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relies on process use to guide it. They also believe that greater effort is needed to further distinguish empowerment from other forms of stakeholder involved approaches. However, empowerment evaluation can be viewed along a continuum from less empowering to more empowering in nature. Empowerment evaluation is designed to help the disenfranchised. However, the boundaries are much broader and inclusive. Everyone can benefit from self-assessment and becoming more self-determined.
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program improvement. Empowerment evaluation, as a group activity, builds in self-checks on bias. Internal and external forms of evaluation are compatible and reinforcing. However, the Joint
Committee's standards were applied and empowerment evaluation was found to be consistent with the spirit of the standards. Empowerment evaluation is not a threat to traditional evaluation. It may instead help to revitalize it.
22:
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that clients were selecting it for appropriate reasons, such as capacity building, self-determination, accountability, cultivating ownership and institutionalization of evaluations. However, they also found that approximately 25% were empowerment in name only. In addition, they argued for additional conceptual clarity.
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While the similarities among collaborative, participatory and empowerment evaluation were described in the first and second empowerment evaluation books, they recommended
Cousins' tool to highlight the differences, focusing on depth of participation and control of evaluation technical decision making
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Miller and
Campbell conducted a systematic literature review of empowerment evaluation. They highlighted types or modes of EE, as well as settings, reasons for use, selection process and degree of participation. The highlighted practice variants depending on the size of the evaluation. They suggested
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The definition of empowerment is the same as when the approach was first defined and introduced to the field. However, it has been expanded to further clarify the purpose of the approach. Fetterman and
Wandersman agree that empowerment evaluation is part of an emancipatory stream of research. It also
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Empowerment evaluation is part of a worldwide movement. It is now part of the evaluation field. However, empowerment evaluation needs to focus on the consumer, rather than staff members. In addition, the definition of empowerment evaluation has changed. Bias in evaluation can be removed by distancing
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A school district in South
Carolina invested millions of their own dollars to provide each student with a personalized computing device as an educational tool. EE was used to support large scale implementation of the initiative and monitor outcomes associated with teacher and student behavior change.
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Lamont, A., Wright, A., Wandersman, A, & Hamm, D. (2014). An empowerment evaluation approach to implementing with quality at scale. In
Fetterman, Kaftarian, & Wandersman (Eds), Empowerment evaluation: Knowledge and tools for self assessment, evaluation capacity building, & accountability
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Fetterman and
Scriven agreed on the value of both internal and external evaluations. They also agree on a focus on the consumer. However, staff members, sponsors, and policy makers also have important roles to play in evaluation. Scriven however claimed that the evaluator must maintain distance from
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reservations. It is a global phenomenon, with projects and workshops around the world including
Australia, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, Finland, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A sample of sponsors and clients includes
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Scriven believes that self-evaluation is flawed, because it is inherently self-serving, and rejected its use for professional development. He questioned the ability of EE to actually empower people and recommended a neutral evaluator role. He suggested that internal and external evaluations are not
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Fetterman and
Wandersman responded by attempting to enhance conceptual clarity, provide greater methodological specificity and highlight EEs commitment to accountability and outcomes. They acknowledged and applauded Miller and Campbell's systematic review of EE projects, while noting neglected or
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Cousins attempted to differentiate between similar approaches, e.g. collaborative, participatory, and empowerment evaluation. Cousins asked whether EE is practical (focusing on decision making), or transformative (focusing on self-determination) and viewed self-evaluation as more likely to have a
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EE is conducted by an internal group, not an external individual. Programs are dynamic, not static and thus require more fluid, responsive, and continual assessment. The evaluator becomes a coach, rather than the expert. Investigating worth and merit is not sufficient. The focus should also be on
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approach designed to help communities monitor and evaluate their own performance. It is used in comprehensive community initiatives as well as small-scale settings and is designed to help groups accomplish their goals. According to David
Fetterman, "Empowerment evaluation is the use of evaluation
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They claimed that the 10 principles contributed to conceptual clarity and that people empower themselves. They asserted that evaluations are inherently subjective and are shaped by culture and political context, and that EE is committed to honesty and rigor. EE is more inclusive than traditional
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Patton accepted EE as part of the evaluation field and proposed that given its established status, additional clarity distinguishing collaborative, participatory, utilization and empowerment evaluation would be fruitful. He acknowledged improvements ranging improved definitions and added the 10
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Empowerment evaluation is designed to be used by people. It places evaluation in the hands of community and staff members. The more that people are engaged in conducting their own evaluations the more likely they are to believe in them, because the evaluation findings are theirs. In addition, a
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Empowerment evaluation challenged the status quo concerning who is in control of an evaluation and what it means to be an evaluator. Conventionally, evaluations are conducted by a specialist. In EE, the group or community performs the evaluation, guided by an empowerment evaluator or “critical
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Empowerment evaluation is part of an emancipatory research stream. Its unique contribution is its focus on fostering self-determination and building capacity. Empowerment evaluation is guided by process use. Additional effort could be made to further distinguish empowerment from collaborative,
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Conventional and innovative evaluation tools monitor outcomes, including online surveys, focus groups and interviews, as well as the use of quasi-experimental designs. In addition, program specific metrics are developed, using baselines, benchmarks, goals and actual performance. For example, a
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Chelimsky re-framed the discussion between Fetterman, Patton and Scriven, explaining that evaluations serve multiple purposes: (1) accountability; (2) development; and (3) knowledge. Scriven, and to a lesser extent Patton, focused on accountability, while Fetterman focused on development.
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principles. He was concerned that self-determination was not on the list. Patton applauded and recommended process use for empowerment evaluation. He accepted the contributors' commitment to forthrightly describing problems. Patton proposed greater emphasis on outcomes or results in EE.
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evaluations, placing cross-checks on data and decisions. Participants often know more about problems than outsiders and have a vested interest in making their programs work. They claimed that internal and external evaluations can operate together effectively as additional cross-checks.
182:. They highlighted how it inverted traditional definitions of evaluation, shifting power from the evaluator to program staff and participants. Early supporters positively noted the focus on social justice and self-determination. One colleague compared the writings of approach to
635:, a social science textbook publisher, cited an empowerment evaluation book as one of their "classic titles in research methods". Four empowerment evaluators received honors from the association: Margret Dugan, David Fetterman, Shakeh Kaftarian, and Abraham Wandersman.
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Scriven agreed that external evaluators sometimes miss problems obvious to program staff members. He also stated they have less credibility with them than an internal evaluator. As a result, he concluded, it is less likely their recommendations will be implemented.
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applied the technique to curricular decision making. EE contributed to improvements in course and clerkship ratings. For example, the average student ratings for required courses improved significantly (P = .04; Student's one-sample t test).
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Initiative. The initiative was designed to help bridge the digital divide in communities of color. Outcomes ranged from Native American's building one of the largest unlicensed wireless systems in the country to creating a high-resolution
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participatory, stakeholder, and utilization forms of evaluation. Empowerment evaluation should be limited or focused on the disenfranchised and issues of liberation. Empowerment evaluation has become a part of the evaluation landscape.
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Shufflebeam claimed that evaluation should be left in the hands of professionals who objectively investigate the worth or merit of an object and that EE violates the (as yet unadopted) Joint Committee's Program Evaluation Standards.
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byproduct of this experience is that they learn to think lucratively. This makes them more likely to make decisions and take actions based on their evaluation data. This way of thinking is at the heart of process use.
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A second approach is the 10-step Getting to Outcomes (GTO). GTO helps participants answer 10 questions using relevant literature, methods and tools. The 10 accountability questions and literature to address them are:
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Empowerment evaluation is guided by 10 principles. These principles help evaluators and community members align decisions with the larger purpose or goals associated with capacity building and self-determination.
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Wandersman, A.; Snell-Johns, J.; Lentz, B.; Fetterman, D. M.; Keener, D.C.; Livet, M.; Imm, P.S.; Flaspohler, P. (2005). "The Principles of Empowerment Evaluation.". In Fetterman, D. M.; Wandersman, A. (eds.).
1710:"In Response to Dr. Daniel Stufflebeam's Empowerment evaluation, objectivist evaluation, and evaluation standards: where the future of evaluation should not go, where it needs to go, October, 1994, 321-338"
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The most significant response to the critiques focused on outcomes. Fetterman & Wandersman argued that outcomes and results were important to EE. They highlighting specific project outcomes including:
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Scriven agreed that EE contributed to improvements in internal staff program evaluations and that empowerment evaluation could make a contribution to evaluation if combined with third-party evaluation.
631:'s Collaborative, Participatory, and Empowerment Evaluation topical interest group. Approximately 20% of the American Evaluation Association membership is affiliated with the topical interest group.
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Andrews, A. (1996). "Realizing empowerment in the evaluation of nonprofit women's services organizations: notes from the front line.". In Fetterman, D. M.; Kaftarian, S.; Wandersman, A. (eds.).
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The State of Arkansas used EE in academically distressed schools and tobacco prevention. Outcomes include improving test scores, upgrading school-level performance and preventing and reducing
86:". An expanded definition is: "Empowerment evaluation is an evaluation approach that aims to increase the likelihood that programs will achieve results by increasing the capacity of program
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Arkansas save millions in excess medical costs from applying empowerment evaluation to tobacco prevention programs. This resulted in legislation creating the Arkansas Evaluation Center.
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and promoting positive youth development. Several books are downloadable. In addition, EE can employ photo journalism, online surveys, virtual conferencing and self-assessments.
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communities and battered women’s shelters. This first volume also provided various theoretical and philosophical frameworks as well as workshop and technical assistance tools.
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Process use represents much of the rationale or logic underlying EE in practice, because it cultivates ownership by placing the approach in community and staff members’ hands.
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Fetterman, D.M. (2001a). "A High Stakes Case Example: Documenting the utility, credibility and rigor of empowerment evaluation in a high stakes arena – accreditation".
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Stanford University's School of Medicine used EE to prepare for an accreditation site visit. Increases in student course ratings were statistically significant.
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oneself from the group or program being assessed. Internal and external forms of evaluation are needed. Empowerment evaluators serve as evaluation consultants.
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Cousins, B. (2004). "Will the real empowerment evaluation please stand up? A critical friend perspective.". In Fetterman, D. M.; Wandersman, A. (eds.).
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These metrics help the community monitor implementation, by comparing performance with benchmarks. It also enables them to make mid-course corrections.
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the first empowerment evaluation book, provided an introduction to theory and practice. It highlighted EE's scope, ranging from its use in a national
2307:"Empowerment evaluation, objectivist evaluation, and evaluation standards: Where the future of evaluation should not go and where it needs to go"
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The second wave of debate and discussion emerged between 2005 and 2007. The primary critiques focused on conceptual and methodological clarity:
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and outcomes, by stating them as an explicit principle and presenting substantive outcome examples. Cases described include educational reform,
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Christie, C. A. (2003). "What guides evaluation? A study of how evaluation practice maps onto evaluation theory.". In Christie, C. A. (ed.).
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If the intervention is (or components are) successful, how will the intervention be sustained? (Sustainability and institutionalization)
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1812:"Empowerment evaluation at the Stanford University School of Medicine: using a critical friend to improve the clerkship experience"
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It emphasized greater conceptual clarity by making explicit EE's underlying principles, ranging from improvement and inclusion to
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CDC funded a study using a quasi-experimental design that demonstrated improved outcomes as a result of empowerment evaluation.
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204:’s Director of Evaluation. The book presented examples in various contexts, including: federal, state, and local government,
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The approach was initially well received by some researchers who commented on the complementary relationship between EE and
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RodrĂguez-Campos, L. (2012). "Stakeholder Involvement in Evaluation: Three Decades of the American Journal of Evaluation".
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Dunst, C. J.; Trivette, C. M.; LaPointe, N. (1992). "Toward clarification of the meaning and key elements of empowerment".
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Empowerment evaluation and accreditation case examples: California Institute of Integral Studies and Stanford University
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How does the intervention incorporate knowledge of science and best practices in this area? (Science and best practices)
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The alignment of theories of use and action explain how empowerment evaluation helps people produce desired results.
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Zimmerman, M. A.; Rappaport, J. (1988). "Citizen participation, perceived control, and psychological empowerment".
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Patton, M. Q. (2005). "Toward distinguishing empowerment evaluation and placing it in a larger context: Take two".
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Getting To Outcomes: Promoting Accountability Through Methods and Tools for Planning, Implementation and Evaluation
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1941:"Empowerment evaluation: a collaborative approach to evaluating and transforming a medical school curriculum"
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compatible. He also suggests that empowerment as well as randomized controls are merely forms of ideology.
122:. Empowerment evaluation has been used by government, foundations, businesses, and non-profits, as well as
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Patton, M. Q. (1997a). "Toward distinguishing empowerment evaluation and placing it in a larger context".
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Empowerment Evaluation in the Digital Villages: Hewlett-Packard's $ 15 Million Race Toward Social Justice
1500:"Review of the book "Empowerment Evaluation: Knowledge and Tools for Self-assessment and Accountability""
1397:"Review of the book "Empowerment Evaluation: Knowledge and Tools for Self-assessment and Accountability""
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Native American's built a wireless system and digital printing press supported by empowerment evaluation.
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1572:"The Getting to Outcomes Demonstration and evaluation: An illustration of the prevention support system"
1110:"Program Evaluation Standards Statements « Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation"
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Empowerment evaluation was introduced in 1993 by David Fetterman during his presidential address at the
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Chinman, M.; Hunter, S.B.; Ebener, P.; Paddock, S.; Stillman, L.; Imm, P.; and Wandersman, A. (2008).
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A manual with worksheets addresses how to answer the questions. While GTO has been used primarily in
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The primary theories guiding empowerment evaluation are process use and theories of use and action.
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Fetterman, D. M.; Wandersman, A. (2007). "Empowerment evaluation: yesterday, today, and tomorrow".
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Capacity building – enhance stakeholder ability to evaluate and improve planning and implementation
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2430:"Further explorations in empowerment theory: An empirical analysis of psychological empowerment"
1898:"Experiential education and empowerment evaluation: Mars rover educational program case example"
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Empowerment evaluation used in Arkansas distressed schools, increased standardized test scores.
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Scriven, M. (2005). "Review of the book: "Empowerment Evaluation Principles in Practice"".
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was the second EE book. The book provided steps and cases. It highlighted the role of the
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This approach is popular in part due to its simplicity, effectiveness and transparency.
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Empowerment evaluation has been used in programs ranging from a fifteen million dollar
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Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational, and community levels of analysis
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Debate between Fetterman, Patton and Scriven is available online in text form from
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Empowerment evaluation: Knowledge and tools for self-assessment and accountability
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Empowerment evaluation: Knowledge and tools for self-assessment and accountability
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Empowerment evaluation: knowledge and tools for self-assessment and accountability
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Evidence-based strategies – respect and use both community and scholarly knowledge
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Empowerment Evaluation: Knowledge and Tools for Self-assessment and Accountability
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The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
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What capacities do you need to implement a quality program? (Capacity building)
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339:. They help to ensure the evaluation remains organized, rigorous and honest.
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551:. This critic noted the variability in attempts at empowerment evaluation.
335:. A critical friend, for example, is an evaluator who provide constructive
315:– apply data to evaluate and implement practices and inform decision making
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What are the goals, target population and desired outcomes? (Goal setting)
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Fetterman advocated that evaluation be shared with a broader population.
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How will the quality of implementation be assessed? (Process evaluation)
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How does the intervention fit with existing programs? (Collaboration;
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Democratic participation – open participation and fair decision making
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The fifth discipline: the art and practice of organizational learning
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Fetterman, D. M.; Kaftarian, S. J.; Wandersman, A. H., eds. (1996).
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Zimmerman, M. A.; Israel, B. A.; Schulz, A.; Checkoway, B. (1992).
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How well did the intervention work? (Outcome and impact evaluation)
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omitted case examples and questioning some of their methodology.
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prevention, customized GTOs have been developed for preventing
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Empowerment evaluation was a catalyst for the creation of the
2054:"Taking Stock of Empowerment Evaluation: An Empirical Review"
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minority tobacco prevention program in Arkansas established:
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concepts, techniques, and findings to foster improvement and
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Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Rappaport, J.; Seldman, E. (eds.).
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Inclusion – invite involvement, participation, and diversity
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David M. Fetterman (2002-07-03). "Empowerment evaluation".
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Community knowledge – respect and value community knowledge
1752:"Empowerment evaluation: a response to Patton and Scriven"
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How will quality improvement strategies be incorporated? (
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Chelimsky, E. (1997). Chelimsky, E.; Shadish, W. (eds.).
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Miller, Robin Lin; Campbell, Rebecca (September 2006).
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Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective
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Accountability – emphasize outcomes and accountability.
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to plan, implement, and evaluate their own programs."
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Performance (the number of subjects who stop smoking)
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How will this intervention be carried out? (Planning)
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Social justice – address social inequities in society
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Improvement – help people improve program performance
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Utilization-focused evaluation: The new century text
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Fetterman, D. M.; Deitz, J.; Gesundheit, N. (2010).
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2403:. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. pp. 2–45.
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1816:Ensaio: Avaliação e PolĂticas PĂşblicas em Educação
1687:Fetterman, D.M. (1994). "Empowerment evaluation".
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439:Benchmarks (the monthly number of subjects helped)
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2160:Evaluative inquiry for learning in organizations
1343:American Evaluation Association Award Recipients
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237:. In addition, it highlighted its commitment to
135:, Family & Children Services, Health Trust,
2352:. New York: Guilford Publications. p. 27.
2253:"Empowerment Evaluation as Evaluation Ideology"
1983:Fetterman, D. M.; Wandersman, A., eds. (2004).
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623:Professional association affiliation and awards
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1626:The practice-theory relationship in evaluation
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227:Empowerment evaluation principles in practice.
2350:Empowerment evaluation principles in practice
1985:Empowerment evaluation principles in practice
1846:Fetterman, D. M. (2011). Secolsky, C. (ed.).
1635:Empowerment evaluation principles in practice
1613:Chinman, M.; Imm, P.; Wandersman, A. (2004).
1366:Alkin, M.; Christie, C. (2004). Alkin (ed.).
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830:Empowerment evaluation principles in practice
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1370:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 381–392.
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436:Goals (the yearly number of subjects helped)
222:to facilitate and disseminate the approach.
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2110:Qualitative research and evaluation methods
1881:. Stanford, CT: Stanford University Press.
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1170:. It was also recorded and is available in
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790:Fetterman, Kaftarian & Wandersman 1996
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133:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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1457:"Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency"
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461:EE guided Hewlett-Packard's $ 15 million
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62:Learn how and when to remove this message
2476:American Journal of Community Psychology
2437:American Journal of Community Psychology
1637:. New York: Guilford. pp. 183–208.
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1576:American Journal of Community Psychology
1543:The coming transformations in evaluation
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291:– value and facilitate community control
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2169:Journal of Multidisciplinary Evaluation
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1271:. Arkansasevaluationcenter.blogspot.com
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1160:Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation
1112:. Jcsee.org. 2010-10-27. Archived from
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433:Baselines (the number of tobacco users)
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2377:Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation
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1841:(3 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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985:Fetterman, Deitz & Gesundheit 2010
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455:Stanford University School of Medicine
216:Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation,
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1803:Foundations of empowerment evaluation
1794:Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation
1619:. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
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1656:Empowerment Evaluation Principles in
1326:How SAGE has shaped Research Methods
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531:program participants to avoid bias.
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880:Dunst, Trivette & LaPointe 1992
369:What are the needs and resources? (
347:EE's three-step approach includes:
200:movement to its endorsement by the
13:
1896:Fetterman, D.; Bowman, C. (2002).
1432:Argyris, C.; Schon, D. A. (1978).
1021:Chinman, Imm & Wandersman 2004
14:
2543:
2182:"Empowerment evaluation examined"
2158:Preskill, H.; Torres, R. (1999).
1905:Journal of Experiential Education
405:; continuous quality improvement)
922:, 1982 concerning self-efficacy.
354:review their current status; and
208:and related health initiatives,
20:
1829:10.1590/S0104-40362009000200002
1504:Health Education & Behavior
1440:. Reading: MS: Addison-Wesley.
1332:
1329:, p. 12. SAGE Publications
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1102:
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1036:Fetterman & Wandersman 2007
968:Fetterman & Wandersman 2004
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817:Fetterman & Wandersman 2004
629:American Evaluation Association
161:American Evaluation Association
2257:American Journal of Evaluation
2224:American Journal of Evaluation
2131:American Journal of Evaluation
2058:American Journal of Evaluation
2004:American Journal of Evaluation
1759:American Journal of Evaluation
1717:American Journal of Evaluation
916:Zimmerman & Rappaport 1988
828:See Donaldson, 2005 review of
722:
538:
266:
112:NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1:
2201:10.1016/s0886-1633(97)90020-9
2045:10.1016/S0886-1633(97)90019-2
1771:10.1016/s0886-1633(97)90033-7
1628:. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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970:, pp. 1–2, 27–41, 42–72.
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275:
2383:(2): 170–172. Archived from
2326:10.1016/0886-1633(94)90027-2
2251:Smith, Nick L. (June 2007).
1958:10.1097/acm.0b013e3181d74269
1729:10.1016/0886-1633(95)90026-8
1701:10.1016/0886-1633(94)90055-8
1269:"Arkansas Evaluation Center"
1096:10.1016/0886-1633(94)90055-8
484:
7:
2114:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1172:Claremont's virtual library
705:Fetterman & Bowman 2002
587:
322:
252:
225:The third book was titled:
106:effort to accreditation in
10:
2548:
2162:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2101:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2070:10.1177/109821400602700303
1987:. New York, NY: Guilford.
1978:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1917:10.1177/105382590202500207
1805:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1801:Fetterman, D. M. (2001b).
1796:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1545:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1516:10.1177/109019819702400310
1476:10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122
1427:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1407:(4): 16–17. Archived from
1207:Miller & Campbell 2006
1875:Fetterman, D. M. (2012).
1839:Ethnography: Step by Step
1837:Fetterman, D. M. (2010).
1810:Fetterman, D. M. (2009).
1750:Fetterman, D. M. (1997).
1588:10.1007/s10464-008-9163-2
1368:An evaluation theory tree
932:Alkin & Christie 2004
163:’s (AEA) annual meeting.
120:battered women's shelters
2305:Stufflebeam, D. (1994).
2269:10.1177/1098214006294722
2236:10.1177/1098214005276491
2143:10.1177/1098214005277353
2016:10.1177/1098214007301350
1708:Fetterman, D.M. (1995).
841:Argyris & Schon 1978
638:
403:Total quality management
351:establish their mission;
342:
333:reflective practitioners
202:W. K. Kellogg Foundation
155:History and publications
93:
2093:Patton, M. Q. (1997b).
522:First wave of criticism
513:Debates and controversy
313:Organizational learning
2300:. New York: Doubleday.
2106:Patton, M. Q. (2002).
1652:Donaldson, S. (2005).
1401:Community Psychologist
669:Wandersman et al. 2005
450:Selected case examples
373:; resource assessment)
327:Key concepts include:
75:Empowerment evaluation
2532:Community development
1676:Family Science Review
1464:American Psychologist
1313:RodrĂguez-Campos 2012
904:Zimmerman et al. 1992
249:prevention programs.
176:community development
149:Volunteers of America
143:, State of Arkansas,
129:Casey Family Programs
2527:Community organizing
2522:Qualitative research
2180:Scriven, M. (1997).
1850:. London: Routledge.
1455:Bandura, A. (1982).
610:Scriven's assessment
567:Response to critique
490:Response to critique
357:plan for the future.
168:community psychology
2314:Evaluation Practice
2189:Evaluation Practice
2033:Evaluation Practice
1689:Evaluation Practice
1395:Altman, D. (1997).
1255:Chinman et al. 2008
1084:Evaluation Practice
475:tobacco consumption
384:cultural competence
289:Community ownership
141:Stanford University
2488:10.1007/bf00930023
2449:10.1007/bf01312604
2292:Senge, P. (1990).
1498:Brown, J. (1997).
1348:2012-01-14 at the
683:, pp. 98–107.
198:educational reform
84:self-determination
2367:Wild, T. (1997).
1994:978-1-59385-115-6
1945:Academic Medicine
1888:978-0-8047-8425-2
1267:David Fetterman.
633:SAGE Publications
549:self-serving bias
418:underage drinking
243:youth development
231:capacity building
137:Knight Foundation
72:
71:
64:
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2363:
2343:
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2334:
2328:. Archived from
2311:
2301:
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2288:
2247:
2218:
2216:
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2209:
2203:. Archived from
2186:
2176:
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2125:
2113:
2102:
2100:
2089:
2048:
2027:
1998:
1979:
1970:
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1935:
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1927:. Archived from
1902:
1892:
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1865:
1861:
1859:
1851:
1842:
1833:
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1806:
1797:
1788:
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1773:. Archived from
1756:
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1731:. Archived from
1714:
1704:
1683:
1668:
1648:
1629:
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1599:
1582:(3–4): 206–224.
1566:
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1537:
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1494:
1492:
1486:. Archived from
1461:
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1134:Stufflebeam 1994
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787:
781:
775:
769:
763:
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742:
741:
732:. Archived from
726:
720:
714:
708:
702:
696:
690:
684:
678:
672:
666:
660:
654:
468:digital printing
371:Needs assessment
329:critical friends
210:African American
108:higher education
67:
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1995:
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1822:(63): 197–204.
1783:
1781:
1777:
1754:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1712:
1682:(1–2): 111–130.
1654:Book Review of
1645:
1558:
1557:
1548:
1547:
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1459:
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1009:Fetterman 2001a
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805:Fetterman 2001b
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463:Digital Village
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414:substance abuse
345:
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180:adult education
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124:Native American
100:Hewlett-Packard
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31:has an unclear
25:
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2471:
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2359:978-1593851156
2358:
2344:
2320:(3): 321–338.
2302:
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2263:(2): 169–178.
2248:
2230:(3): 415–417.
2219:
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2177:
2164:
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2137:(3): 408–414.
2126:
2120:
2103:
2090:
2064:(3): 296–319.
2049:
2039:(3): 311–320.
2028:
2010:(2): 179–198.
1999:
1993:
1980:
1971:
1951:(5): 813–820.
1936:
1934:on 2020-02-18.
1911:(2): 286–295.
1893:
1887:
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1765:(3): 253–266.
1747:
1723:(2): 179–199.
1705:
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1671:
1649:
1644:978-1593851156
1643:
1630:
1621:
1610:
1567:
1538:
1510:(3): 388–391.
1495:
1493:on 2020-05-10.
1470:(2): 122–147.
1452:
1446:
1429:
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1392:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1341:, p. 148
1331:
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1303:, p. 174.
1293:
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1199:
1187:
1183:Fetterman 1997
1175:
1166:2012-07-15 at
1150:
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1058:Fetterman 1995
1050:
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997:Fetterman 2009
989:
972:
960:
958:, p. 189.
948:
936:
924:
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892:Zimmerman 2000
884:
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860:
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