Primate - Knowledge

966: 3687: 1028: 935: 904: 1059: 831: 3916: 3898: 3606: 780: 4304: 165: 1365: 2358: 1119: 15357: 3512: 2983: 4424: 149: 852: 1352: 997: 3243: 1094: 4474: 3062: 2814: 262: 209: 195: 2707: 4621: 2524: 2238: 2138: 376: 225: 15605: 4385: 239: 3436:, has a high-frequency limit of auditory sensitivity of approximately 91 kHz with a dominant frequency of 70 kHz, among the highest recorded for any terrestrial mammal. For Philippine tarsiers, these ultrasonic vocalizations might represent a private channel of communication that subverts detection by predators, prey and competitors, enhances energetic efficiency, or improves detection against low-frequency background noise. Male 4649: 4193: 3904: 3902: 3899: 4526: 1324: 135: 3903: 4013: 179: 3591: 3901: 2476: 2653: 3570:, and park juveniles in leafy patches while foraging. Other primates follow a strategy of "riding", i.e. carrying individuals on the body while feeding. Adults may construct or use nesting sites, sometimes accompanied by juveniles, for the purpose of resting, a behavior which has developed secondarily in the great apes. During the juvenile period, primates are more susceptible than adults to 3578:; they gain experience in feeding and avoiding predators during this time. They learn social and fighting skills, often through playing. Primates, especially females, have longer lifespans than other similarly sized mammals, this may be partially due to their slower metabolisms. Late in life, female catarrhine primates appear to undergo a cessation of reproductive function known as 2921:. Howler monkeys are one of the most specialized leaf-eaters of the New World monkeys; fruits are not a major part of their diets, and the type of leaves they prefer to consume (young, nutritive, and digestible) are detectable only by a red-green signal. Field work exploring the dietary preferences of howler monkeys suggests that routine trichromaticism was selected by environment. 4635: 4408:(IUCN) lists more than a third of primates as critically endangered or vulnerable. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction, including: 87% of species in Madagascar, 73% in Asia, 37% in Africa, and 36% in South and Central America. Additionally, 75% of primate species have decreasing populations. Trade is regulated, as all species are listed by 2690:, and mating systems in primates. Studies have shown that dimorphism is the product of changes in both male and female traits. Ontogenetic scaling, where relative extension of a common growth trajectory occurs, may give some insight into the relationship between sexual dimorphism and growth patterns. Some evidence from the fossil record suggests that there was 4454:(resulting from primate crop raiding), and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing is widely regarded as the process that most threatens primates. More than 90% of primate species occur in tropical forests. The main cause of forest loss is clearing for agriculture, although commercial logging, 3875:, and numerical, spatial, and abstract concepts. Comparative studies show a trend towards higher intelligence going from prosimians to New World monkeys to Old World monkeys, and significantly higher average cognitive abilities in the great apes. However, there is a great deal of variation in each group (e.g., among New World monkeys, both 2292:; hybrids may be created by humans when animals are placed in zoos or due to environmental pressures such as predation. Intergeneric hybridizations, hybrids of different genera, have also been found in the wild. Although they belong to genera that have been distinct for several million years, interbreeding still occurs between the 3321: 2255:. Soon after, the lorises and tarsiers made the same journey. The first hominin fossils were discovered in northern Africa and date back 5–8 mya. Old World monkeys disappeared from Europe about 1.8 mya. Molecular and fossil studies generally show that modern humans originated in Africa 100,000–200,000 years ago. 2234:, the Atlantic Ocean was not nearly as wide at the time as it is today. Research suggests that a small 1 kg (2.2 lb) primate could have survived 13 days on a raft of vegetation. Given estimated current and wind speeds, this would have provided enough time to make the voyage between the continents. 4241:

Many species of NHP are kept as pets by humans. The Allied Effort to Save Other Primates (AESOP) estimates that around 15,000 NHPs live as exotic pets in the United States. The expanding Chinese middle class has increased demand for NHPs as exotic pets in recent years. Although NHP import for the pet

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combines rodent-like teeth with a long, thin middle finger to fill the same ecological niche as a woodpecker. It taps on trees to find insect larvae, then gnaws holes in the wood and inserts its elongated middle finger to pull the larvae out. Some species have additional specializations. For example,

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The transfer of females or males from their native group is likely an adaptation for avoiding inbreeding. An analysis of breeding records of captive primate colonies representing numerous different species indicates that the infant mortality of inbred young is generally higher than that of non-inbred

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are hunted at levels that far exceed sustainable levels. This is due to their large body size, ease of transport and profitability per animal. As farming encroaches on forest habitats, primates feed on the crops, causing the farmers large economic losses. Primate crop raiding gives locals a negative

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Many non-human primates have the vocal anatomy to produce human speech but lack the proper brain wiring. Vowel-like vocal patterns have been recorded in baboons which has implications for the origin of speech in humans. Consonant- and vowel-like sounds exist in some orangutan calls and they maintain

2667:, though to a greater degree in Old World species (apes and some monkeys) than New World species. Recent studies involve comparing DNA to examine both the variation in the expression of the dimorphism among primates and the fundamental causes of sexual dimorphism. Primates usually have dimorphism in 2213:

As in the case of lemurs, the origin of New World monkeys is unclear. Molecular studies of concatenated nuclear sequences have yielded a widely varying estimated date of divergence between platyrrhines and catarrhines, ranging from 33 to 70 mya, while studies based on mitochondrial sequences produce

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A list of the families of the living primates is given below, together with one possible classification into ranks between order and family. Other classifications are also used. For example, an alternative classification of the living Strepsirrhini divides them into two infraorders, Lemuriformes and

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Thus, the members of the two sets of groups, and hence names, do not match, which causes problems in relating scientific names to common (usually traditional) names. Consider the superfamily Hominoidea: In terms of the common names on the right, this group consists of apes and humans and there is no

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used around 10,000 NHPs in such experiments; in 2005 in Great Britain, 4,652 experiments were conducted on 3,115 NHPs. Governments of many nations have strict care requirements of NHPs kept in captivity. In the US, federal guidelines extensively regulate aspects of NHP housing, feeding, enrichment,

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eyes evolved to become the main sensory organ. Primates also use vocalizations, gestures, and facial expressions to convey psychological state. Facial musculature is very developed in primates, particularly in monkeys and apes, allowing for complex facial communication. Like humans, chimpanzees can

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has been difficult to place within Strepsirrhini. Theories had been proposed that its family, Daubentoniidae, was either a lemuriform primate (meaning its ancestors split from the lemur line more recently than lemurs and lorises split) or a sister group to all the other strepsirrhines. In 2008, the

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use stone tools to open nuts, oysters and other bivalves, and various types of sea snails. Chacma baboons use stones as weapons; stoning by these baboons is done from the rocky walls of the canyon where they sleep and retreat to when they are threatened. Stones are lifted with one hand and dropped

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mound and then raising the grass to his mouth. After he left, Goodall approached the mound and repeated the behaviour because she was unsure what the chimpanzee was doing. She found that the termites bit onto the grass with their jaws. The chimpanzee had been using the grass as a tool to "fish" or

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manufactured and used tools, and that this ability was what separated humans from other animals. Chimpanzees have also been observed making "sponges" out of leaves and moss that suck up water. Sumatran orangutans have been observed making and using tools. They will break off a tree branch that is

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diet. It prefers fruit above all other food items and even seeks out and eats them when they are not abundant. It also eats leaves and leaf buds, seeds, blossoms, stems, pith, bark and resin. Insects and meat make up a small proportion of their diet, estimated as 2%. The meat consumption includes

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Primates exploit a variety of food sources. It has been said that many characteristics of modern primates, including humans, derive from an early ancestor's practice of taking most of its food from the tropical canopy. Most primates include fruit in their diets to obtain easily digested nutrients

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Female transfer systems – females move away from the group in which they were born. Females of a group will not be closely related whereas males will have remained with their natal groups, and this close association may be influential in social behavior. The groups formed are generally quite

4508:, home to five endemic primate families, has experienced the greatest extinction of the recent past; since human settlement 1,500 years ago, at least eight classes and fifteen of the larger species have become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction. Among the primates wiped out were 2129:

According to genetic studies, the lemurs of Madagascar diverged from the lorisoids approximately 75 mya. These studies, as well as chromosomal and molecular evidence, also show that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates. However, Madagascar split from

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compared to smaller primates. They reach sexual maturity later and have a longer period between births. Populations therefore recover more slowly after being depleted by poaching or the pet trade. Data for some African cities show that half of all protein consumed in urban areas comes from the

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As of 2021, there is no consensus as to whether to accept traditional (that is, common), but paraphyletic, names or to use monophyletic names only; or to use 'new' common names or adaptations of old ones. Both competing approaches can be found in biological sources, often in the same work, and

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by their mothers (with the exception of some human cultures and various zoo raised primates which are fed formula) and rely on them for grooming and transportation. In some species, infants are protected and transported by males in the group, particularly males who may be their fathers. Other

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around the globe. Historically, zoos were primarily a form of entertainment, but more recently have shifted their focus towards conservation, education and research. GAP does not insist that all NHPs should be released from zoos, primarily because captive-born primates lack the knowledge and

1238:, or monophyletic groups, and the sequence of scientific classification reflects the evolutionary history of the related lineages. Groups that are traditionally named are shown on the right; they form an "ascending series" (per Clark, see above), and several groups are paraphyletic: 4327:

Thousands of non-human primates are used around the world in research because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans. In particular, the brains and eyes of NHPs more closely parallel human anatomy than those of any other animals. NHPs are commonly used in

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Soon after her initial discovery of tool use, Goodall observed other chimpanzees picking up leafy twigs, stripping off the leaves and using the stems to fish for insects. This change of a leafy twig into a tool was a major discovery. Prior to this, scientists thought that only

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Prosimians contain two monophyletic groups (the suborder Strepsirrhini, or lemurs, lorises and allies, as well as the tarsiers of the suborder Haplorhini); it is a paraphyletic grouping because it excludes the Simiiformes, which also are descendants of the common ancestor

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Although they have not been observed to use tools in the wild, lemurs in controlled settings have been shown to be capable of understanding the functional properties of the objects they had been trained to use as tools, performing as well as tool-using haplorhines.

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Primates have advanced cognitive abilities: some make tools and use them to acquire food and for social displays; some can perform tasks requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception; they can recognise

2914:. Males, therefore, can only be dichromatic, while females can be either dichromatic or trichromatic. Color vision in strepsirrhines is not as well understood; however, research indicates a range of color vision similar to that found in platyrrhines. 3848:. Several species have separate alarm calls for different predators such as air-borne or ground-dwelling predators. Predation may have shaped group size in primates as species exposed to higher predation pressures appear to live in larger groups. 3291: 3292: 5609:

Stanyon, Roscoe; Springer, Mark S.; Meredith, Robert W.; Gatesy, John; Emerling, Christopher A.; Park, Jong; Rabosky, Daniel L.; Stadler, Tanja; Steiner, Cynthia; Ryder, Oliver A.; Janečka, Jan E.; Fisher, Colleen A.; Murphy, William J. (2012).

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used a branch as a walking stick apparently to test water depth and to aid her in crossing a pool of water. Another adult female used a detached trunk from a small shrub as a stabilizer during food gathering, and another used a log as a bridge.

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using tools in the wild; it has been claimed they rarely use tools in the wild although they use tools as readily as chimpanzees when in captivity. It has been reported that females, both chimpanzee and bonobo, use tools more avidly than males.

2515:) evolved in early primate history, while the cusp of the corresponding primitive lower molar (paraconid) was lost. Prosimians are distinguished by their immobilized upper lips, the moist tip of their noses and forward-facing lower front teeth. 3871:; and they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax and concepts of number and numerical sequence. Research in primate cognition explores problem solving, memory, social interaction, a 3994:

about 30 cm long, snap off the twigs, fray one end and then use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites. In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at

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fits into this grouping. The latter was closely related to tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. How these two groups relate to extant primates is unclear. Omomyids perished about 30 mya, while adapiforms survived until about 10 mya.

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prohibit eating primate meat; however, primates are still hunted for food. Some smaller traditional religions allow the consumption of primate meat. The pet trade and traditional medicine also increase demand for illegal hunting. The

1988:) forms the clade Euarchontoglires. Variously, both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders. Some scientists consider Dermoptera to be a suborder of Primates and use the suborder Euprimates for the "true" primates. 583:, many defined by the amount of movement by adolescent females between groups. Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals, reach maturity later, and have longer lifespans. Primates are also the most 3546:

and gorillas. Adult males may kill dependent offspring that are not theirs so the female will return to estrus and thus they can sire offspring of their own. Social monogamy in some species may have evolved to combat this behavior.

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because he thought this the "highest" order of animals. The relationships among the different groups of primates were not clearly understood until relatively recently, so the commonly used terms are somewhat confused. For example,

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Monogamous species – a male–female bond, sometimes accompanied by a juvenile offspring. There is shared responsibility of parental care and territorial defense. The offspring leaves the parents' territory during adolescence.

4226:. In June 2008, Spain became the first country in the world to recognize the rights of some NHPs, when its parliament's cross-party environmental committee urged the country to comply with GAP's recommendations, which are that 632:. Thousands of non-human primates are used in research around the world because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction. Common threats include 13185: 14037:; Wallis, J.; Rylands, A.B.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Oates, J.F.; Williamson, E.A.; Palacios, E.; Heymann, E.W.; Kierulff, M.C.M.; Yongcheng, L.; Supriatna, J.; Roos, C.; Walker, S.; Cortés-Ortiz, L.; Schwitzer, C., eds. (2009). 3955:

scoop catfish out of small ponds. Over two years, anthropologist Anne Russon observed orangutans learning to jab sticks at catfish to scare them out of the ponds and in to their waiting hands. There are few reports of

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and cleaning wounds), food sharing, and collective defense against predators or of a territory. Aggressive behaviors often signal competition for food, sleeping sites or mates. Aggression is also used in establishing

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Chaimanee, Y.; Chavasseau, O.; Beard, K. C.; Kyaw, A. A.; Soe, A. N.; Sein, C.; Lazzari, V.; Marivaux, L.; Marandat, B.; Swe, M.; Rugbumrung, M.; Lwin, T.; Valentin, X.; Zin-Maung-Maung-Thein; Jaeger, J. -J. (2012).

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who developed the idea of trends in primate evolution and the methodology of arranging the living members of an order into an "ascending series" leading to humans. Commonly used names for groups of primates such as

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are among the loudest land mammals as their roars can be heard up to 4.8 km (3.0 mi), and relate to intergroup spacing, territorial protection and possibly mate-guarding. Roars are produced by a modified

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Jameson, Natalie M.; Hou, Zhuo-Cheng; Sterner, Kirstin N.; Weckle, Amy; Goodman, Morris; Steiper, Michael E.; Wildman, Derek E. (September 2011). "Genomic data reject the hypothesis of a prosimian primate clade".

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Janečka, J. E.; Miller, W.; Pringle, T. H.; Wiens, F.; Zitzmann, A.; Helgen, K. M.; Springer, M. S.; Murphy, W. J. (2 November 2007). "Molecular and Genomic Data Identify the Closest Living Relative of Primates".

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employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with

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Monkeys comprise two monophyletic groups, New World monkeys and Old World monkeys, but is paraphyletic because it excludes hominoids, superfamily Hominoidea, also descendants of the common ancestor Simiiformes.

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Lucas, P. W.; Dominy, N. J.; Riba-Hernandez, P.; Stoner, K. E.; Yamashita, N.; Loría-Calderón, E.; Petersen-Pereira, W.; Rojas-Durán, Y.; Salas-Pena, R.; Solis-Madrigal, S.; Osorio, D.; Darvell, B. W. (2003).

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Wilson Mantilla, Gregory P.; Chester, Stephen G. B.; Clemens, William A.; Moore, Jason R.; Sprain, Courtney J.; Hovatter, Brody T.; Mitchell, William S.; Mans, Wade W.; Mundil, Roland; Renne, Paul R. (2021).

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In Central and South America forest fragmentation and hunting are the two main problems for primates. Large tracts of forest are now rare in Central America. This increases the amount of forest vulnerable to

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Gumert, M.D.; Kluck, M.; Malaivijitnond, S. (2009). "The physical characteristics and usage patterns of stone axe and pounding hammers used by long-tailed macaques in the Andaman Sea region of Thailand".

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was recently declared extinct when no trace of the subspecies could be found from 1993 to 1999. A few hunters have found and killed individuals since then, but the subspecies' prospects remain bleak.

2075:" primates, is generally thought to have split off from the primitive primate line about 63 mya, although earlier dates are also supported. The seven strepsirrhine families are the five related 5188:; Ganzhorn, J.; Konstant, W.; Glander, K.; Tattersall, I.; Groves, C.; Rylands, A.; Hapke, A.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Mayor, M.; Louis, E.; Rumpler, Y.; Schwitzer, C.; Rasoloarison, R. (December 2008). 4566:

such as farmland encroachment, lower levels of humidity and a change in plant life. Movement restriction results in a greater amount of inbreeding, which can cause deleterious effects leading to a

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both the males and females typically transfer from their natal group on reaching sexual maturity, resulting in groups in which neither the males nor females are typically related. Some prosimians,

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Estrada, Alejandro; Garber, Paul A.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Roos, Christian; Fernandez-Duque, Eduardo; Fiore, Anthony Di; Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola; Nijman, Vincent; Heymann, Eckhard W. (2017-01-01).

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Mittermeier, R. A. & Cheney, D. L. (1987). "Conservation of primates and their habitats". In Smuts, B. B.; Cheney, D. L.; Seyfarth, R. M.; Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.).

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their meaning over great distances. The time range for the evolution of human language and/or its anatomical prerequisites extends, at least in principle, from the phylogenetic divergence of

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distinguish the faces of familiar and unfamiliar individuals. Hand and arm gestures are also important forms of communication for great apes and a single gesture can have multiple functions.

2769:. Other prosimians are arboreal quadrupeds and climbers. Some are also terrestrial quadrupeds, while some are leapers. Most monkeys are both arboreal and terrestrial quadrupeds and climbers. 1969:

has shown that the two species of colugos are more closely related to primates than to treeshrews, even though treeshrews were at one time considered primates. These three orders make up the

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between 50 and 80 mya. Other colonization options have been suggested, such as multiple colonizations from Africa and India, but none are supported by the genetic and molecular evidence.

3998:(UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails. Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools. 965: 14046:. Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Arlington, VA.: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), and Conservation International (CI). pp. 23–26. 3453:

gives a distinct alarm call for each of at least four different predators, and the reactions of other monkeys vary according to the call. Furthermore, many primate species including

3259: 536:, which is the dominant sensory system in most mammals. These features are more developed in monkeys and apes, and noticeably less so in lorises and lemurs. Some primates, including 2898:

gene at the base of their lineage, 30 to 40 million years ago. Platyrrhines, on the other hand, are trichromatic in a few cases only. Specifically, individual females must be

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Rylands, A. B. & Mittermeier, R. A. (2009). "The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini)". In Garber, P. A.; Estrada, A.; Bicca-Marques, J. C.; Heymann, E. W. &

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The first direct observation of a non-ape primate using a tool in a wild environment occurred in 1988. Primatologist Sue Boinski watched an adult male white-faced capuchin beat a

3288: 2491:. In New World monkeys, the nostrils face sideways; in Old World monkeys, they face downwards. Dental pattern in primates vary considerably; although some have lost most of their 2130:

Africa 160 mya and from India 90 mya. To account for these facts, a founding lemur population of a few individuals is thought to have reached Madagascar from Africa via a single

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of living primates, depending on which classification is used. New primate species continue to be discovered: over 25 species were described in the 2000s, 36 in the 2010s, and

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also form fission-fusion societies. In hunter-gatherer societies, humans form groups which are made up of several individuals that may split up to obtain different resources.

9253:"Scientists Find First Evidence That Groups of Apes Cooperate - Some bonobos are challenging the notion that humans are the only primates capable of group-to-group alliances" 3341: 13836:

O'Brien, T. G.; Kinnaird, M. F.; Nurcahyo, A.; Iqbal, M.; Rusmanto, M. (April 2004). "Abundance and distribution of sympatric gibbons in a threatened Sumatran rain forest".

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snake to death with a dead branch. The black-striped capuchin was the first non-ape primate for which routine tool use was documented in the wild; individuals were observed

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Solitary species – often males who defend territories that include the home ranges of several females. This type of organization is found in the prosimians such as the

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harvesting of timber, mining, and dam construction also contribute to tropical forest destruction. In Indonesia large areas of lowland forest have been cleared to increase

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aye-aye family was confirmed to be most closely related to the other Malagasy lemurs, likely having descended from the same ancestral population that colonized the island.

3832:, and other primates. Even gorillas have been recorded as prey. Predators of primates have diverse hunting strategies and as such, primates have evolved several different 4725:

between lemurs and lorisoids is widely accepted, their clade name is not. The term "lemuriform" is used here because it derives from one popular taxonomy that clumps the

1027: 13312: 3260: 4558:, was protected after excessive trapping threatened its numbers in the 1960s; the program was so effective that they are now viewed as a pest throughout their range. 2377:. The cranium protects the large brain, a distinguishing characteristic of this group. The endocranial volume (the volume within the skull) is three times greater in 8892:

Knott, C. D. & Kahlenberg, S. M. (2007). "Orangutans in Perspective". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Panger, M. & Bearder, S. K. (eds.).

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Shultz, S. & Thomsett, S. (2007). "Interactions between African Crowned Eagles and Their Prey Community". In McGraw, W.; Zuberbuhler, K. & Noe, R. (eds.).

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essentially use this system, although "monogamy" in this context does not necessarily mean absolute sexual fidelity. These species do not live in larger groups.

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Estrada, A.; Coates-Estrada, R.; Meritt, D. (September 1994). "Non-flying mammals and landscape changes in the tropical forest region of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico".

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Kumara, H. N.; Singh, M. (October 2004). "Distribution and abundance of primates in rainforests of the Western Ghats, Karnataka, India and the conservation of

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may not be uniquely humans as previously thought but rather evolutionary ancient, and its origins may be deeply rooted in the primate lineage. Male and female

2056:). Other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85 mya. 13012: 6393: 8951:

Charpentier MJ, Widdig A, Alberts SC (December 2007). "Inbreeding depression in non-human primates: a historical review of methods used and empirical data".

7415:"First monkeys cloned with technique that made Dolly the sheep - Chinese scientists create cloned primates that could revolutionize studies of human disease" 12825: 12574:

Stammbach, E. (1987). "Desert, Forest, and Montane Baboons: Multilevel-Societies". In Smuts, B; Cheney, D; Seyfarth, R; Wrangham, R; Struhsaker, T. (eds.).

10645: 2950:, where the males, who are typically related, will cooperate in defense of the group's territory. Evidence of this social system has also been found among 13446: 12508:

Long, Y. C.; Kirkpatrick, R. C.; Zhong, T.; Xiao, L. (April 1994). "Report on the distribution, population, and ecology of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (

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Chapman, C. & Russo, S. (2007). "Primate Seed Dispersal". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Panger, M. & Bearder, S. K. (eds.).

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Stanyon, Roscoe; Finstermeier, Knut; Zinner, Dietmar; Brameier, Markus; Meyer, Matthias; Kreuz, Eva; Hofreiter, Michael; Roos, Christian (16 July 2013).

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than in the greatest nonhuman primate, reflecting a larger brain size. The mean endocranial volume is 1,201 cubic centimeters in humans, 469 cm in

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Oates, J. F.; Abedi-Lartey, M.; McGraw, W. S.; Struhsaker, T. T.; Whitesides, G. H. (October 2000). "Extinction of a West African Red Colobus Monkey".

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Wolfe, L. D. & Fuentes, A. (2007). "Ethnoprimatology". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Panger, M. & Bearder, S. K. (eds.).

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Fiore, A. D. & Campbell, C. J. (2007). "The Atelines". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Panger, M. & Bearder, S. K. (eds.).

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Pope, T.R. (1996). "Socioecology, population fragmentation, and patterns of genetic loss in endangered primates". In Avise, J.; Hamrick, J. (eds.).

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use a similar form of locomotion called quadramanous climbing, in which they use their arms and legs to carry their heavy bodies through the trees.

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of all animals, forming pairs or family groups, uni-male harems, and multi-male/multi-female groups. Non-human primates have at least four types of

10887: 4051: 7378: 5189: 2276:(MSW3). However, publications since the taxonomy in MSW3 was compiled in 2003 have pushed the number to 522 species, or 708 including subspecies. 1058: 15799: 15466: 9262: 8676:

Goldberg, T. L.; Wrangham, R. W. (September 1997). "Genetic correlates of social behavior in wild chimpanzees: evidence from mitochondrial DNA".

644:, and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing for agriculture most threatens primates. 11849: 8875: 3054:

young. This effect of inbreeding on infant mortality is probably largely a result of increased expression of deleterious recessive alleles (see

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Chiarello, A.G. (2003). "Primates of the Brazilian Atlantic forest: the influence of forest fragmentation on survival". In Marsh, L. K. (ed.).

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Hartwig, W. (2011). "Chapter 3: Primate evolution". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Bearder, S. K.; Stumpf, R. M (eds.).

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Sistema naturae per regna tria Naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus differentiis, synonimis locis. Tomus I

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below shows one possible classification sequence of the living primates: groups that use common (traditional) names are shown on the right.

13039:"Genomic divergences between humans and other hominoids and the effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees" 4373: 3712:

can exploit many different types of plant matter, including fruit, leaves, flowers, buds, nectar and seeds, but also eat insects and other

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Before Anderson and Jones introduced the classification of Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini in 1984, (followed by McKenna and Bell's 1997 work

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teeth, enabling them to open tree bark to get to the gum, and claws rather than nails, enabling them to cling to trees while feeding. The

729:

reflect this methodology. According to our current understanding of the evolutionary history of the primates, several of these groups are

15943: 11521:

Fujita, K.; Watanabe, K.; Widarto, T. H.; Suryobroto, B. (1997). "Discrimination of macaques by macaques: The case of sulawesi species".

9780:

da Cunha, R. G. T.; Byrne, R. (2006). "Roars of Black Howler Monkeys (Alouatta caraya): Evidence for a Function in Inter-Group Spacing".

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dominant sensory system, a reduction in the olfactory region of the brain and increasingly complex social behavior. The visual acuity of

2288:

usually arise in captivity, but there have also been examples in the wild. Hybridization occurs where two species' range overlap to form

9432:

Boinski, S. (2000). "Social Manipulation Within and Between Troops Mediates Primate Group Movement". In Boinski, S.; Garber, P. (eds.).

4939: 3408:; this process forms a large part of the communication behavior of these primates. In Old World monkeys and apes this ability is mostly 2917:

Like catarrhines, howler monkeys (a family of platyrrhines) show routine trichromatism that has been traced to an evolutionarily recent

2214:

a narrower range of 35 to 43 mya. The anthropoid primates possibly traversed the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to South America during the

10524: 7906: 6970: 4574: 3123:. Within a social group there is a balance between cooperation and competition. Cooperative behaviors in many primates species include 11779: 15534: 15431: 6957: 12952: 11103: 9547: 4367:

In 2005, GAP reported that 1,280 of the 3,100 NHPs living in captivity in the United States were used for experiments. In 2004, the

15773: 15544: 13793: 13136: 11123: 10458: 9731:

Ramsier, M.A.; Cunningham, A.J.; Moritz, G.L.; Finneran, J.J.; Williams, C.V.; Ong, P.S.; Gursky-Doyen, S.L.; Dominy, N.J. (2012).

7929: 7890: 6952: 12888: 8187:"The quantitative assessment of phylogenetic constraints in comparative analyses: Sexual dimorphism in body weight among primates" 4178:

can be transmitted to humans; in some cases the viruses produce potentially fatal diseases in both humans and non-human primates.

15812: 13653:

Hill, C. M. (1997). "Crop-raiding by wild vertebrates: The farmer's perspective in an agricultural community in western Uganda".

12892: 12276: 8836:

Bartlett, T. Q. (2007). "The Hylobatidae". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Panger, M.; Bearder, S. K. (eds.).

3151:

Several species of primates are known to associate in the wild. Some of these associations have been extensively studied. In the

2647: 518: 10818: 8396:(Revised First ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing & Prentice Hall. pp. 77–80, 132–133, 141–143. 2598:

broad mobility. Compared to Old World monkeys, apes have more mobile shoulder joints and arms due to the dorsal position of the

1309:

to mean 'like an ape rather than a human'; and when discussing the reaction of others to a new fossil he writes of "claims that

15539: 9373:

Bshary, R. (2007). "Interactions between Red Colobus Monkeys and Chimpanzees". In McGraw, W.; Zuberbuhler, K.; Noe, R. (eds.).

8995: 2567:. In primates, the combination of opposing thumbs, short fingernails (rather than claws) and long, inward-closing fingers is a 10239:"Orangutan information broadcast via consonant-like and vowel-like calls breaches mathematical models of linguistic evolution" 15830: 15549: 14210: 14191: 14162: 14051: 14018: 13987: 13501: 13299: 12993: 12651: 12558: 12492: 12408: 12217: 11709: 11225: 10915:

Surbeck, M; Fowler, A; Deimel, C; Hohmann, G (2008). "Evidence for the consumption of arboreal, diurnal primates by bonobos (

9382: 9354: 8901: 8845: 8820: 8166: 7981: 7873: 7740: 7089: 6565: 6537: 6440: 5424: 5371: 5254: 5114: 5084: 4999: 4958: 4215: 2832: 2487:. Technically, Old World monkeys are distinguished from New World monkeys by the structure of the nose, and from apes by the 15817: 13402: 12745: 10734: 2941:

of primates are best classified by the amount of movement by females occurring between groups. He proposed four categories:

2503:, compared with 12 in New World monkeys. The Old World species are divided into apes and monkeys depending on the number of 15953: 11870: 11608: 11557: 11279: 9323: 4294: 14336: 11365: 5864:

O'Leary, M. A.; et al. (8 February 2013). "The placental mammal ancestor and the post–K-Pg radiation of placentals".

5217: 3790:, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and 3641:

Many primates have anatomical specializations that enable them to exploit particular foods, such as fruit, leaves, gum or

2020:

of North America ~66mya. The oldest known primates from the fossil record date to the Late Paleocene of Africa, c.57 mya (

3536:

the mother can reproduce again. This often leads to weaning conflict with infants who attempt to continue breastfeeding.

2741:

or by a combination of these methods. Several prosimians are primarily vertical clingers and leapers. These include many

1707: 12918: 5729:

Pozzi, Luca; Hodgson, Jason A.; Burrell, Andrew S.; Sterner, Kirstin N.; Raaum, Ryan L.; Disotell, Todd R. (June 2014).

5023: 4484:

Primates with a large body size (over 5 kg) are at increased extinction risk due to their greater profitability to

3108:

has a similar social structure in which many smaller groups come together to form temporary herds of up to 600 monkeys.

736:

In contrast with Clark's methodology, modern classifications typically identify (or name) only those groupings that are

15471: 14897: 14235: 13043: 12583: 8932: 6850:"Anthropoid primates from the Oligocene of Pakistan (Bugti Hills): Data on early anthropoid evolution and biogeography" 6151: 5612:"Macroevolutionary Dynamics and Historical Biogeography of Primate Diversification Inferred from a Species Supermatrix" 2999:

and multi-male societies are classed in this category. Group sizes are usually larger. This system is common among the

1660: 12800: 10673: 6708: 6431:

Hartwig, W. (2007). "Primate Evolution". In Campbell, C.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K.; Panger, M.; Bearder, S. (eds.).

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are seeking a ban on all NHP use in experiments as part of the European Union's review of animal testing legislation.

3804:, which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of 14427: 14303: 13915: 13370: 13155: 11736: 10801: 10771: 9541: 9441: 9413: 9216: 9117: 8660: 8432: 8401: 8367: 7842: 7770: 7576: 7542: 7120: 6596: 5534: 5509: 5396: 5142: 4912: 4811: 4243: 3528:

relatives of the infant, such as siblings and aunts, may participate in its care as well. Most primate mothers cease

2995:

Male transfer systems – while the females remain in their natal groups, the males will emigrate as adolescents.

2003: 12712: 10006:

Coye, C.; Zuberbuhler, K.; Lemasson, A. (2016). "Morphologically structured vocalizations in female Diana monkeys".

7492: 4801: 3915: 15913: 15752: 13932: 13206: 13016: 6642:"Rapid electrostatic evolution at the binding site for cytochrome c on cytochrome c oxidase in anthropoid primates" 6400: 5341:

Annales Françaises et Etrangères d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Appliquées à la Médicine et à l'Histoire Naturelle, 3

5067:

Mishler, Brent D (2009), "Species are not Uniquely Real Biological Entities", in Ayala, F.J. & Arp, R. (eds.),

4066:, mountains and coastal areas. The number of primate species within tropical areas has been shown to be positively 2259: 13681: 8917:

Watts D. P. (1996). "Comparative socio-ecology of gorillas". In McGrew W. C.; Marchant L. F.; Nishida, T. (eds.).

8040:

Lindstedtand & Boyce; Boyce, Mark S. (July 1985). "Seasonality, Fasting Endurance, and Body Size in Mammals".

7611: 6338:"Development and Application of a Phylogenomic Toolkit: Resolving the Evolutionary History of Madagascar's Lemurs" 3653:

have extended digestive tracts which enable them to absorb nutrients from leaves that can be difficult to digest.

830: 15856: 15765: 15481: 14259: 13137:

Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty (July 2006).

12858: 12833: 8768:

Copeland, Sandi R.; et al. (1 June 2011). "Strontium isotope evidence for landscape use by early hominins".

4298: 1608: 608:

Close interactions between humans and non-human primates (NHPs) can create opportunities for the transmission of

7644: 4462:

production, and one analysis of satellite imagery concluded that during 1998 and 1999 there was a loss of 1,000

2182:(simian primates, consisting of monkeys and apes) emerged about 40 mya, possibly also in Asia; if so, they 15198: 11896: 9238:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press for articles on the structure and function of various primate societies. 7666: 4007: 1262:. Another possibility is to expand the use of one of the traditional names. For example, in his 2005 book, the 506: 14396: 11321:

de Waal, F. B. M.; Davis, J. M. (2003). "Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns".

11212:

Fichtel, Claudia (2012). "Predation". In Mitani, John C.; Call, Josep; Kappeler, Peter M.; Palombit, Ryne A.;

6043: 15838: 14387: 13605: 10694:

Milliken, G. W.; Ward, J. P.; Erickson, C. J. (1991). "Independent digit control in foraging by the aye-aye (

7798: 4606: 4218:. The legal status of NHPs, on the other hand, is the subject of much debate, with organizations such as the 1258:

single common name for all the members of the group. One remedy is to create a new common name, in this case

13461: 12302: 9252: 7930:"Tail growth tracks the ontogeny of prehensile tail use in capuchin monkeys (Cebus albifrons and C. apella)" 4138:

Close interactions between humans and non-human primates (NHPs) can create pathways for the transmission of

13389:

Chapman, C. A.; Peres, C. A. (2001). "Primate conservation in the new millennium: the role of scientists".

11732:"Do some taxa have better domain-general cognition than others? A metaanalysis of nonhuman primate studies" 10762:

Wright, P.; Simmons, E.; Gursky, S. (2003). "Introduction". In Wright, P.; Simmons, E.; Gursky, S. (eds.).

9037: 6504: 3605: 3425: 2172:

division, originating about 58 mya. The earliest known haplorhine skeleton, that of 55 MA old tarsier-like

548:, are primarily ground-dwelling rather than arboreal, but all species have adaptations for climbing trees. 10406:& Scheffrahn, Wolfgang (1994). "Social and genetic aspects of paternity in wild long-tailed macaques ( 6613: 3139:

In November 2023, scientists reported, for the first time, evidence that groups of primates, particularly

2511:: monkeys have four, apes have five - although humans may have four or five. The main hominid molar cusp ( 15825: 15695: 12070:

Fragaszy, D.; Izar, P.; Visalberghi, E.; Ottoni, E.B.; de Oliveira, M.G. (2004). "Wild capuchin monkeys (

6230: 5326:

Sistema naturae sive regna tria Naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species

4835:

Silcox, Mary T.; Bloch, Jonathan I.; Boyer, Doug M.; Chester, Stephen G. B.; López-Torres, Sergi (2017).

2272: 2178:, was found in central China, supporting an already suspected Asian origin for the group. The infraorder 14038: 10898: 10342: 4050:

which lives in North Africa and several species of langur which live in China. Primates tend to live in

3473:

both possess inflatable pouches in the throat with which pair -bonds use to sing "duets" to each other.

3225:. This may have more to do with foraging benefits to the squirrel monkeys than anti-predation benefits. 15554: 15406: 14368: 10599: 9922:

Leroux, M.; Schel, A.M.; Wilke, C.; Chandia, B.; Zuberbuhler, K.; Slocombe, K.E.; Townsend, S. (2023).

3092:

when the group returns at night to sleep as a group. This social structure can also be observed in the

3077: 17: 15918: 15905: 15700: 14350: 13729: 11942: 11182: 8564:

Surridge, A. K. & D. Osorio (2003). "Evolution and selection of trichromatic vision in primates".

5731:"Primate phylogenetic relationships and divergence dates inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes" 2460:

above the eye sockets reinforces weaker bones in the face, which are put under strain during chewing.

2393:. The primary evolutionary trend of primates has been the elaboration of the brain, in particular the 15866: 15518: 15486: 15436: 15391: 9459:"Relaxed selective pressure on an essential component of pheromone transduction in primate evolution" 5247:

South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation

4678: 3981:

over the side whereupon they tumble down the side of the cliff or fall directly to the canyon floor.

3976:

by placing them on a stone anvil and hitting them with another large stone. In Thailand and Myanmar,

3845: 3567: 3558:

period between weaning and sexual maturity than other mammals of similar size. Some primates such as

3458: 3252: 3160: 261: 12919:"The Beginnings of Research in Space Biology at the Air Force Missile Development Center, 1946–1952" 9674: 8593: 7105:

Pough, F. W.; Janis, C. M.; Heiser, J. B. (2005) . "Primate Evolution and the Emergence of Humans".

5501: 4329: 2168:

tarsiers in the family Tarsiidae (monotypic in its own infraorder Tarsiiformes), represent the most

13138: 10174:

Boë L.-J.; Berthommier, F.; Legou, T.; Captier, G.; Kemp, C.; Sawallis, T. R.; et al. (2017).

8186: 6953:"The origin of platyrrhines: An evaluation of the Antarctic scenario and the floating island model" 4594: 3164: 779: 31: 15416: 14283: 8450:"Cone topography and spectral sensitivity in two potentially trichromatic marsupials, the quokka ( 7727:, Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 539–602, 4034:

latitudes of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Species that live outside of the tropics include the

2571:

of the ancestral practice of gripping branches, and has, in part, allowed some species to develop

2258:

Although primates are well studied in comparison to other animal groups, several new species have

15512: 15491: 10043:

Leroux, M.; Townsend, S. (2020). "Call Combinations in Great Apes and the Evolution of Syntax".

6205: 4688: 4455: 4114: 4086: 3961: 3833: 3646: 3599: 3211: 3176: 2824: 2675:

and skin color. The dimorphism can be attributed to and affected by different factors, including

2329: 2323: 170: 14010: 12985: 9405: 9109: 5363: 5355: 15892: 15625: 15401: 14890: 11110: 10401: 10070:

Haimoff, E. H. (1983). "Brief report: Occurrence of anti-resonance in the song of the siamang (

8359: 8353: 8325:

O'Higgins, P.; Collard, M. (2002). "Sexual dimorphism and facial growth in papionine monkeys".

4303: 4070:

to the amount of rainfall and the amount of rain forest area. Accounting for 25% to 40% of the

3801: 3281: 3207: 3115:

These social systems are affected by three main ecological factors: distribution of resources,

3081: 2990:. The two individuals on the right exposing their white ventral surface are sunning themselves. 2805:, have exhibited fully bipedal locomotion, humans are the only extant species with this trait. 14273: 14221: 12205: 9208: 7568: 7534: 7112: 2682:

Comparative analyses have generated a more complete understanding of the relationship between

2602:, broad ribcages that are flatter front-to-back, a shorter, less mobile spine, and with lower 2202:, humans and the other apes, and Platyrrhini, which developed in South America, consisting of 15887: 14420: 14179: 13147: 12206:"Chapter 19: Human universals and primate symplesiomorphies: Establishing the lemur baseline" 10445:

Kappeler, Peter M. (1998). "Nests, Tree Holes, and the Evolution of Primate Life Histories".

8924: 8424: 8158: 8150: 7865: 7859: 5104: 4567: 4530: 4110: 3667: 3539: 3199: 3055: 2966: 2797:

knuckle walk, and can move bipedally for short distances. Although numerous species, such as

2169: 1997: 697: 15879: 15804: 12379: 6231:"Using the fossil record to estimate the age of the last common ancestor of extant primates" 5494: 4101:, and the gelada has been found at elevations of up to 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in the 3638:(tarsiers, monkeys and apes) have lost this ability, and require the vitamin in their diet. 2781:

all brachiate extensively, with gibbons sometimes doing so in remarkably acrobatic fashion.

2103:, yielding a four-one family distribution instead of five-two as presented here. During the 15721: 15672: 15461: 15396: 15356: 14354: 14076: 13944: 13247: 12437: 12314: 12170: 11822: 11479: 10975: 10610: 10356: 10299: 10288:"Vocal responsiveness in male wild chimpanzees: implications for the evolution of language" 10191: 10130: 9580: 9473: 9299: 9146: 9049: 7678: 7603: 7428: 7256:

Sugawara, K. (January 1979). "Sociological study of a wild group of hybrid baboons between

7214: 6861: 6802: 6791:"Late Middle Eocene primate from Myanmar and the initial anthropoid colonization of Africa" 6742: 6653: 6480: 6242: 6163: 6104: 5996: 5939: 5873: 5807: 5742: 5687: 5623: 5563: 5450: 4582: 4447: 4247: 4223: 4187: 4105:. Some species interact with aquatic environments and may swim or even dive, including the 3808:

providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest

3704:

primates, exclusively eating insects, crustaceans, small vertebrates and snakes (including

3490: 2691: 2623: 2495:, all retain at least one lower incisor. In most strepsirrhines, the lower incisors form a 2422: 2357: 2318: 637: 482: 12980:

Encountering Gorillas: A Chronicle of Discovery, Exploitation, Understanding, and Survival

11659: 8741: 8720: 6302: 6285: 3758:– the majority of its diet is fruit, but it supplements this with leaves, meat from small 3183:, which coordinate anti-predator alarm calls. Among the predators of these monkeys is the 3152: 552:

techniques used include leaping from tree to tree and swinging between branches of trees (

465:: many primate characteristics represent adaptations to the challenging environment among 8: 15441: 14820:(Rats, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives) 14799:(Pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives) 14110:

McGraw, W. S. (June 2005). "Update on the Search for Miss Waldron's Red Colobus Monkey".

14034: 13849: 13770: 11243: 11100: 9815: 7379:"These monkey twins are the first primate clones made by the method that developed Dolly" 7299:

Jolly, C. J.; Woolley-Barker, Tamsin; et al. (1997). "Intergeneric Hybrid Baboons".

7137: 6584: 5185: 4598: 4586: 4515: 4102: 3977: 3973: 3919: 3892: 3872: 3744: 3555: 3516: 3168: 3133: 3116: 2734: 2656:

Distinct sexual size dimorphism can be seen between the male and female mountain gorilla.

2575:(swinging by the arms from tree limb to tree limb) as a significant means of locomotion. 2564: 2468:, a bone around the eye socket, to protect their eyes; in contrast, the higher primates, 2315: 1364: 602: 549: 200: 14080: 13948: 13812: 13715:"Primates in Northeast India: an overview of their distribution and conservation status" 13251: 12668: 12441: 12318: 12174: 11483: 11120: 10979: 10614: 10360: 10303: 10195: 10134: 9948: 9584: 9477: 9303: 9150: 9053: 8420:

Selected Readings in the Anthropology of Religion: Theoretical and Methodological Essays

7682: 7432: 7218: 6865: 6806: 6746: 6657: 6484: 6246: 6206:"Scientists Push Back Primate Origins From 65 Million To 85 Million Years Ago" 6167: 6108: 6093:"Estimating the phylogeny and divergence times of primates using a supermatrix approach" 6000: 5943: 5877: 5811: 5746: 5691: 5627: 5567: 5454: 2262:, and genetic tests have revealed previously unrecognised species in known populations. 1118: 164: 15663: 15371: 15329: 15309: 15191: 14127: 14092: 14004: 13960: 13884: 13853: 13774: 13621: 13576: 13551: 13406: 13276: 13235: 13119: 13065: 13038: 12978: 12896: 12624: 12529: 12338: 12258: 12186: 12143: 12099: 12052: 11996: 11969: 11923: 11809: 11755: 11660:"Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task" 11538: 11503: 11447: 11422: 11398: 11346: 11001: 10944: 10868: 10646:"Vitamin C biosynthesis in prosimians: Evidence for the anthropoid affinity of Tarsius" 10575: 10550: 10505: 10470: 10427: 10379: 10344: 10343:

Opie, Christopher; Atkinson, Quentin D.; Dunbarc, Robin I. M.; Shultz, Susanne (2013).

10325: 10263: 10238: 10214: 10175: 10151: 10118: 10099: 9991: 9964: 9904: 9865: 9797: 9757: 9732: 9713: 9655: 9603: 9568: 9399: 9257: 9180: 9102: 9073: 9018: 8976: 8793: 8701: 8621: 8482: 8449: 8307: 8255: 8206: 8096: 8057: 8022: 7891:"The ecological role of the prehensile tail in white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)" 7830: 7719:

Kirk, E. Christopher; Kay, Richard F. (2004), Ross, Callum F.; Kay, Richard F. (eds.),

7497: 7316: 7281: 7238: 7184: 7017: 6884: 6849: 6825: 6790: 6765: 6730: 6676: 6641: 6362: 6337: 6266: 6187: 6127: 6092: 6019: 5984: 5960: 5927: 5907: 5838: 5795: 5771: 5730: 5654: 5611: 5586: 5551: 5474: 5209: 4602: 4463: 4427: 4397: 4090: 3701: 3674:

on its teeth, enabling it to open hard fruits and seeds that other monkeys cannot. The

3433: 3234: 2996: 2595: 2457: 2438: 2223: 2141: 528:(relative to body size) compared to other mammals, as well as an increased reliance on 458: 388: 256: 184: 15381: 14378: 12684: 11334: 10622: 9900: 9496: 9285: 8577: 3883:

have scored highly by some measures), as well as in the results of different studies.

3523:

Primates have slower rates of development than other mammals. All primate infants are

2982: 15948: 15874: 15708: 15476: 15319: 15215: 14883: 14788: 14299: 14241: 14231: 14206: 14187: 14158: 14088: 14047: 14014: 13983: 13911: 13907: 13635: 13581: 13535: 13518: 13497: 13366: 13281: 13263: 13151: 13111: 13070: 12989: 12749: 12688: 12647: 12616: 12579: 12554: 12548: 12488: 12465: 12460: 12425: 12404: 12330: 12280: 12250: 12213: 12161:

Hamilton, W.J.; Buskirk, R.E.; Buskirk, W.H. (1975). "Defensive stoning by baboons".

12135: 12091: 12044: 12001: 11814: 11705: 11682: 11640: 11589: 11495: 11452: 11403: 11338: 11303: 11260: 11221: 11194: 11163: 11083: 11042: 11021:"Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century" 10993: 10936: 10826: 10797: 10791: 10767: 10715: 10665: 10626: 10580: 10474: 10462: 10384: 10317: 10268: 10219: 10156: 10091: 9923: 9884: 9857: 9762: 9705: 9659: 9647: 9608: 9537: 9501: 9437: 9409: 9378: 9350: 9315: 9290: 9234:, Cheney, D.L. Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., & Struhsaker, T.T. (Eds.) (1987). 9212: 9202: 9172: 9164: 9113: 9065: 9061: 8968: 8928: 8918: 8897: 8841: 8816: 8797: 8785: 8693: 8656: 8613: 8537: 8529: 8487: 8428: 8418: 8397: 8363: 8299: 8214: 8162: 8131: 8100: 8014: 7977: 7949: 7910: 7869: 7838: 7766: 7736: 7694: 7572: 7562: 7538: 7528: 7446: 7383: 7359: 7230: 7176: 7116: 7106: 7085: 7009: 6974: 6933: 6889: 6830: 6770: 6681: 6592: 6561: 6533: 6496: 6436: 6367: 6307: 6258: 6179: 6132: 6066: 6024: 5965: 5911: 5899: 5843: 5825: 5776: 5758: 5711: 5703: 5659: 5641: 5591: 5530: 5505: 5466: 5420: 5392: 5367: 5250: 5138: 5110: 5080: 4995: 4866: 4858: 4817: 4807: 4668: 4590: 4573:

There are 21 critically endangered primates, 7 of which have remained on the IUCN's "

4219: 4098: 3857: 3732: 3405: 3396:

for many aspects of social and reproductive behavior. Specialized glands are used to

3191: 3184: 3000: 2987: 2798: 2687: 2660: 2426: 2231: 2227: 2183: 584: 154: 140: 14096: 13857: 13778: 13410: 12533: 12342: 12262: 12147: 12103: 12056: 11927: 11759: 11542: 10948: 10872: 10509: 10103: 9908: 9869: 9184: 9077: 9022: 8980: 8705: 8506: 8311: 8259: 8061: 8026: 7320: 7285: 7242: 7188: 7021: 5478: 5213: 4884: 3511: 148: 15713: 15575: 15345: 15130: 15080: 14944: 14809: 14550: 14487: 14413: 14363: 14119: 14084: 13952: 13880: 13845: 13766: 13693: 13662: 13625: 13617: 13571: 13563: 13530: 13398: 13271: 13255: 13123: 13101: 13060: 13052: 12870: 12680: 12628: 12608: 12521: 12455: 12445: 12322: 12242: 12190: 12178: 12127: 12083: 12036: 11991: 11981: 11915: 11897:"A comparison of bonobo and chimpanzee tool use: evidence for a female bias in the 11804: 11796: 11745: 11674: 11632: 11581: 11530: 11507: 11487: 11442: 11434: 11393: 11385: 11350: 11330: 11295: 11252: 11153: 11073: 11032: 11005: 10983: 10928: 10860: 10707: 10657: 10618: 10570: 10562: 10497: 10454: 10419: 10374: 10364: 10329: 10307: 10258: 10250: 10209: 10199: 10146: 10138: 10083: 10052: 10023: 10015: 9986: 9976: 9943: 9935: 9896: 9849: 9789: 9752: 9744: 9717: 9697: 9639: 9627: 9598: 9588: 9491: 9481: 9307: 9154: 9057: 9010: 8960: 8777: 8685: 8648: 8605: 8573: 8521: 8477: 8469: 8334: 8289: 8245: 8198: 8123: 8088: 8049: 8006: 7941: 7902: 7728: 7686: 7436: 7419: 7388: 7349: 7308: 7273: 7222: 7168: 7081: 7001: 6966: 6923: 6879: 6869: 6820: 6810: 6760: 6750: 6671: 6661: 6488: 6357: 6349: 6297: 6284:

Klonisch, T.; Froehlich, C.; Tetens, F.; Fischer, B.; Hombach-Klonisch, S. (2001).

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Pough, F. W.; Janis, C. M.; Heiser, J. B. (2005) . "Characteristics of Primates".

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humans; their intelligence, memory, and manual dexterity make them ideal helpers.

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probably lacked vocal communication significantly more sophisticated than that of

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Ross, Caroline (1991). "Park or ride? Evolution of infant carrying in primates".

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Tavaré, S.; Marshall, C. R.; Will, O.; Soligo, C.; Martin R.D. (April 18, 2002).

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Paar, L. A.; de Waal, F. B. M. (1999). "Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees".

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make distinctive, loud songs and choruses which maintain territories and act as

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