682:(2020) "I will argue that literature regarding âtheory of mindâ has constituted EV. Researchers, based on one experiment, with a small sample of autistic children (20) (mean chronological age = 11, estimated verbal ability age = 5), argued that autistic individuals lacked âtheory of mindâ, which is to say, they lacked the ability to infer their own and others minds, that this was a universal effect and unique to autism (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985). Four autistic participants (20%) passed the experiment, demonstrating theory of mind, sixteen did not, yet it was claimed to be a universal effect which was unique to autism. It was hypothesised instead that the kids who passed may not âreallyâ be autistic, instead of theory of mind having limits in its ability to explain autism. The available evidence has never been that it was universal (autistic children who passed the test were deemed to be outliers and an exception to rule, despite making up between 20-25% of the sample completing the task, reliably (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985; Yirmiya et al., 1998)."
423:. p. 1. "Epistemic injustice refers to those forms of unfair treatment that relate to issues of knowledge, understanding, and participation in communicative practices. These issues include a wide range of topics concerning wrongful treatment and unjust structures in meaning-making and knowledge producing practices, such as the following: exclusion and silencing; invisibility and inaudibility (or distorted presence or representation); having oneâs meanings or contributions systematically distorted, misheard, or misrepresented; having diminished status or standing in communicative practices; unfair differentials in authority and/or epistemic agency; being unfairly distrusted; receiving no or minimal uptake; being coopted or instrumentalized; being marginalized as a result of dysfunctional dynamics; etc."
636:. "Yet, if an empirical difference is interpreted as inferiority or problematizes the Other, whether this theorizing has epistemological or practical consequences, one should speak of a form of violence that is produced in âknowledge.â In these cases, interpretations of data (and not data!) turn into
314:
In 2021 as well, Bhakuni & Abimbola's application of the concept of pose (or the positionality of the speaker) and gaze (the influence of the audience being addressed) as important modifiers of the both credibility deficit (that is, credibility deficit may apply to a person's pose or their role
273:
American philosopher
Kristie Dotson has warned that some definitions could leave out important contributions to the ongoing discussion around epistemic injustice. Gaile Pohlhaus Jr. has replied that the concept should therefore be considered an open one, and many different approaches to the concept
82:
who arrived at the scene regarded Brooks with suspicion. According to an official inquiry, "the officers failed to concentrate upon Mr. Brooks and to follow up energetically the information which he gave them. Nobody suggested that he should accompany them in searches of the area, although he knew
158:
is distinct from epistemic injustice in that it usually occurs in the power structure of academic research, such as when interpreting empirical results in psychology. Epistemological violence is theoretical interpretations of empirical results that construct a targeted group as inferior, despite
112:
Hermeneutical injustice occurs when someone's experiences are not well understood â by themselves or by others â because these experiences do not fit any concepts known to them (or known to others), due to the historic exclusion of some groups of people from activities, such as scholarship and
265:
has argued that attention should be given to the structural causes and structural remedies of epistemic injustice. A closely related literature on epistemologies of ignorance has also been developing, which has included the identification of overlapping concepts such as white ignorance and
644:
as inferior or problematic, despite the fact that alternative interpretations, equally viable based on the data, are available. Interpretations of inferiority, or problematizations (see Teo, 2004), are never determined by empirical results; yet, they have a negative impact on the
126:, had long experienced. Before this time, a woman experiencing sexual harassment may have had difficulty putting her experience into words. Fricker states that this difficulty is also not accidental, and was largely due to women's exclusion from shaping the
142:
was introduced, the same woman who experienced sexual harassment may have understood better what happened to her; however, she may have struggled to explain this experience to someone else, because the concept of sexual harassment was not yet well known.
293:
groups were wronged when colonizing powers replaced, or negatively impacted, the concepts and categories that colonized groups used to understand themselves and the world. Similarly, in 2021, Professor Dr. Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni mentions the term
63:
is unfairness related to trusting someone's word. An injustice of this kind can occur when someone is ignored, or not believed, because of their sex, sexuality, gender presentation, race, disability, or, broadly, because of their identity.
679:
146:
Fricker argues that some women's lives are less intelligible â to themselves, and/or to others â because women have historically wielded less power to shape the categories through which people understand the world.
34:; systematic distortion or misrepresentation of one's meanings or contributions; undervaluing of one's status or standing in communicative practices; unfair distinctions in authority; and unwarranted distrust.
640:. Epistemological violence is a practice that is executed in empirical articles and books in psychology, when theoretical interpretations regarding empirical results implicitly or explicitly construct the
102:
is injustice caused by people being unable to make sense of certain experiences in their life, owing to a lack of hermeneutical/interpretive resources required to make sense of the experience. (The word
1311:"The cognitive empire, politics of knowledge and African intellectual productions: reflections on struggles for epistemic freedom and resurgence of decolonisation in the twenty-first century"
83:
where the assailants had last been seen. Nobody appears properly to have tried to calm him, or to accept that what he said was true." That is, the police officers failed to view Brooks as a
315:
as gaze) and hermeneutical marginalization (that is, a person may be marginalized in relation to their pose as a speaker or to the gaze/audience to whom they have to address themself).
281:
was published, compiling chapters addressing both the theoretical work on the concept and efforts to apply that theory to practical case studies. The Indian political theorist
170:
children constitutes epistemological violence, due to foundational studies explicitly or implicitly drawing universal conclusions about the entire group of autistic people.
91:. This was, says Fricker, a case of testimonial injustice, which occurs when "prejudice causes a hearer to give a deflated level of credibility to a speakerâs word."
1745:
Medina, José (2011). "The
Relevance of Credibility Excess in a Proportional View of Epistemic Injustice: Differential Epistemic Authority and the Social Imaginary".
947:
533:"Opinions of the Lords of Appeal for Judgement in the Cause: Brooks (FC) (Respondent) v. Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis (Appellant) and others"
360:
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has advocated for an account of epistemic injustice that incorporates more voices and pays attention to context and the relationships at play.
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and/or expanded what the term includes. These contributions have included naming and narrowing down forms of epistemic injustice, such as
208:
persons are prevented from speaking for themselves about their own interests because of others claiming to know what those interests are.
1789:
Medina, José (2012). "Hermeneutical
Injustice and Polyphonic Contextualism: Social Silences and Shared Hermeneutical Responsibilities".
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Medina, José (2012). "Hermeneutical
Injustice and Polyphonic Contextualism: Social Silences and Shared Hermeneutical Responsibilities".
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Pohlhaus, Gaile (2012). "Relational
Knowing and Epistemic Injustice: Toward a Theory of Willful Hermeneutical Ignorance".
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Pohlhaus, Gaile (2012). "Relational
Knowing and Epistemic Injustice: Toward a Theory of Willful Hermeneutical Ignorance".
599:
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138:, academia, law, and the other institutions and industries that help people make sense of their lives. After the term
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in the 1890s anticipated the concept in claiming that Black women are denied full and equal recognition as knowers.
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532:
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The
Epistemology of Resistance: Gender and Racial Oppression, Epistemic Injustice, and Resistant imaginations
692:
May, Vivian M. (2013-10-11). ""Speaking into the Void"? Intersectionality
Critiques and Epistemic Backlash".
307:
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649:. Thus, interpretations are the actions of a subject against an object that one must label as violent. The
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Oranlı, Imge (2021). "Epistemic
Injustice from Afar : Rethinking the Denial of Armenian Genocide".
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part in this concept suggests that these theoretical interpretations are framed as knowledge about the
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2001:
1024:"Autism, epistemic injustice, and epistemic disablement: a relational account of epistemic agency"
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41:, who coined the term in 1999. According to Fricker, there are two kinds of epistemic injustice:
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680:"Autistic community connectedness as a buffer against the effects of minority stress."
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Anderson, Elizabeth (2012). "Epistemic
Justice as a Virtue of Social Institutions".
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Bhaumik, Soumyadeep; Zwi, Anthony B.; Norton, Robyn; Jagnoor, Jagnoor (2023-08-01).
1104:
Anderson, Elizabeth (2012). "Epistemic Justice as a Virtue of Social Institutions".
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436:
Pohlhaus Jr., Gaile (2017). "Varieties of Epistemic Injustice". In Kidd, Ian James;
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journalism, that shape the language people use to make sense of their experiences.
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Grasswick, Heidi (2017). "Epistemic Injustice in Science". In Kidd, Ian James;
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Bhargava, Rajeev (2013). "Overcoming the Epistemic Injustice of Colonialism".
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or that the theoretical interpretations are produced to the detriment of the
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A policy analysis indicated that the World Health Organization definition of
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37:
An influential theory of epistemic injustice is that of British philosopher
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1976:
1961:
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1399:
551:"Just How Testimonial, Epistemic, Or Correctable Is Testimonial Injustice?"
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was not coined until 1999, earlier thinkers have discussed similar ideas.
105:
1456:"How and why snakebite became a global health priority: a policy analysis"
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998:
805:
449:
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200:" as another anticipation. In that essay, Spivak describes what she calls
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For example, Dr. Monique Danielle Botha argues that academic studies of
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2011:
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31:
1831:. Philosophy and Race Series. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 13â38.
1152:. Philosophy and Race Series. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 13â38.
52:
Related concepts include epistemic oppression and epistemic violence.
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323:
290:
23:
626:"What is Epistemological Violence in the Empirical Social Sciences?"
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908:
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when in reality they are interpretations regarding data. The term
628:. Social & Personality Psychology Compass 4.5 (2010) 295-303
122:
was introduced to describe something that many people, especially
2211:
1515:. In Cottier, Thomas; Lalani, Shaheeza; Siziba, Clarence (eds.).
517:
759:
Dotson, Kristie (2014). "Conceptualizing Epistemic Oppression".
727:
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (1988), "Can the Subaltern Speak?",
2325:
1874:
1022:
Catala, Amandine; Faucher, Luc; Poirier, Pierre (2021-05-11).
864:"Tracking Epistemic Violence, Tracking Practices of Silencing"
322:
reflects a form of epistemic injustice, where conditions like
2425:
2071:
1702:
Kidd, Ian James, José Medina, and Gaile Pohlhaus Jr. (2017).
1517:
Intergenerational Equity: Environmental and Cultural Concerns
600:"Until 1975, 'Sexual Harassment' Was the Menace With No Name"
123:
159:
alternative and equally viable interpretations of the data.
661:
denotes that this âknowledgeâ has a negative impact on the
797:
Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide
216:
Other scholars since Fricker have adapted the concept of
1358:"The foreign gaze: authorship in academic global health"
1453:
1173:
Mills, Charles (2017). "Ideology". In Kidd, Ian James;
336:
has been considered an example of epistemic injustice.
1513:"Genocide Denialism as an Intergenerational Injustice"
1244:
344:
1657:"A Cautionary Tale: On Limiting Epistemic Oppression"
909:"A Cautionary Tale: On Limiting Epistemic Oppression"
1689:
Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing
1021:
480:
Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing
521:. University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
185:Vivian May has argued that civil rights activist
2524:
1413:Bhakuni, Himani; Abimbola, Seye (October 2021).
1415:"Epistemic injustice in academic global health"
1412:
1308:
555:International Journal of Philosophical Studies
109:comes from the Greek word for 'interpreter'.)
1890:
1825:. In Sullivan, Shannon; Tuana, Nancy (eds.).
1717:
1704:The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
1146:. In Sullivan, Shannon; Tuana, Nancy (eds.).
902:
900:
405:The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
731:, Macmillan Education UK, pp. 271â313,
435:
330:, resulting in lack of focus on prevention.
1542:"Genocide Denial as Testimonial Oppression"
150:
1897:
1883:
1720:"Nonhuman Animals and Epistemic Injustice"
897:
835:Ergo, an Open Access Journal of Philosophy
828:
794:Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (2015-11-16).
94:
1735:
1724:Journal of Ethics & Social Philosophy
1487:
1430:
1389:
1309:Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J. (2021-05-04).
1251:Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
1179:Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
991:Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
984:
846:
729:Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture
597:
574:
442:Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
310:by Western academia and in the sphere of
279:Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice
1845:
1625:
1539:
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1355:
1281:
1209:
1103:
548:
55:
510:
477:
306:of scholars and intellectuals from the
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1068:
906:
861:
793:
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726:
482:. Oxford University Press. p. 1.
116:For example, in the 1970s, the phrase
1878:
1817:
1661:Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies
1172:
1138:
948:"Two Concepts of Epistemic Injustice"
945:
913:Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies
1828:Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance
1249:; Pohlhaus Jr., Gaile, eds. (2017).
1149:Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance
473:
471:
469:
431:
429:
1777:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1691:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
691:
598:Blakemore, Erin (January 8, 2018).
345:Selected philosophers and theorists
254:expressive hermeneutical injustice.
13:
1238:
685:
26:related to knowledge. It includes
14:
2559:
616:
466:
426:
393:
234:silencing as testimonial quieting
1904:
1860:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2011.01222.x
1540:Altanian, Melanie (2021-03-04).
1224:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2011.01222.x
883:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2011.01177.x
634:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00265.x
549:Auerback, Raymond (2021-08-08).
246:distributive epistemic injustice
1673:10.5250/fronjwomestud.33.1.0024
1619:
1580:
1533:
1504:
1447:
1406:
1356:Abimbola, Seye (October 2019).
1349:
1302:
1275:
1203:
1166:
1132:
1097:
1062:
1015:
978:
939:
925:10.5250/fronjwomestud.33.1.0024
855:
822:
787:
752:
720:
268:willful hermeneutical ignorance
2321:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
1177:; Pohlhaus Jr., Gaile (eds.).
989:; Pohlhaus Jr., Gaile (eds.).
848:10.3998/ergo.12405314.0003.022
672:
591:
542:
525:
504:
440:; Pohlhaus Jr., Gaile (eds.).
70:gives the example of Londoner
16:Injustice related to knowledge
1:
1601:10.1080/02691728.2020.1839593
1558:10.1080/02691728.2020.1839810
1432:10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00301-6
1327:10.1080/01436597.2020.1775487
567:10.1080/09672559.2021.1997394
444:. Routledge. pp. 13â26.
386:
326:are forced to be framed as a
192:Gaile Pohlhaus Jr. points to
130:and participating equally in
1803:10.1080/02691728.2011.652214
1759:10.1080/02691728.2010.534568
1640:10.1080/02691728.2011.652211
1118:10.1080/02691728.2011.652211
1083:10.1080/02691728.2011.652214
773:10.1080/02691728.2013.782585
737:10.1007/978-1-349-19059-1_20
87:, presumably in part due to
7:
2366:Internalism and externalism
1519:. Brill. pp. 151â162.
403:, Gaile Pohlhaus Jr., eds.
339:
10:
2564:
1511:Altanian, Melanie (2019).
1040:10.1007/s11229-021-03192-7
376:Boaventura de Sousa Santos
320:neglected tropical disease
250:epistemic trust injustice,
194:Gayatri Chakrovorty Spivak
173:
2492:
2441:
2290:
2197:Evolutionary epistemology
2167:
1912:
1687:Fricker, Miranda (2007).
1472:10.1136/bmjgh-2023-011923
1374:10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002068
964:10.3366/E1742360010000845
829:Berenstain, Nora (2016).
511:Fricker, Miranda (2014).
478:Fricker, Miranda (2007).
381:Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni
2548:Concepts in epistemology
2469:Philosophy of perception
2272:Representational realism
2242:Naturalized epistemology
1737:10.26556/jesp.v25i1.2201
1655:Dotson, Kristie (2012).
1419:The Lancet Global Health
907:Dotson, Kristie (2012).
862:Dotson, Kristie (2011).
831:"Epistemic Exploitation"
638:epistemological violence
198:Can the Subaltern Speak?
156:Epistemological violence
151:Epistemological violence
2449:Outline of epistemology
2282:Transcendental idealism
1818:Mills, Charles (2007).
1296:10.1111/1758-5899.12093
1139:Mills, Charles (2007).
800:. New York: Routledge.
407:(1st ed.). Routledge.
312:decolonisation studies.
100:Hermeneutical injustice
95:Hermeneutical injustice
47:hermeneutical injustice
2543:Historical negationism
2396:Problem of other minds
1718:Lopez, Andrew (2023).
274:should be considered.
242:contributory injustice
238:testimonial smothering
230:epistemic exploitation
2474:Philosophy of science
2454:Faith and rationality
2336:Descriptive knowledge
2207:Feminist epistemology
2147:Nicholas Wolterstorff
1315:Third World Quarterly
1259:10.4324/9781315212043
1187:10.4324/9781315212043
999:10.4324/9781315212043
946:Coady, David (2010).
806:10.4324/9781315634876
513:"Epistemic Equality?"
450:10.4324/9781315212043
413:10.4324/9781315212043
366:Elizabeth S. Anderson
263:Elizabeth S. Anderson
74:, who saw his friend
61:Testimonial injustice
56:Testimonial injustice
43:testimonial injustice
2406:Procedural knowledge
2391:Problem of induction
222:epistemic oppression
212:Further developments
2538:Social epistemology
2484:Virtue epistemology
2479:Social epistemology
2459:Formal epistemology
2346:Epistemic injustice
2341:Exploratory thought
2142:Ludwig Wittgenstein
1791:Social Epistemology
1747:Social Epistemology
1628:Social Epistemology
1589:Social Epistemology
1546:Social Epistemology
1425:(10): e1465âe1470.
1106:Social Epistemology
1071:Social Epistemology
761:Social Epistemology
287:epistemic injustice
218:epistemic injustice
180:epistemic injustice
20:Epistemic injustice
2137:Timothy Williamson
1927:Augustine of Hippo
1034:(3â4): 9013â9039.
706:10.1111/hypa.12060
202:epistemic violence
2520:
2519:
2386:Privileged access
2022:SĂžren Kierkegaard
1838:978-0-7914-7101-2
1820:"White Ignorance"
1783:978-0-19-992902-3
1712:978-1-138-82825-4
1697:978-0-19-823790-7
1526:978-90-04-38800-0
1460:BMJ Global Health
1362:BMJ Global Health
1268:978-1-138-82825-4
1245:Kidd, Ian James;
1196:978-1-138-82825-4
1159:978-0-7914-7101-2
1141:"White Ignorance"
1008:978-1-138-82825-4
815:978-1-315-63487-6
746:978-0-333-46276-8
489:978-0-19-823790-7
459:978-1-138-82825-4
421:978-1-138-82825-4
399:Kidd, Ian James,
328:medical condition
187:Anna Julia Cooper
140:sexual harassment
119:sexual harassment
2555:
2464:Metaepistemology
2442:Related articles
2416:Regress argument
2351:Epistemic virtue
2102:Bertrand Russell
2077:Duncan Pritchard
2037:Hilary Kornblith
1952:Laurence BonJour
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859:
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397:
302:to describe the
300:Cognitive Empire
289:to describe how
178:Though the term
128:English language
85:credible witness
76:Stephen Lawrence
2563:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2488:
2437:
2356:Gettier problem
2286:
2217:Foundationalism
2163:
2112:Wilfrid Sellars
2067:Alvin Plantinga
1947:George Berkeley
1914:Epistemologists
1908:
1903:
1839:
1822:
1622:
1617:
1616:
1585:
1581:
1538:
1534:
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747:
725:
721:
690:
686:
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673:
651:epistemological
621:
617:
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596:
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547:
543:
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531:
530:
526:
509:
505:
490:
476:
467:
460:
434:
427:
398:
394:
389:
351:Miranda Fricker
347:
342:
334:Genocide denial
283:Rajeev Bhargava
214:
204:occurring when
196:'s 1988 essay "
176:
153:
97:
80:police officers
68:Miranda Fricker
58:
39:Miranda Fricker
17:
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2234:
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2224:
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2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2182:Constructivism
2179:
2173:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2132:Baruch Spinoza
2129:
2127:P. F. Strawson
2124:
2119:
2117:Susanna Siegel
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2092:W. V. O. Quine
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1992:Nelson Goodman
1989:
1984:
1982:Edmund Gettier
1979:
1974:
1969:
1967:René Descartes
1964:
1959:
1957:Gilles Deleuze
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1932:William Alston
1929:
1924:
1922:Thomas Aquinas
1918:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1901:
1894:
1887:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1854:(4): 715â735.
1843:
1837:
1815:
1797:(2): 201â220.
1786:
1771:
1742:
1730:(1): 136â163.
1715:
1700:
1685:
1652:
1634:(2): 163â173.
1621:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1595:(2): 120â132.
1579:
1552:(2): 133â146.
1532:
1525:
1503:
1466:(8): e011923.
1446:
1405:
1368:(5): e002068.
1348:
1321:(5): 882â901.
1301:
1290:(4): 413â417.
1274:
1267:
1237:
1218:(4): 715â735.
1202:
1195:
1165:
1158:
1131:
1112:(2): 163â173.
1096:
1077:(2): 201â220.
1061:
1014:
1007:
977:
958:(2): 101â113.
938:
896:
877:(2): 236â257.
854:
821:
814:
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767:(2): 115â138.
751:
745:
719:
684:
671:
615:
590:
561:(4): 559â576.
541:
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503:
488:
465:
458:
425:
391:
390:
388:
385:
384:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
361:Kristie Dotson
358:
353:
346:
343:
341:
338:
304:discrimination
285:uses the term
213:
210:
175:
172:
164:Theory of Mind
152:
149:
96:
93:
78:murdered. The
72:Duwayne Brooks
57:
54:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
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2371:Justification
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2265:
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2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2247:Phenomenalism
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2237:NaĂŻve realism
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
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2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2187:Contextualism
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2153:
2152:Vienna Circle
2150:
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2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
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2120:
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2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
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2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2087:Hilary Putnam
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2062:Robert Nozick
2060:
2058:
2057:John McDowell
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2017:Immanuel Kant
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1987:Alvin Goldman
1985:
1983:
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1752:
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1725:
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1713:
1709:
1706:. Routledge.
1705:
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1686:
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1284:Global Policy
1278:
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1264:
1260:
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1253:. Routledge.
1252:
1248:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1225:
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1213:
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1192:
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1181:. Routledge.
1180:
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1000:
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993:. Routledge.
992:
988:
981:
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969:
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961:
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942:
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930:
926:
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762:
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715:
711:
707:
703:
700:(1): 94â112.
699:
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652:
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374:
372:
371:Charles Mills
369:
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335:
331:
329:
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316:
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305:
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292:
288:
284:
280:
277:In 2017, the
275:
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243:
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235:
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157:
148:
144:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
120:
114:
110:
108:
107:
106:hermeneutical
101:
92:
90:
86:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
62:
53:
50:
48:
44:
40:
35:
33:
29:
25:
21:
2430:
2345:
2331:Common sense
2309:A posteriori
2308:
2300:
2262:Reductionism
2156:
2107:Gilbert Ryle
1977:Fred Dretske
1962:Keith DeRose
1906:Epistemology
1851:
1847:
1827:
1794:
1790:
1774:
1750:
1746:
1727:
1723:
1703:
1688:
1664:
1660:
1631:
1627:
1620:Bibliography
1592:
1588:
1582:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1516:
1506:
1463:
1459:
1449:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1318:
1314:
1304:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1250:
1247:Medina, José
1240:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1178:
1175:Medina, José
1168:
1148:
1134:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1031:
1027:
1017:
990:
987:Medina, José
980:
955:
951:
941:
916:
912:
874:
870:
857:
841:(20200916).
838:
834:
824:
796:
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764:
760:
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728:
722:
697:
693:
687:
674:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
637:
618:
607:. Retrieved
603:
593:
576:10871/128037
558:
554:
544:
527:
516:
506:
479:
441:
438:Medina, José
404:
395:
332:
317:
308:Global South
299:
296:epistemicide
295:
286:
278:
276:
272:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
226:epistemicide
225:
221:
217:
215:
201:
191:
184:
179:
177:
161:
155:
154:
145:
139:
117:
115:
111:
104:
99:
98:
66:
60:
59:
51:
46:
42:
36:
19:
18:
2411:Proposition
2381:Objectivity
2267:Reliabilism
2257:Rationalism
2202:Fallibilism
2177:Coherentism
2122:Ernest Sosa
2097:Thomas Reid
2082:James Pryor
2052:G. E. Moore
2042:David Lewis
2032:Saul Kripke
2027:Peter Klein
2007:Susan Haack
1937:Robert Audi
1773:ââ (2013).
623:Teo, Thomas
604:history.com
401:José Medina
356:José Medina
259:José Medina
89:racial bias
2527:Categories
2512:Discussion
2502:Task Force
2421:Simplicity
2401:Perception
2277:Skepticism
2252:Positivism
2227:Infinitism
2192:Empiricism
2047:John Locke
2012:David Hume
2002:Anil Gupta
1997:Paul Grice
1972:John Dewey
1942:A. J. Ayer
609:2020-10-08
387:References
136:publishing
132:journalism
2533:Injustice
2376:Knowledge
2361:Induction
2311:knowledge
2303:knowledge
1868:143723579
1753:: 15â35.
1681:142869935
1648:145350986
1609:229463301
1574:229073471
1566:0269-1728
1480:2059-7908
1382:2059-7908
1343:225573395
1335:0143-6597
1232:143723579
1126:145350986
1056:236566456
1048:0039-7857
972:145332158
933:142869935
891:144313735
781:144330822
714:145513018
678:M Botha.
585:0967-2559
498:729949179
324:snakebite
291:colonized
206:subaltern
32:silencing
28:exclusion
24:injustice
2497:Category
2316:Analysis
2301:A priori
2292:Concepts
2232:Innatism
2169:Theories
1811:16890075
1767:18592595
1498:37604596
1489:10445399
1441:34384536
1400:31750005
1091:16890075
1028:Synthese
952:Episteme
659:violence
340:See also
298:and the
168:autistic
2432:more...
2212:Fideism
2158:more...
1848:Hypatia
1391:6830280
1212:Hypatia
871:Hypatia
694:Hypatia
518:YouTube
236:and as
174:Origins
2326:Belief
2222:Holism
1866:
1835:
1809:
1781:
1765:
1710:
1695:
1679:
1667:: 24.
1646:
1607:
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1523:
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1333:
1265:
1230:
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970:
931:
919:: 24.
889:
812:
779:
743:
712:
583:
496:
486:
456:
419:
2507:Stubs
2426:Truth
2072:Plato
1864:S2CID
1823:(PDF)
1807:S2CID
1763:S2CID
1677:S2CID
1644:S2CID
1605:S2CID
1570:S2CID
1339:S2CID
1228:S2CID
1144:(PDF)
1122:S2CID
1087:S2CID
1052:S2CID
968:S2CID
929:S2CID
887:S2CID
867:(PDF)
777:S2CID
710:S2CID
667:Other
663:Other
655:Other
647:Other
642:Other
536:(PDF)
124:women
1833:ISBN
1779:ISBN
1708:ISBN
1693:ISBN
1562:ISSN
1521:ISBN
1494:PMID
1476:ISSN
1437:PMID
1396:PMID
1378:ISSN
1331:ISSN
1263:ISBN
1191:ISBN
1154:ISBN
1044:ISSN
1003:ISBN
810:ISBN
741:ISBN
581:ISSN
494:OCLC
484:ISBN
454:ISBN
417:ISBN
252:and
45:and
30:and
1856:doi
1799:doi
1755:doi
1732:doi
1728:XXV
1669:doi
1636:doi
1597:doi
1554:doi
1484:PMC
1468:doi
1427:doi
1386:PMC
1370:doi
1323:doi
1292:doi
1255:doi
1220:doi
1183:doi
1114:doi
1079:doi
1036:doi
1032:199
995:doi
960:doi
921:doi
879:doi
843:doi
802:doi
769:doi
733:doi
702:doi
669:. "
630:doi
571:hdl
563:doi
446:doi
409:doi
166:in
22:is
2529::
1862:.
1852:27
1850:.
1805:.
1795:26
1793:.
1761:.
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