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745:. Climate change refers to the general warming of earth's average temperature caused by carbon emissions. Warmer atmospheric temperatures incidentally also increase water temperature. As mentioned, Elkhorn coral have special algae called zooxanthellae, living on their tissues, which provide many benefits. However, when water temperatures warm, Elkhorn coral expel their zooxanthellae. Without their zooxanthellae, Elkhorn coral first lose their prime oxygen source, then color, and then usually die. In addition, climate change increases the severity and prevalence of storms, which can decimate Elkhorn coral populations.
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a diameter of 4 m (12 feet) wide and 2 m(6 feet) tall. Under stressful conditions, Elkhorn coral colonies and fragment growth slow down substantially. For example, the
Fortuna Reefer Vessel grounding site showed no measurable growth over the last ten years due to stress. Elkhorn coral create thick, interlocking groups known as thickets. Thickets provide shelter to other marine life such as fish, crustaceans, and marine invertebrates, and consist of many identical polyps that have grown together. These dense groups provide protection to shorelines against large waves and storms.
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level changes. The branching morphology created homes and protection for many other reef organisms. Since its decline, no other coral species has been able to fulfill these ecosystem functions. As mentioned, the species faces many threats, which include but are not limited to disease, temperature-induced bleaching, and physical damage from hurricanes. The BRT determined that
Elkhorn coral was not at risk for extinction, but could become so in the foreseeable future because its population sizes were low and the severity of threats was predicted to increase.
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682:, as either threatened or endangered. The NMFS determined that the petition contained substantial information and established the Atlantic Acropora Biological Review Team (BRT) to review the status of these coral species. The BRT included a diverse group of experts from many different scientific fields, including coral conservationists. The BRT published a status review on March 3, 2005, which summarized the relevant, published literature on these species, comments from the public, and an assessment regarding current conservation efforts.
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463:. In the morning, zooplankton sink to the depths of the ocean where predators are scarce, and then come nightfall, they rise back towards the surface. By concentrating their predation activities at night, Elkhorn coral expend less energy catching large amounts of prey. However, because filter feeding is more energy intensive than relying on zooxanthellae, Elkhorn coral will only resort to this feeding method when water conditions are poor and block out sunlight.
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757:. Ocean acidification refers to the growing acidity of marine water caused by the increasing presence of dissolved carbon dioxide, a result of carbon emissions. The skeleton of Elkhorn coral is made of calcium carbonate. Carbon dioxide forms chemical bonds with water and, through chemical reactions, remove carbonate ions that the corals need to make calcium carbonate. With fewer carbonate ions, the coral skeletons are weaker and break easier.
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rates are low in
Elkhorn coral which limit the growth of new colonies. The probability of successful reproduction rates are low in Elkhorn coral because only about 50% of Elkhorn corals are genetically unique individuals. The Elkhorn coral reproduction cycle occurs once per year, after a full moon in the late summer, during the months of either July, August, or September. The gametes are released for only a few nights by
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study done from 2005-2015 shows that the
Elkhorn coral population had a proportional decline of 0.4-0.7 times in colony density across the entirety of its occupied range. This decline indicates that despite conservation efforts, the population is still decreasing. Overall, there are no concrete estimates of current or historical population sizes due to technological limitations.
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and St. Thomas area, and St. Croix. These areas were specifically chosen because they contain the surface features which are necessary for the conservation of
Elkhorn. In order to increase the amount of successful sexual and asexual reproduction events, the species require hard surfaces within water depths ranging from the mean high water line to about 30 meters.
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being planted in the ocean. However, new research suggests that
Elkhorn coral can be planted in the ocean after just two weeks of being raised in a nursery. This decrease in nursery time makes it approximately 30 times cheaper to rear Elkhorn coral now. This cost reduction makes it financially easier for nations to restore their reefs.
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affects
Elkhorn coral by reducing fish populations that feed on harmful macroalgae. Macroalgae damage Elkhorn coral by producing toxic chemicals and by decreasing the nearby available oxygen. Macroalgae can further harm Elkhorn coral by facilitating pathogen growth. Also, macroalgae reduce the amount
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The BRT's status review concluded that the ESA should list the
Elkhorn coral as a threatened species, given the importance of its ecosystem contributions and the severity of the numerous threats impacting the species. As a formerly abundant species, its high growth rate allowed it to keep up with sea
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Elkhorn coral colonies live for centuries. These colonies grow 5–10 cm (2-4 inches) each year, reaching maximum size in 10 to 12 years. Healthy
Elkhorn coral can grow up to 13 cm (5 inches) in branch length a year, making them one of the fastest growing coral species. Elkhorn coral can span
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Elkhorn coral live in shallow habitats, which give them abundant access to light. Like all animals, Elkhorn coral requires oxygen to survive, most of which they obtain through special, photosynthetic algae living in their tissues called zooxanthellae. Therefore, in order to help zooxanthellae produce
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antlers; hence, the common name. The branching structure creates habitat and shelter for many other reef species. Elkhorn coral is known to grow quickly with an average growth rate of 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) per year. They can reproduce both sexually and asexually, though asexual reproduction
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On
November 26, 2008, the NMFS issued a final rule, effective December 26, 2008, which designated 2,959 square miles (7,664 sq km) as critical habitat for Elkhorn coral. The habitat described is composed of four different areas, which include the coasts surrounding Florida, Puerto Rico, the St. John
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There are four critical habitats for the Elkhorn coral that are essential to the conservation of this species. The specific regions designated and protected by the Endangered Species Act as critical habitats include regions in Florida (1,329 square miles of marine habitat), Puerto rico (3,582 square
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In 2009, the United States government enacted the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, which provided funding for coral conservation through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) department. This funding allowed for the creation of a network of coral nurseries throughout the
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This latter goal is especially important for conservation. Elkhorn coral are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction; however, asexual reproduction is more common, which has resulted in only about 50% of Elkhorn being genetic individuals. The lack of genetic variation makes the species more
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activities. Elkhorn coral live within very shallow regions, enabling their photosynthetic zooxanthellae to receive much light. When waters become turbid, or cloudy, access to this light is impeded. With less available light, less photosynthesis occurs, and thus zooxanthellae produce less oxygen. As
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Elkhorn coral provide insulation from storms to beaches and reefs. Their thick branches absorb the energy of storm waves, in turn, dissipating the force that crashes into beach shorelines. With less force, beachfront properties experience less damage, reducing the financial demand needed to restore
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Like the foundation of a house, Elkhorn coral support coral reef communities. Their interwoven lattice-like branches create a variety of habitats varying in topography, which in turn, support diverse fish populations. These habitats support fish nurseries and protect fish from predators, increasing
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These corals are found in clear, shallow water throughout the Bahamas, Florida, the Caribbean, and beyond to the northern shores of Venezuela. The most northern region occupied by Elkhorn coral is off the coast of Broward County, Florida. Characteristically found in shallow, turbulent water ranging
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Even 14 years after being listed as threatened, the Elkhorn coral remains so. This failure is in part due to the time and energy-intensive procedures that were previously required to rehabilitate Elkhorn coral reefs. These procedures needed coral to be grown for months to years in nurseries before
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While the United States had some policy in place before the listing, many other nations did not. Given that the range of the Elkhorn coral extends along the coasts of several different countries, the inconsistency in policy presented an issue. The official listing of Elkhorn coral allowed for the
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comprised the southeastern reefs. Research has shown that the Elkhorn coral evolved during the Mid-Pliocene epoch, 5.2-2.58 million years ago. The unstable climate during this period allowed Elkhorn coral to thrive during glacial and interglacial events. During glacial events, sea levels rise and
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In September 2014, the NMFS published a final rule on the listing status of 65 reef-building coral species. This included a re-evaluation of the status of Elkhorn coral. The coral was kept listed as threatened due to concerns from the public that listing it as endangered might impact the ongoing
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However, many members of the scientific community and the public expressed disagreement with this proposed reclassification. Several comments referenced instances of increasing abundance and recovering populations with some citing population and genetic diversity statistics as well as population
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Elkhorn coral populations once dominated the southeastern region of the Northern hemisphere. Due to bleaching events, disease, and climate change, Elkhorn population has significantly decreased since the 1980s. In total, 80-98% of the Caribbean coral reef population has been lost. A longitudinal
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The Elkhorn coral is a simultaneous hermaphrodite, meaning that in each coral colony both egg and sperm are produced. Despite this, self-fertilization usually does not occur. In order for successful fertilization to take place, two genetically distinct parents are needed. Successful reproduction
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In 2012, there was discussion surrounding the status of Elkhorn coral and whether it should be reclassified from threatened to endangered. The reasoning behind this proposed change was the continued population decline since the time of the ESA listing in 2006 as well as evidence of recruitment
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Since the 1980s, Elkhorn coral populations have rapidly declined by an estimated 97%. Elkhorn coral was initially recognized as a candidate for ESA listing in June 1991, but was removed from the list of candidates in 1997 for a lack of sufficient evidence in regard to their status and threats.
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Most commonly, Elkhorn coral reproduce asexually, their most common type of reproduction. During storms, strong waves, or ship disturbances, fragments of coral break off and are transported to other areas where new colonies can begin. The new colonies are genetically identical to their parent
386:(ESA), the population declined by around 97%. This decline was due to a variety of factors, including disease, algae growth, climate change, ocean acidification, and human activity. In May 2006, Elkhorn coral was officially listed as threatened in the ESA along with another species in the
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The NMFS published a recovery plan in March 2015, which clearly outlined the conservation goals and efforts for Elkhorn coral. This document indicated that the main goals are to increase the abundance of this species and protect the genetic diversity throughout its entire range.
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Quantitative data available on the distribution and abundance of Elkhorn coral is scarce. Present locations of the Elkhorn coral include the southern coasts of Florida and the northern regions of the Gulf of Mexico. Elkhorn coral are also located in the Bay Islands of Honduras.
447:. Zooxanthellae meet their nutritional requirements using photosynthesis, a process that converts carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen. Elkhorn coral provide habitat for these algae and, in turn, receive an abundant source of oxygen, enabling them to grow quickly.
810:, which then fall off, removing coral tissue. These lesions grow quickly, and can grow up to 10.5 cm per day, causing tissue loss of 2.5 cm per day. This disease helped put the Elkhorn coral on the endangered species list in 2006 after a case of
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Prior to the ESA listing in 2006, there were no regulatory mechanisms in place to protect Elkhorn coral. Some documentation with regulations existed; however, no documents specifically mentioned by name the Elkhorn coral or any other Acropora corals.
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Several factors limit the amount of information regarding the life history of Elkhorn coral. These factors include the necessity for additional tools to assess future population changes, sexual reproduction, and environmental disturbances.
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waters off the coast of southern Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands for the recovery of Elkhorn coral. The nurseries have proven helpful in conducting genetic research in the facilitation of overall reef growth and restoration.
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After reviewing the BRT's 2005 status report, the NMFS published a final rule on the status of Elkhorn coral on May 9, 2006. Effective June 8, 2006, the species was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.
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models. Many people argued that there had been significant advances in active restoration projects, and they feared that listing this coral as endangered would possibly disrupt and discourage the ongoing conservation efforts.
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Most of the ongoing restoration projects for Elkhorn coral involve the creation of protected areas, which are intended to promote reproduction and growth by minimizing some of the threats to the species.
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However, they were re-added to this list in 1999 due to concrete evidence of their population decline. In April 2004, they were transferred from the candidate species list to the species of concern list.
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as well as Milleporina corals from collection, commercial exploitation, and direct physical damage. Puerto Rico also established similar laws protecting corals and encouraging conservation. In 2001, the
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Although Elkhorn coral dominated the Caribbean in the early 1980s, the species has since dramatically declined in numbers. Scientists have estimated that between 1980 and 2006, when it was listed in the
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from 1 to 5 meters, Elkhorn coral thrive best in high-energy zones where wave action is frequent. This success is because wave action increases fragmentation, which allows more new colonies to form.
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Due to fragmentation and rapid growth rates, Elkhorn coral were the primary foundation in the development of the Caribbean coral reefs. Over the last 5,000 years, Elkhorn coral, Staghorn coral, and
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cause an increase in wave energy. As previously mentioned, Elkhorn coral does best in environments that are shallow and experience high energy changes, which aid in the reproductive process.
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failure in several populations. The persisting population decline was potentially attributable to several increasing threats such as ocean acidification and levels of thermal stress.
662:, because the corals share the same genus. While recognized as two separate species in scientific literature, they inhabit similar ranges and share many of the same characteristics.
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or water clarity. During bleaching events, or long-term periods of increased turbidity, Elkhorn coral can obtain nourishment from alternative food sources through filter feeding.
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as much oxygen as possible, Elkhorn coral live in shallow regions between 1 and 5 meters deep to ensure that abundant light reaches the zooxanthellae, maximizing photosynthesis.
1318:"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Final Listing Determinations on Proposal To List 66 Reef-Building Coral Species and To Reclassify Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals"
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Untreated wastewater also contains high levels of nutrients, which increase macroalgae growth. As mentioned above, this macroalgae growth is detrimental to Elkhorn survival.
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Most of the existing regulation was intended to protect corals against physical impacts incurred through fishing gear, anchoring, and vessel grounding. Florida law protects
431:, that live inside the coral's cells. Therefore, Elkhorn coral are highly dependent on the sunlight for sustenance, leaving Elkhorn coral vulnerable to increased
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colonies, while sexual reproduction results in new genotypes. Also, as opposed to sexual reproduction, fragmentation can occur at any time of the year.
782:, negatively impacts Elkhorn coral by increasing the prevalence of white pox disease, the abundance of macroalgae, and by increasing water cloudiness.
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eggs and sperm into a water column. Once fertilized, the eggs develop into larvae that settle on hard surfaces and begin the growth of a new colony.
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stated earlier, most of the oxygen coral receive is from their zooxanthellae, so without this oxygen, Elkhorn coral can quickly suffocate and die.
2500:
2114:
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1980:
1185:"Earlier (late Pliocene) first appearance of the Caribbean reef-building coral Acropora palmata: Stratigraphic and evolutionary implications"
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Another stressor is an increase in water turbidity. This turbidity increase can result from a myriad of issues like untreated wastewater and
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All of these stressors independently weaken corals. Collectively they reduce the chance that corals have of surviving any single stressor.
806:, is extremely lethal and contagious. The disease first causes the coral to emit a foul smelling mucus, followed by the formation of thick
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miles of marine habitat), St.John/St.Thomas (121 square miles of marine habitat), and St.Croix area (126 square miles of marine habitat).
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Elkhorn coral can also use filter feeding techniques to obtain food. At night, Elkhorn coral use their tentacles to snatch free-swimming
1670:"Sediment Stress, Water Turbidity, and Sewage Impacts on Threatened Elkhorn Coral (Acropora palmata) Stands at Vega Baja, Puerto Rico"
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Ferrario, Filippo; Beck, Michael W.; Storlazzi, Curt D.; Micheli, Fiorenza; Shepard, Christine C.; Airoldi, Laura (May 13, 2014).
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480:
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394:. Some conservation efforts are now in place to protect the species and promote increased genetic variability among the species.
1719:"Restoration of critically endangered elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) populations using larvae reared from wild-caught gametes"
419:. These structures can be over 2 (> 6 ft.) meters high and 13 meters (43 ft) wide and are a dull, brownish-yellow.
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reef diversity. This elevated diversity makes the reefs more appealing to tourists, thereby increasing their economic value.
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1611:"From the Cover: The etiology of white pox, a lethal disease of the Caribbean elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata"
1492:"Overfishing and nutrient pollution interact with temperature to disrupt coral reefs down to microbial scales"
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1692:"Endangered and Threatened Species; Availability of the Final Recovery Plan for Staghorn and Elkhorn Corals"
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of suitable areas where Elkhorn coral larvae attach, reducing the ability for Elkhorn reefs to recover.
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1428:"Endangered and Threatened Species: Final Listing Determinations for Elkhorn Coral and Staghorn Coral"
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1991:
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Elkhorn coral face many global threats such as climate change, ocean acidification, and overfishing.
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35:
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1371:"Reef-scale trends in Florida Acropora spp. abundance and the effects of population enhancement"
1127:"Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals"
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872:. The creation of these two monuments established thousands of acres of non-extractive zones.
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1986:
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1224:"Reef fish communities associated with Acropora Palmata: relationship to benthic attributes"
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678:(NMFS) received a petition to list the Elkhorn coral, Staghorn coral, and a hybrid species,
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8:
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2014:
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1552:"Human Pathogen Shown to Cause Disease in the Threatened Eklhorn Coral Acropora palmata"
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Human pathogens found in untreated wastewater are especially harmful to Elkhorn coral.
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1247:"The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation"
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1969:
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As mentioned, Elkhorn coral have special algae living in their tissues known as
369:. The species has a complex structure with many branches which resemble that of
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susceptible to threats and is, therefore, an important focus for conservation.
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2009:
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Elkhorn coral's primary source of nutrients comes from photosynthetic algae,
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2019:
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1843:
1345:"Critical Habitat for Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals | NOAA Fisheries"
932:
Aronson, R.; Bruckner, A.; Moore, J.; Precht, B.; E. Weil. (2008).
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In ESA listings, Elkhorn coral is listed alongside Staghorn coral,
568:
210:
170:
1026:
Endangered Species Act - Section 7 Consultation Biological Opinion
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restoration projects as people may see them as less worthwhile.
94:
2438:
2154:
1861:
807:
160:
1674:
Proceedings of the 63rd Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute
526:, Elkhorn coral increase the commercial value of coral reefs.
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Elkhorn coral produce hard antler-like structures composed of
2630:
1932:
1793:
1244:
1209:
10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0891:ELPFAO>2.3.CO;2
1937:
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370:
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is much more common and occurs through a process called
648:
533:
Elkhorn coral provide important reef-building services.
846:
741:
Like other species, Elkhorn coral are threatened by
1754:NOAA Fisheries Species Directory - Elkhorn Coral (
1667:
817:
669:
2663:
1463:"Welcome to the NOAA Institutional Repository |"
1093:"Welcome to the NOAA Institutional Repository |"
1615:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
825:
814:wiped out 75% of the Caribbean corals in 2005.
612:
1981:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
1778:
365:) is an important reef-building coral in the
957:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T133006A3536699.en
685:
484:Elkhorn Coral with a Yellowtail Damselfish (
2672:IUCN Red List critically endangered species
1716:
876:establishment of more specific protection.
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639:
459:from the water. Zooplankton complete daily
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1634:
1585:
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864:established two national monuments – the
71:Learn how and when to remove this message
1489:
784:
719:
653:
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537:
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479:
401:
34:This article includes a list of general
1369:Miller, Margaret (September 29, 2016).
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2060:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
1545:
1543:
1485:
1483:
1368:
1221:
748:
631:Historical and present population size
590:
2377:
2376:
2212:Environmental issues with coral reefs
1766:
1717:Chamberland, Valerie (October 2015).
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1343:Fisheries, NOAA (December 30, 2019).
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1055:Fisheries, NOAA (December 30, 2019).
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879:
778:Local water pollution, also known as
753:Elkhorn coral are also threatened by
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1178:
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1119:
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1016:
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649:Endangered Species Act (ESA) listing
20:
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1234:: 235–252 – via ResearchGate.
943:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
789:Elkhorn coral threatened by disease
728:
621:
552:the homes and livelihoods of many.
546:
397:
13:
1668:Hernandez-Delgado (January 2010).
1446:
1413:
1303:
870:Buck Island Reef National Monument
773:
715:
504:
345:Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
313:Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
40:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
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1747:
1680:: 83–92 – via ResearchGate.
1228:Journal of Marine Science - Miami
1173:
1145:
1110:
1074:
1035:
1005:
909:
847:Existing efforts prior to listing
736:
676:National Marine Fisheries Service
576:
450:
2255:International Coral Reef Society
2095:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
1876:
1183:McNeill, Donald (October 1997).
1057:"Elkhorn Coral | NOAA Fisheries"
1030:United States Corps of Engineers
992:World Register of Marine Species
564:Mature Elkhorn coral individuals
495:
475:
438:
137:
25:
2186:Stony coral tissue loss disease
1723:Global Ecology and Conservation
1710:
1684:
1661:
1602:
1362:
1336:
1238:
555:
1215:
971:
925:
818:Nutrient growth – algae growth
760:
670:Petition to list Elkhorn coral
572:Young Elkhorn coral individual
1:
2115:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
918:
410:
1577:10.1371/journal.pone.0023468
826:Turbidity – water cloudiness
613:Historical and present range
7:
2140:Southeast Asian coral reefs
1736:10.1016/j.gecco.2015.10.005
1467:repository.library.noaa.gov
1222:Lirman, Diego (July 1999).
1097:repository.library.noaa.gov
10:
2703:
2100:New Caledonia barrier reef
1550:Sutherland (August 2011).
488:) in the Caribbean Sea in
466:
294:Madrepora muricata palmata
2385:
2314:
2282:
2235:
2204:
2163:
2000:
1992:Spur and groove formation
1923:
1885:
1874:
1804:
1739:– via ResearchGate.
1657:– via ResearchGate.
1490:Zanevald (June 7, 2016).
1211:– via ResearchGate.
866:Virgin Islands Coral Reef
686:ESA listing as threatened
261:
254:
239:
232:
134:Scientific classification
132:
110:
101:
92:
87:
2682:Corals described in 1816
2055:East African coral coast
1609:Patternson (July 2002).
699:Re-classification review
640:Life history limitations
486:Microspathodon chrysurus
286:Isopora muricata palmata
1024:Crabtree, R. E (2014).
422:
55:more precise citations.
2687:ESA threatened species
2222:Coral reef restoration
1636:10.1073/pnas.092260099
790:
725:
724:Deceased Elkhorn coral
573:
565:
534:
492:
407:
384:Endangered Species Act
2605:Paleobiology Database
2217:Coral reef protection
2181:Skeletal eroding band
1987:Catlin Seaview Survey
1975:Census of Coral Reefs
1953:mesophotic coral reef
1496:Nature Communications
1251:Nature Communications
950:: e.T133006A3536699.
862:National Park Service
788:
723:
654:Elkhorn coral decline
571:
563:
538:Reef-building service
532:
483:
406:Elkhorn coral habitat
405:
342:Madrepora thomassiana
119:Critically Endangered
2327:Aquaculture of coral
2110:Non-tropical regions
1324:. September 10, 2014
893:Restoration projects
842:Conservation efforts
604:Asexual reproduction
586:Reproductive biology
2245:Coral Reef Alliance
2135:Solomon Archipelago
2040:Belize Barrier Reef
2015:African coral reefs
1627:2002PNAS...99.8725P
1568:2011PLoSO...623468S
1516:10.1038/ncomms11833
1508:2016NatCo...711833Z
1263:2014NatCo...5.3794F
1201:1997Geo....25..891M
1133:. November 26, 2008
857:Scleractinia corals
755:ocean acidification
749:Ocean acidification
591:Sexual reproduction
318:Madrepora flabellum
104:Conservation status
2191:White band disease
2176:Black band disease
2145:Tuvalu Archipelago
2125:Raja Ampat Islands
2065:Great Barrier Reef
1388:10.7717/peerj.2523
1271:10.1038/ncomms4794
880:Conservation goals
802:, commonly called
791:
765:Like many corals,
726:
598:broadcast spawning
574:
566:
535:
524:ecosystem services
518:Ecosystem services
493:
408:
334:Madrepora perampla
278:Acropora flabellum
2659:
2658:
2592:Open Tree of Life
2379:Taxon identifiers
2370:
2369:
2278:
2277:
2196:White pox disease
2045:Coral Sea Islands
1621:(13): 8725–8730.
1156:"Species Profile"
804:white pox disease
794:White pox disease
417:calcium carbonate
354:
353:
346:
338:
330:
326:Madrepora palmata
322:
314:
310:Madrepora cornuta
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2444:acropora-palmata
2434:
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2431:Acropora_palmata
2421:
2420:
2419:
2417:Acropora palmata
2406:
2405:
2404:
2387:Acropora palmata
2374:
2373:
2357:Deep-water coral
2332:Coral dermatitis
2233:
2232:
1948:Deep-water coral
1880:
1787:
1780:
1773:
1764:
1763:
1756:Acropora palmata
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1696:Federal Register
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984:(Lamarck, 1816)"
982:Acropora palmata
975:
969:
968:
966:
964:
959:
936:Acropora palmata
929:
812:Serra marcescens
800:Serra marcescens
729:Global stressors
622:Critical habitat
547:Storm protection
398:Species overview
362:Acropora palmata
344:
336:
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243:Acropora palmata
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51:this article by
42:inline citations
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16:Species of coral
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2352:Coralline algae
2322:Artificial reef
2310:
2283:Symbiotic algae
2274:
2231:
2227:Reef resilience
2200:
2171:Coral bleaching
2159:
2025:Andros, Bahamas
1996:
1970:Coral reef fish
1919:
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1698:. March 6, 2015
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505:Niche evolution
498:
478:
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461:diel migrations
453:
441:
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350:
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302:Madrepora alces
289:(Lamarck, 1816)
281:(Lamarck, 1816)
265:
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249:(Lamarck, 1816)
247:
241:
228:
225:A. palmata
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2164:Coral diseases
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2150:Virgin Islands
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2050:Coral Triangle
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2017:
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1748:External links
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2260:Project AWARE
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2010:List of reefs
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1434:. May 9, 2006
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2120:Pulley Ridge
1979:
1887:Octocorallia
1848:
1806:Hexacorallia
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1700:. Retrieved
1695:
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1470:. Retrieved
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1352:. Retrieved
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1326:. Retrieved
1321:
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1188:
1163:. Retrieved
1160:ecos.fws.gov
1159:
1135:. Retrieved
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1060:
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987:
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963:November 11,
961:. Retrieved
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680:A. prolifera
679:
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556:Life history
550:
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277:
273:(Dana, 1846)
269:
242:
240:
224:
223:
211:
191:Scleractinia
181:Hexacorallia
82:
67:
58:
39:
18:
2618:SeaLifeBase
2540:NatureServe
2488:iNaturalist
2411:Wikispecies
2296:Amphidinium
2085:Lakshadweep
2020:Amazon Reef
1925:Coral reefs
1798:coral reefs
1729:: 526–537.
1257:(1): 3794.
1195:(10): 891.
997:December 9,
767:overfishing
761:Overfishing
457:zooplankton
201:Acroporidae
53:introducing
2666:Categories
2362:Fire coral
2347:Coral sand
2270:Reef Check
2250:Green Fins
1965:Microatoll
1905:Organ pipe
1829:Hermatypic
919:References
780:wastewater
511:Star coral
411:Appearance
337:Horn, 1861
305:Dana, 1846
36:references
2342:Coral rag
2265:Reef Ball
2035:Baa Atoll
1702:April 15,
1502:: 11833.
1472:April 15,
1438:April 15,
1381:: e2523.
1354:April 15,
1328:April 15,
1279:2041-1723
1165:April 14,
1137:April 14,
1102:April 14,
1066:April 14,
433:turbidity
367:Caribbean
219:Species:
157:Kingdom:
151:Eukaryota
2677:Acropora
2631:Species+
2545:2.109369
2506:11455439
2396:Wikidata
2090:Maldives
2080:Kiribati
2030:Apo Reef
1960:Fringing
1915:Sea pens
1910:Sea fans
1868:Tabulate
1854:Staghorn
1824:Elegance
1655:12077296
1596:21858132
1556:PLOS ONE
1534:27270557
1407:27703862
1297:24825660
1032:, 17-28.
868:and the
388:Acropora
256:Synonyms
212:Acropora
197:Family:
171:Cnidaria
167:Phylum:
161:Animalia
147:Domain:
124:IUCN 3.1
2480:5184657
2402:Q163614
2130:Red Sea
2075:Jamaica
1849:Elkhorn
1834:Chalice
1623:Bibcode
1587:3157384
1564:Bibcode
1525:4899628
1504:Bibcode
1398:5047146
1288:4354160
1259:Bibcode
1197:Bibcode
1189:Geology
808:lesions
490:Curaçao
467:Habitat
390:genus,
207:Genus:
187:Order:
177:Class:
122: (
49:improve
2649:288227
2597:507954
2584:288227
2532:133006
2464:ECOS:
2439:ARKive
2155:Yabiji
1895:Bamboo
1862:Rugose
1839:Pillar
1794:Corals
1653:
1646:124366
1643:
1594:
1584:
1532:
1522:
1405:
1395:
1295:
1285:
1277:
38:, but
2644:WoRMS
2623:46813
2610:98728
2519:52861
2501:IRMNG
2493:93312
2315:Other
2070:India
1943:Coral
1933:Atoll
1844:Table
1819:Brain
1814:Black
1375:PeerJ
988:WoRMS
2636:3118
2579:OBIS
2566:NOAA
2558:6131
2553:NCBI
2527:IUCN
2514:ITIS
2475:GBIF
2467:8928
2457:9P48
1900:Blue
1796:and
1704:2020
1651:PMID
1592:PMID
1530:PMID
1474:2020
1440:2020
1403:PMID
1356:2020
1349:NOAA
1330:2020
1293:PMID
1275:ISSN
1167:2020
1139:2020
1104:2020
1068:2020
1061:NOAA
999:2011
965:2022
948:2008
423:Diet
264:List
2452:CoL
2426:ADW
1938:Cay
1731:doi
1641:PMC
1631:doi
1582:PMC
1572:doi
1520:PMC
1512:doi
1393:PMC
1383:doi
1283:PMC
1267:doi
1205:doi
952:doi
371:elk
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