, C; Treeson, DM; Mandeville, KA; Toffolo, G; Boyle, PJ (2006). "Brain oxygen utilization is unchanged by hypoglycemia in normal humans: Lactate, alanine, and leucine uptake are not sufficient to offset energy deficit".

1410:. This individual while exceptional was not physiologically extraordinary since he was described as "subelite" due to his not being "able to adjust power output to regulate energy expenditure as occurs with elite athletes during ultra-cycling events" page 347. 175:) of glucose each minute during continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee), generating ≈24 W of mechanical energy, and since muscle energy conversion is only 22–26% efficient, ≈76 W of heat energy. Resting skeletal muscle has a 869:

that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them.

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Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as

519:. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is needed for keeping balance. For this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body. 290:. The ability of the liver to release glucose into the blood from glycogenolysis is unique, since skeletal muscle, the other major glycogen reservoir, is incapable of doing so. Unlike skeletal muscle, liver cells contain the enzyme 977:

In order to gauge the multiple areas of study, students are taught processes in which to follow on a client-based level. Practical and lecture teachings are instructed in the classroom and in a laboratory setting. These include:

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This energy expenditure is very large compared to the basal resting metabolic rate of the adult human body. This rate varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W. Total energy expenditure

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Exercise Physiologists treat a range of neurological conditions including (but not limited to): Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Traumatic Brain Injury, Spinal Cord Injury, Cerebral Palsy and mental health conditions.

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Siegel, AJ; Verbalis, JG; Clement, S; Mendelson, JH; Mello, NK; Adner, M; Shirey, T; Glowacki, J; et al. (2007). "Hyponatremia in marathon runners due to inappropriate arginine vasopressin secretion".

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for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism. Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Notable contributions were made by Henry Taylor at the

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impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia can also lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature.

470:(IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses. 1964:

González-Alonso, J; Mora-Rodríguez, R; Below, PR; Coyle, EF (1995). "Dehydration reduces cardiac output and increases systemic and cutaneous vascular resistance during exercise".

252:(ATP), which is the universal energy source in all cells. The most rapid source, but the most readily depleted of the above sources is the PCr system which utilizes the enzyme 663: 3362:

St Clair Gibson, A; Baden, DA; Lambert, MI; Lambert, EV; Harley, YX; Hampson, D; Russell, VA; Noakes, TD (2003). "The conscious perception of the sensation of fatigue".

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Vigorous physical activity (such as exercise or hard labor) increases the body's demand for oxygen. The first-line physiologic response to this demand is an increase in

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Nybo, L; Møller, K; Volianitis, S; Nielsen, B; Secher, NH (2002). "Effects of hyperthermia on cerebral blood flow and metabolism during prolonged exercise in humans".

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health and fitness industry. In Australia, one may obtain the professional certification title - Accredited Exercise Physiologist (AEP) through the professional body

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Lippi, G; Schena, F; Salvagno, GL; Montagnana, M; Gelati, M; Tarperi, C; Banfi, G; Guidi, GC (2008). "Influence of a half-marathon run on NT-proBNP and troponin T".

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Ogoh, S; Dalsgaard, MK; Yoshiga, CC; Dawson, EA; Keller, DM; Raven, PB; Secher, NH (2005). "Dynamic cerebral autoregulation during exhaustive exercise in humans".

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In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%.

3407:"From catastrophe to complexity: A novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: Summary and conclusions" 1420:

Richter, EA; Kiens, B; Saltin, B; Christensen, NJ; Savard, G (1988). "Skeletal muscle glucose uptake during dynamic exercise in humans: Role of muscle mass".

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class schedule needed to complete a degree in Exercise Physiology, but a minimum amount of practicum experience is required and internships are recommended.

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Capostagno, B; Lambert, M. I; Lamberts, R. P (2016). "A Systematic Review of Submaximal Cycle Tests to Predict, Monitor, and Optimize Cycling Performance".

931:(ESSA). In Australia, it is common for an AEP to also have the qualification of an Accredited Exercise Scientist (AES). The premiere governing body is the 888: 504:

receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon

93:. The effect of training on the body has been defined as the reaction to the adaptive responses of the body arising from exercise or as "an elevation of 2793:

Cian, C; Barraud, PA; Melin, B; Raphel, C (2001). "Effects of fluid ingestion on cognitive function after heat stress or exercise-induced dehydration".

508:. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its 719:

and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles ("

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can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise.

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Holmqvist, N; Secher, NH; Sander-Jensen, K; Knigge, U; Warberg, J; Schwartz, TW (1986). "Sympathoadrenal and parasympathetic responses to exercise".

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Elia, M. (1992) "Energy expenditure in the whole body". Energy metabolism. Tissue determinants and cellular corollaries. 61–79 Raven Press New York.

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Noakes, TD; Peltonen, JE; Rusko, HK (2001). "Evidence that a central governor regulates exercise performance during acute hypoxia and hyperoxia".

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There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold.

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Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors.

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Noakes, TD (2000). "Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance".

883:. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an 550:

At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with

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Hale, Tudor (2008-02-15). "History of developments in sport and exercise physiology: A. V. Hill, maximal oxygen uptake, and oxygen debt".

4778: 908:. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole 5710: 1719: 970:

function. Furthermore, exercise physiologists range from basic scientists, to clinical researchers, to clinicians, to sports trainers.

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McKenna, MJ; Bangsbo, J; Renaud, JM (2008). "Muscle K, Na, and Cl disturbances and Na-K pump inactivation: Implications for fatigue".

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going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose.

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in the 1950s and 60s, the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, German universities, and the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre among others.

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Watson, P; Shirreffs, SM; Maughan, RJ (2005). "Blood-brain barrier integrity may be threatened by exercise in a warm environment".

841: 286:) as well as synthesizing new glucose from specific reduced carbon molecules (glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate) in a process called 539:

content during whole body exercise" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments

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Secher, NH; Seifert, T; Van Lieshout, JJ (2008). "Cerebral blood flow and metabolism during exercise: Implications for fatigue".

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Secher, NH; Seifert, T; Van Lieshout, JJ (2008). "Cerebral blood flow and metabolism during exercise: Implications for fatigue".

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to the working skeletal muscles, and within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction.

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Pedersen TH, Nielsen OB, Lamb GD, Stephenson DG (2004). "Intracellular acidosis enhances the excitability of working muscle".

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St Clair Gibson, A; Lambert, ML; Noakes, TD (2001). "Neural control of force output during maximal and submaximal exercise".

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Sharma, VM; Sridharan, K; Pichan, G; Panwar, MR (1986). "Influence of heat-stress induced dehydration on mental functions".

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Swallow, JG; Carter, PA; Garland Jr, T (1998). "Artificial selection for increased wheel-running behavior in house mice".

3720:"How recreational marathon runners hit the wall: A large-scale data analysis of late-race pacing collapse in the marathon" 5476: 3245:"Remodeling of ryanodine receptor complex causes "leaky" channels: A molecular mechanism for decreased exercise capacity" 932: 4610: 2139:

Febbraio, MA; Steensberg, A; Keller, C; Starkie, RL; Nielsen, HB; Krustrup, P; Ott, P; Secher, NH; Pedersen, BK (2003).

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Hakansson, S.; Jones, M. D.; Ristov, M.; Marcos, L.; Clark, T.; Ram, A.; Morey, R.; Franklin, A.; McCarthy, C. (2018).

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Newsholme, EA; Blomstrand, E (1995). "Tryptophan, 5-Hydroxytryptamine and a Possible Explanation for Central Fatigue".

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Kemppainen, J; Aalto, S; Fujimoto, T; Kalliokoski, KK; Långsjö, J; Oikonen, V; Rinne, J; Nuutila, P; Knuuti, J (2005).

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Koch, L. G.; Britton, S. L. (2001). "Artificial selection for intrinsic aerobic endurance running capacity in rats".

3007: 1161: 597: 338:. Exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA's. 291: 3860: 4991: 4863: 2990:

Hermansen, L (1981). "Effect of Metabolic Changes on Force Generation in Skeletal Muscle During Maximal Exercise".

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translocation and glucose uptake. The mechanism for increased GLUT4 translocation is an area of ongoing research.

17: 4611:"Intensity-dependent effects of aerobic training on pressure pain threshold in overweight men: A randomized trial" 1872:

Cheuvront SN, Haymes EM (2001). "Thermoregulation and marathon running: biological and environmental influences".

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Bellinger, AM; Reiken, S; Dura, M; Murphy, PW; Deng, SX; Landry, DW; Nieman, D; Lehnart, SE; et al. (2008).

221: 5703: 535:"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation , associated with a reduced mitochondrial O 211:

Ergospirometry laboratory for the measurement of metabolic changes during a graded exercise test on a treadmill

401:(EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake is reliant on a rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive 5877: 5779: 5355: 905: 3302:

Noakes, T; Mekler, J; Pedoe, DT (2008). "Jim Peters' collapse in the 1954 Vancouver Empire Games marathon".

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predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized

4311: 2943:"Middle cerebral artery blood velocity is reduced with hyperthermia during prolonged exercise in humans" 1380:"Physiologic and psychological responses of an athlete cycling 100+ miles daily for 50 consecutive days" 853: 5897: 5892: 5867: 5181: 5064: 4764: 1354: 589: 531: 4193:

Lupi, O (2008). "Ancient adaptations of human skin: Why do we retain sebaceous and apocrine glands?".

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Bangsbo, J (1996). "Physiological factors associated with efficiency in high intensity exercise".

691:. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later. 5831: 5749: 5625: 5245: 900:

Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of

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Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of

140: 5816: 5635: 4344: 2454: 2141:"Glucose ingestion attenuates interleukin-6 release from contracting skeletal muscle in humans" 884: 780: 728: 669: 265: 249: 4390:"Selection for aerobic capacity affects corticosterone, monoamines and wheel-running activity" 1178: 5300: 4820: 4522: 4388:

Waters, RP; Renner, KJ; Pringle, RB; Summers, CH; Britton, SL; Koch, LG; Swallow, JG (2008).

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Ferreira, LF; Reid, MB (2008). "Muscle-derived ROS and thiol regulation in muscle fatigue".

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main factors determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise.

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Carrier, David R. (1984). "The Energetic Paradox of Human Running and Hominid Evolution".

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Ide, K; Horn, A; Secher, NH (1999). "Cerebral metabolic response to submaximal exercise".

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kg, measured BMR is between 50 and 110 W, and women weighing 60 kg, between 40 W and 90 W.

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the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined.

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Energy needed to perform short lasting, high intensity bursts of activity is derived from

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Maughan, RJ; Shirreffs, SM; Watson, P (2007). "Exercise, heat, hydration and the brain".

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Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon

229: 131: 4358: 4085: 3735: 3592: 3260: 3162: 1720:"Prediction of energy expenditure from heart rate monitoring during submaximal exercise" 144: 5610: 5579: 5546: 5513: 5466: 5279: 5262: 5001: 4996: 4946: 4855: 4825: 4656: 4591: 4462: 4414: 4389: 4370: 4303: 4253: 4218: 4140: 4105: 3901: 3762: 3719: 3700: 3611: 3576: 3557: 3514: 3431: 3406: 3387: 3279: 3244: 3225: 3182: 3126: 3101: 3077: 3052: 3025: 2967: 2942: 2888: 2775: 2726: 2680: 2631: 2614: 2590: 2565: 2284: 2165: 2140: 2121: 2092:"Muscle-derived interleukin-6: Mechanisms for activation and possible biological roles" 2067: 2042: 1941: 1916: 1897: 1811: 1784: 1750: 1589: 1564: 1540: 1515: 1480: 1237: 901: 626: 505: 86: 4062: 3331:"Muscular exercise, lactic acid and the supply and utilisation of oxygen. Parts I–III" 2806: 2302:

Rossen R, Kabat H, Anderson JP (1943). "Acute arrest of cerebral circulation in man".

1628:"Basal metabolic rate studies in humans: Measurement and development of new equations" 389:) aids used in endurance sports to increase the volume percentage of red blood cells ( 5826: 5744: 5677: 5403: 5267: 5213: 5196: 5138: 4941: 4916: 4888: 4873: 4709: 4648: 4640: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4534: 4503: 4454: 4419: 4362: 4295: 4257: 4210: 4206: 4175: 4097: 4037: 4010: 3983: 3942: 3932: 3893: 3841: 3802: 3767: 3749: 3692: 3651: 3616: 3575:

Esteve-Lanao, J; Lucia, A; Dekoning, JJ; Foster, C (2008). Earnest, Conrad P. (ed.).

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approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of

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to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance

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American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology

2272: 104:, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression. 5841: 5800: 5734: 5667: 5620: 5605: 5531: 5483: 5408: 5398: 5310: 5208: 5203: 5128: 5033: 5023: 4951: 4898: 4702: 4635: 3978: 3961: 3928: 3923:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 384. pp. 315–20. 3744: 3601: 3577:"How do humans control physiological strain during strenuous endurance exercise?" 3117: 2762: 2745: 2581: 2468: 2237: 2202: 2156: 2058: 1977: 1738: 1396: 1379: 1058: 1043: 1019: 959: 947: 837: 716: 688: 287: 257: 253: 237: 2423: 5615: 5584: 5441: 5413: 5380: 5365: 5257: 5228: 5163: 5153: 5081: 4936: 4171: 3249:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2668: 2539: 1932: 1053: 967: 963: 805: 724: 708: 656: 636: 617: 613: 477:

which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (

398: 386: 382: 359: 355: 326:: Exercise is a particularly potent tool for glucose control in those who have 317: 283: 123: 70: 43:

may be trained and assessed by exercise physiologists to optimize performance.

5759: 4482:"Endurance capacity of mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running" 4450: 4158:

Snellen, JW; Mitchell, D; Wyndham, CH (1970). "Heat of evaporation of sweat".

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Ciba Foundation Symposium 82 - Human Muscle Fatigue: Physiological Mechanisms

2714: 2613:

Smith, D; Pernet, A; Hallett, WA; Bingham, E; Marsden, PK; Amiel, SA (2003).

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is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by

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Liebenberg, Louis (2006). "Persistence Hunting by Modern Hunter-Gatherers".

3467: 3269: 3170: 2746:"Dehydration impairs vigilance-related attention in male basketball players" 2347: 2330: 1090: 844:

running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the

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An exercise physiologist's area of study may include but is not limited to

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Understanding the effect of exercise involves studying specific changes in

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Siegel, AJ (2006). "Exercise-associated hyponatremia: Role of cytokines".

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in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of

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Lassen, NA (1959). "Cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption in man".

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of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.

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Dalsgaard, MK (2006). "Fuelling cerebral activity in exercising man".

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Scharhag, J; George, K; Shave, R; Urhausen, A; Kindermann, W (2008).

2041:

Nybo, L; Dalsgaard, MK; Steensberg, A; Møller, K; Secher, NH (2005).

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Gianetti, G; Burton, L; Donovan, R; Allen, G; Pescatello, LS (2008).

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Todd, MM; Dunlop, BJ; Shapiro, HM; Chadwick, HC; Powell, HC (1981).

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Barr, SI (1999). "Effects of dehydration on exercise performance".

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diff), which states that the amount of oxygen consumed is equal to

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After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body

5551: 4845: 4835: 4815: 4708:(8th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1007: 817: 558:, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during 446: 402: 295: 225: 192: 127: 40: 36: 4558:; Maxwell, Linda (2012-10-23). "Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness". 3328: 2412:

American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology

5503: 4830: 4746: 4273:"Locomotion in response to shifting climate zones: Not so fast" 3574: 2138: 1565:"Muscle directly meets the vast power demands in agile lizards" 1124:(3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 83. 625:

inexcitability, and so muscle weakness. Ca leakage from type 1

180: 2994:. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 82. pp. 75–88. 2615:"Lactate: A preferred fuel for human brain metabolism in vivo" 2187: 1562: 873: 820:. This can be misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of 5104: 4000: 3148: 3102:"Lactate metabolism: A new paradigm for the third millennium" 2040: 1419: 418: 299: 4479: 3531: 3404: 2657:

American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:

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Meek, TH; Lonquich, BP; Hannon, RM; Garland Jr, T (2009).

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International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

4523:"Muscle Soreness and Damage and the Repeated-Bout Effect" 4334: 4270: 3242: 2612: 2489: 2374: 2328: 1076: 866: 509: 232:

which utilizes oxygen, is sustainable, and occurs in the

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Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports

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associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.

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ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription

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Feder, ME; Garland Jr, T; Marden, JH; Zera, AJ (2010).

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concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.

100:

Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on

4157: 2862: 2792: 2525: 3962:"Exercise-associated increases in cardiac biomarkers" 2691: 2370: 2368: 2366: 1514:

Scholz, MN; d'Août, K; Bobbert, MF; Aerts, P (2006).

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Noakes, TD; St Clair Gibson, A; Lambert, EV (2005).

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This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that combines 5854: 4060: 2089: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2030: 1305:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922" 1006:The curriculum for exercise physiology includes 596:that activates voltage sensors, and so releases 81:that lead to changes in functional capacity and 3966:Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 3668: 2750:Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 1917:"Why do we have apocrine and sebaceous glands?" 1871: 1261:Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 895: 666:ran the wrong way and collapsed several times. 5704: 5089: 4772: 3329:Hill A. V.; Long C. N. H.; Lupton H. (1924). 2703:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 2619:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 2444: 2027: 1254: 1183:(2nd ed.). Human Kinetics. p. 207. 260:and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP and 4700:American College of Sports Medicine (2010). 3784: 3634:Nybo, L (2008). "Hyperthermia and fatigue". 2865:Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1867: 1865: 1611:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 496:Neurobiological effects of physical exercise 330:. In a situation of elevated blood glucose ( 199:of an individual, during physical activity. 3858: 3819: 2940: 1111: 874:Selective breeding experiments with rodents 781:diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles 776:secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain 683:in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 369:) during exercise is best described by the 5711: 5697: 5096: 5082: 4779: 4765: 4235: 2744:Baker, LB; Conroy, DE; Kenney, WL (2007). 236:. The quick energy sources consist of the 4634: 4497: 4413: 4348: 3977: 3887: 3861:"Convective oxygen transport and fatigue" 3761: 3743: 3686: 3610: 3600: 3430: 3346: 3278: 3268: 3125: 3076: 2989: 2966: 2795:International Journal of Psychophysiology 2761: 2700: 2630: 2589: 2458: 2346: 2335:Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 2164: 2107: 2066: 1940: 1862: 1810: 1800: 1694: 1643: 1588: 1539: 1395: 1272: 1144: 4063:"Endurance running and the evolution of 2316:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1943.02290230022002 1921:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1782: 1112:Awtry, Eric H.; Balady, Gary J. (2007). 631: 206: 35: 29:For broader coverage of this topic, see 4122: 3099: 2559: 2557: 1563:Curtin NA, Woledge RC, Aerts P (2005). 1454: 1038:Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption 756:depletion of muscle and liver glycogen 703:, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 215: 14: 5855: 4728: 4520: 4027: 3488: 3069:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00001.x 3050: 2959:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00279.x 2304:Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry 2258: 2223: 1914: 1836:Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 1717: 1327: 1255:Bassett, D. R.; Howley, E. T. (1997). 816:(BNP), and ischemia-modified (aka MI) 171:Skeletal muscle burns 90 mg (0.5 163:Humans have a high capacity to expend 5692: 5077: 4760: 4292:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135804 3717: 1676: 1625: 966:function, and central and peripheral 929:Exercise and Sports Science Australia 799: 705:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 248:. All of these systems re-synthesize 158: 136:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 5718: 4195:International Journal of Dermatology 4192: 3633: 3503:10.1034/j.1600-0838.2000.010003123.x 2554: 1833: 1203: 1138: 1105: 831: 643: 202: 4486:The Journal of Experimental Biology 4359:10.1152/physiolgenomics.2001.5.1.45 4061:Bramble, DM; Lieberman, DE (2004). 3456:The Journal of Experimental Biology 2090:Febbraio, MA; Pedersen, BK (2002). 1176: 1122:Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine 933:American College of Sports Medicine 695: 579: 24: 3669:Dalsgaard, MK; Secher, NH (2007). 3411:British Journal of Sports Medicine 2632:10.1097/01.WCB.0000063991.19746.11 1422:The American Journal of Physiology 1170: 769:impairing skeletal muscle function 526: 25: 5909: 4740: 4673: 4527:Skeletal muscle damage and repair 786:Impaired oxygen supply to muscles 298:concentrations, muscle increases 272: 5758: 5672: 5663: 5662: 5650: 5060: 5059: 4864:High-intensity interval training 4745: 4676:"Careers in Exercise Physiology" 4572:10.2165/00007256-200333020-00005 4207:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2008.03765.x 3675:Journal of Neuroscience Research 3546:10.2165/00007256-200131090-00001 3376:10.2165/00007256-200333030-00001 2226:The American Journal of Medicine 2191:The American Journal of Medicine 1886:10.2165/00007256-200131100-00004 1569:Proceedings: Biological Sciences 1520:Proceedings: Biological Sciences 1469:10.2165/00007256-199622050-00003 1355:"History of Exercise Physiology" 1274:10.1097/00005768-199705000-00002 1114:"Exercise and Physical Activity" 922:Education in exercise physiology 738: 711:has proposed the existence of a 652:. Some famous examples include: 5673: 4722: 4693: 4667: 4602: 4547: 4514: 4473: 4430: 4381: 4328: 4264: 4229: 4186: 4151: 4116: 4054: 4021: 3994: 3953: 3912: 3880:10.1152/japplphysiol.01008.2007 3852: 3838:10.1152/japplphysiol.01157.2007 3813: 3799:10.1152/japplphysiol.00953.2007 3778: 3711: 3662: 3648:10.1152/japplphysiol.00910.2007 3627: 3568: 3525: 3482: 3447: 3398: 3355: 3322: 3295: 3236: 3214:10.1152/japplphysiol.01037.2007 3193: 3142: 3093: 3044: 2983: 2934: 2920:10.1152/japplphysiol.00049.2002 2899: 2821: 2786: 2737: 2647: 2606: 2519: 2504:10.1152/japplphysiol.00853.2007 2483: 2438: 2403: 2389:10.1152/japplphysiol.00853.2007 2322: 2295: 2252: 2217: 2181: 2132: 2083: 1992: 1957: 1908: 1827: 1776: 1711: 1670: 1660: 1619: 1556: 1507: 1491: 1448: 1434:10.1152/ajpendo.1988.254.5.E555 1384:Current Sports Medicine Reports 1371: 565: 228:of muscle cells, as opposed to 118:Aerobic exercise § History 3820:Romer, LM; Polkey, MI (2008). 2877:10.1080/07315724.2007.10719666 1347: 1321: 1297: 1248: 1197: 1070: 789:Ammonia effects upon the brain 408: 13: 1: 5785:Physiological plant disorders 5780:Plant perception (physiology) 4406:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.01.013 4160:Journal of Applied Physiology 3868:Journal of Applied Physiology 3859:Amann, M; Calbet, JA (2008). 3826:Journal of Applied Physiology 3787:Journal of Applied Physiology 3636:Journal of Applied Physiology 3304:South African Medical Journal 3202:Journal of Applied Physiology 2908:Journal of Applied Physiology 2807:10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00142-8 2492:Journal of Applied Physiology 2447:Journal of Applied Physiology 2377:Journal of Applied Physiology 2273:10.1152/physrev.1959.39.2.183 1966:Journal of Applied Physiology 1783:Boutcher, Stephen H. 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This loss of sodium in 143:, Scandinavian scientists 111: 107: 28: 5809: 5793: 5767: 5756: 5727: 5644: 5598: 5565: 5522: 5434: 5389: 5341: 5288: 5162: 5111: 5103: 5057: 4979: 4909: 4854: 4801: 4794: 4394:Physiology & Behavior 3106:The Journal of Physiology 3057:The Journal of Physiology 3000:10.1002/9780470715420.ch5 2947:The Journal of Physiology 2842:10.1080/00140138608968315 2570:The Journal of Physiology 2145:The Journal of Physiology 2047:The Journal of Physiology 2013:10.1080/02640418608732108 1218:10.1080/02640410701701016 733:Gabriela Andersen-Schiess 681:Gabriela Andersen-Schiess 345: 60:allied health professions 5246:Bodybuilding supplements 4615:European Journal of Pain 3423:10.1136/bjsm.2003.010330 2715:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600256 1328:Seiler, Stephen (2011). 904:by low pH, as well as a 836:Humans are specifically 753:depletion in brain cells 489: 433: 5832:Evolutionary physiology 5750:Physiology of dinosaurs 5012:Neurobiological effects 4451:10.1023/A:1021479331779 3468:10.1242/jeb.204.18.3225 3270:10.1073/pnas.0711074105 3171:10.1126/science.1101141 2348:10.1161/01.STR.12.6.808 1683:Public Health Nutrition 1632:Public Health Nutrition 1091:10.1123/ijspp.2016-0174 767:reactive oxygen species 674:1954 Commonwealth Games 672:in the marathon of the 532:Cerebral autoregulation 141:University of Minnesota 114:Exercise § History 97:produced by exercise". 5817:Comparative physiology 4337:Physiological Genomics 3348:10.1098/rspb.1924.0037 2871:(5 Suppl): 604S–612S. 1581:10.1098/rspb.2004.2982 1532:10.1098/rspb.2006.3568 885:experimental evolution 640: 606:sarcoplasmic reticulum 365:Oxygen consumption (VO 269:long periods of time. 266:glycogen phosphorylase 250:adenosine triphosphate 212: 44: 4754:at Wikimedia Commons 4636:1959.4/unsworks_83572 2261:Physiological Reviews 2109:10.1096/fj.01-0876rev 1359:Human Kinetics Europe 995:Exercise prescription 822:myocardial infarction 795:pathways in the brain 635: 324:Exercise for diabetes 210: 128:maximal oxygen uptake 122:British physiologist 39: 5878:Evolutionary biology 5837:Molecular physiology 4731:"Class Requirements" 4521:Nosaka, Ken (2008). 4238:Current Anthropology 4125:Current Anthropology 3100:Gladden, LB (2004). 2232:(7 Suppl 1): S74–8. 1150:"Basis for Training" 685:1984 Summer Olympics 475:arginine vasopressin 292:glycogen phosphatase 222:anaerobic metabolism 216:Rapid energy sources 177:basal metabolic rate 5863:Exercise physiology 5039:Outline of exercise 5007:Exercise physiology 4894:Suspension training 4884:Bodyweight exercise 4752:Exercise physiology 4094:10.1038/nature03052 4086:2004Natur.432..345B 4003:Clinical Laboratory 3736:2021PLoSO..1651513S 3593:2008PLoSO...3.2943E 3261:2008PNAS..105.2198B 3163:2004Sci...305.1144P 3051:Brooks, GA (2001). 1915:Porter, AM (2001). 1802:10.1155/2011/868305 1428:(5 Pt 1): E555–61. 1177:Lee, Buddy (2010). 826:cardiac dysfunction 735:) can override it. 661:1908 Summer Olympic 393:), such as through 240:(PCr) system, fast 230:aerobic respiration 58:. It is one of the 48:Exercise physiology 5263:Physical education 5002:Exercise equipment 4997:Exercise and music 4947:Muscle hypertrophy 4856:Anaerobic exercise 4826:Endurance training 4729:University, Ohio. 4554:Cheung, Karoline; 4533:. pp. 59–76. 4499:10.1242/jeb.028886 4034:The New York Times 3462:(Pt 18): 3225–34. 3335:Proc. R. Soc. Lond 1789:Journal of Obesity 1696:10.1079/phn2005791 1645:10.1079/phn2005801 1626:Henry, CJ (2005). 1180:Jump Rope Training 902:free nerve endings 889:voluntary exercise 806:cardiac biomarkers 800:Cardiac biomarkers 783:limiting breathing 747:brain hyperthermia 721:peripheral fatigue 641: 627:ryanodine receptor 590:muscle contraction 506:aerobic metabolism 360:depth of breathing 213: 159:Energy expenditure 87:endurance training 45: 5898:Physical exercise 5893:Strength training 5868:Athletic training 5850: 5849: 5827:Electrophysiology 5745:Insect physiology 5686: 5685: 5657:Sports portal 5268:Physical activity 5214:Athletic training 5197:Strength training 5149:Semi-professional 5071: 5070: 4975: 4974: 4942:Interval training 4917:Athletic training 4889:Flywheel training 4874:Strength training 4750:Media related to 4715:978-0-7817-6903-7 4621:(10): 1813–1823. 4540:978-0-7360-5867-4 4439:Behavior Genetics 3938:978-1-4899-1018-9 3688:10.1002/jnr.21274 1677:Torun, B (2005). 1526:(1598): 2177–84. 1503:978-0-88167-871-0 1190:978-0-7360-8978-4 1131:978-0-7817-7012-5 832:Human adaptations 772:reduced level of 644:Endurance failure 328:diabetes mellitus 203:Metabolic changes 91:strength training 56:physical exercise 16:(Redirected from 5905: 5775:Plant physiology 5762: 5740:Human physiology 5713: 5706: 5699: 5690: 5689: 5676: 5675: 5666: 5665: 5655: 5654: 5653: 5399:General managers 5301:Governing bodies 5098: 5091: 5084: 5075: 5074: 5063: 5062: 5049:Physical fitness 5044:Physical culture 5019:Exercise mimetic 4957:Physical therapy 4927:Circuit training 4821:Distance running 4803:Aerobic exercise 4799: 4798: 4781: 4774: 4767: 4758: 4757: 4749: 4735: 4734: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4707: 4697: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4687: 4678:. Archived from 4671: 4665: 4664: 4638: 4627:10.1002/ejp.1277 4606: 4600: 4599: 4551: 4545: 4544: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4501: 4477: 4471: 4470: 4434: 4428: 4427: 4417: 4400:(4–5): 1044–54. 4385: 4379: 4378: 4352: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4316: 4310:. Archived from 4277: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4244:(6): 1017–1026. 4233: 4227: 4226: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4155: 4149: 4148: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4080:(7015): 345–52. 4071: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4048: 4025: 4019: 4018: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3981: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3891: 3865: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3817: 3811: 3810: 3782: 3776: 3775: 3765: 3747: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3690: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3614: 3604: 3572: 3566: 3565: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3434: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3341:(679): 438–475. 3326: 3320: 3319: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3282: 3272: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3157:(5687): 1144–7. 3146: 3140: 3139: 3129: 3097: 3091: 3090: 3080: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3035: 3031: 3029: 3021: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2970: 2953:(Pt 1): 279–86. 2938: 2932: 2931: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2765: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2698: 2689: 2688: 2663:(1): E149–E153. 2651: 2645: 2644: 2634: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2593: 2576:(Pt 1): 323–32. 2561: 2552: 2551: 2523: 2517: 2515: 2487: 2481: 2480: 2462: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2372: 2361: 2360: 2350: 2326: 2320: 2319: 2299: 2293: 2292: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2197:(5): 461.e11–7. 2185: 2179: 2178: 2168: 2151:(Pt 2): 607–12. 2136: 2130: 2129: 2111: 2087: 2081: 2080: 2070: 2053:(Pt 1): 285–90. 2038: 2025: 2024: 1996: 1990: 1989: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1944: 1912: 1906: 1905: 1869: 1860: 1859: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1814: 1804: 1780: 1774: 1773: 1771: 1769: 1764:on 16 April 2015 1763: 1757:. Archived from 1724: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1698: 1674: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1647: 1623: 1617: 1616: 1610: 1602: 1592: 1560: 1554: 1553: 1543: 1511: 1505: 1495: 1489: 1488: 1452: 1446: 1445: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1399: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1366: 1365: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1334: 1325: 1319: 1318: 1316: 1315: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1276: 1252: 1246: 1245: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1074: 1049:Physical therapy 1016:applied sciences 989:Exercise testing 854:thermoregulation 760:hitting the wall 713:central governor 696:Central governor 594:action potential 580:Intense activity 423:thermoregulation 246:adenylate kinase 145:Per-Olof Åstrand 134:shared the 1922 21: 18:Exercise science 5913: 5912: 5908: 5907: 5906: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5883:Human evolution 5873:Endurance games 5853: 5852: 5851: 5846: 5842:Neurophysiology 5805: 5801:Cell physiology 5789: 5763: 5754: 5735:Fish physiology 5723: 5717: 5687: 5682: 5651: 5649: 5640: 5599:Sport by region 5594: 5561: 5532:Artificial turf 5518: 5489:Olympic culture 5430: 5385: 5337: 5284: 5158: 5129:Military sports 5107: 5102: 5072: 5067: 5053: 5034:Fitness culture 5024:Exercise trends 4971: 4952:Outdoor fitness 4905: 4899:Weight training 4850: 4790: 4785: 4743: 4738: 4727: 4723: 4716: 4698: 4694: 4685: 4683: 4672: 4668: 4607: 4603: 4560:Sports Medicine 4556:Hume, Patria A. 4552: 4548: 4541: 4519: 4515: 4492:(18): 2908–17. 4478: 4474: 4435: 4431: 4386: 4382: 4350:10.1.1.325.7411 4333: 4329: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4275: 4269: 4265: 4234: 4230: 4191: 4187: 4156: 4152: 4121: 4117: 4069: 4059: 4055: 4046: 4044: 4026: 4022: 3999: 3995: 3958: 3954: 3939: 3917: 3913: 3863: 3857: 3853: 3818: 3814: 3783: 3779: 3730:(5): e0251513. 3716: 3712: 3667: 3663: 3632: 3628: 3573: 3569: 3534:Sports Medicine 3530: 3526: 3487: 3483: 3452: 3448: 3403: 3399: 3364:Sports Medicine 3360: 3356: 3327: 3323: 3300: 3296: 3255:(6): 2198–202. 3241: 3237: 3198: 3194: 3147: 3143: 3098: 3094: 3049: 3045: 3033: 3032: 3023: 3022: 3010: 2988: 2984: 2939: 2935: 2904: 2900: 2861: 2857: 2826: 2822: 2791: 2787: 2742: 2738: 2699: 2692: 2652: 2648: 2611: 2607: 2562: 2555: 2534:(6): R1689–94. 2524: 2520: 2488: 2484: 2460:10.1.1.327.7515 2443: 2439: 2408: 2404: 2373: 2364: 2327: 2323: 2300: 2296: 2257: 2253: 2222: 2218: 2186: 2182: 2137: 2133: 2102:(11): 1335–47. 2088: 2084: 2039: 2028: 1997: 1993: 1962: 1958: 1913: 1909: 1870: 1863: 1848:10.1139/h99-014 1832: 1828: 1781: 1777: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1722: 1716: 1712: 1675: 1671: 1665: 1661: 1638:(7A): 1133–52. 1624: 1620: 1604: 1603: 1575:(1563): 581–4. 1561: 1557: 1512: 1508: 1496: 1492: 1457:Sports Medicine 1453: 1449: 1418: 1414: 1376: 1372: 1363: 1361: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1332: 1326: 1322: 1313: 1311: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1253: 1249: 1202: 1198: 1191: 1175: 1171: 1164: 1146:Bompa, Tudor O. 1143: 1139: 1132: 1110: 1106: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1059:Sports medicine 1029: 1020:neurophysiology 1004: 960:skeletal muscle 948:cardiopulmonary 924: 898: 876: 834: 802: 741: 698: 689:heat exhaustion 646: 582: 577: 568: 545: 538: 529: 527:Cerebral oxygen 498: 492: 436: 411: 380: 376: 368: 348: 306:glucose control 288:gluconeogenesis 275: 258:phosphocreatine 254:creatine kinase 238:phosphocreatine 218: 205: 196: 161: 120: 110: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5911: 5901: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5813: 5811: 5810:Related topics 5807: 5806: 5804: 5803: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5771: 5769: 5765: 5764: 5757: 5755: 5753: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5731: 5729: 5725: 5724: 5716: 5715: 5708: 5701: 5693: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5670: 5660: 5645: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5587: 5585:National sport 5582: 5577: 5571: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5528: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5504:Sports mascots 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5480: 5479: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5438: 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4761: 4742: 4741:External links 4739: 4737: 4736: 4721: 4714: 4692: 4666: 4601: 4566:(2): 145–164. 4546: 4539: 4531:Human Kinetics 4513: 4472: 4429: 4380: 4327: 4263: 4250:10.1086/508695 4228: 4185: 4150: 4137:10.1086/203165 4131:(4): 483–495. 4115: 4053: 4020: 4009:(7–8): 251–4. 3993: 3972:(8): 1408–15. 3952: 3937: 3911: 3851: 3812: 3777: 3710: 3681:(15): 3334–9. 3661: 3626: 3567: 3524: 3481: 3446: 3397: 3354: 3321: 3310:(8): 596–600. 3294: 3235: 3192: 3141: 3112:(Pt 1): 5–30. 3092: 3043: 3034:|journal= 3008: 2982: 2933: 2898: 2855: 2820: 2785: 2736: 2690: 2646: 2605: 2553: 2518: 2482: 2437: 2418:(3): H1461–7. 2402: 2362: 2321: 2294: 2267:(2): 183–238. 2251: 2216: 2180: 2131: 2082: 2026: 1991: 1972:(5): 1487–96. 1956: 1907: 1880:(10): 743–62. 1861: 1826: 1775: 1710: 1689:(7A): 968–93. 1669: 1659: 1618: 1555: 1506: 1490: 1463:(5): 299–305. 1447: 1412: 1370: 1346: 1320: 1309:NobelPrize.org 1296: 1267:(5): 591–603. 1247: 1212:(4): 365–400. 1196: 1189: 1169: 1162: 1137: 1130: 1118:Topol, Eric J. 1104: 1085:(6): 707–714. 1068: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1054:Sports science 1051: 1046: 1041: 1035: 1028: 1025: 1003: 1000: 999: 998: 992: 986: 968:nervous system 964:neuroendocrine 923: 920: 897: 894: 875: 872: 833: 830: 801: 798: 797: 796: 790: 787: 784: 777: 770: 764: 754: 748: 740: 737: 725:Dorando Pietri 709:Archibald Hill 697: 694: 693: 692: 678: 667: 664:men's marathon 657:Dorando Pietri 645: 642: 637:Dorando Pietri 618:repolarization 614:depolarization 581: 578: 576: 573: 567: 564: 544: 541: 536: 528: 525: 494:Main article: 491: 488: 487: 486: 471: 465: 444: 435: 432: 410: 407: 399:erythropoietin 397:or the use of 387:ergogenic aids 383:cardiac output 378: 374: 366: 356:breathing rate 347: 344: 318:growth hormone 284:glycogenolysis 274: 273:Plasma glucose 271: 217: 214: 204: 201: 194: 160: 157: 124:Archibald Hill 109: 106: 71:cardiovascular 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5910: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5822:Ecophysiology 5820: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5792: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5766: 5761: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5721: 5714: 5709: 5707: 5702: 5700: 5695: 5694: 5691: 5679: 5671: 5669: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5647: 5646: 5643: 5637: 5636:South America 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5626:North America 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5603: 5601: 5597: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5570: 5568: 5564: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5509:Sportsmanship 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5478: 5475: 5474: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5452:Entertainment 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5427: 5424: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5391:Communication 5388: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5340: 5334: 5333:International 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5289:Organizations 5287: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5275:Rating system 5273: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5259: 5256: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5211: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5187:Periodization 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5161: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5099: 5094: 5092: 5087: 5085: 5080: 5079: 5076: 5066: 5056: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4984: 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4351: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4317:on 2023-10-12 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4154: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4066: 4057: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4024: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3989: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3874:(3): 861–70. 3873: 3869: 3862: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3832:(3): 879–88. 3831: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3793:(3): 853–60. 3792: 3788: 3781: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3540:(9): 637–50. 3539: 3535: 3528: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3497:(3): 123–45. 3496: 3492: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3370:(3): 167–76. 3369: 3365: 3358: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3208:(1): 288–95. 3207: 3203: 3196: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3145: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3039: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3009:9780470715420 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2986: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2824: 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