1064:. To achieve this removal, goals were put into place, including increasing the abundance of genetic diversity among both species throughout their geographical range, while at the same time identifying, reducing and/or eliminating threats to their survival, through both research and monitoring practices. A successful recovery plan for Staghorn coral must ensure populations increase to a size large enough to include many reproductively active colonies, with branches thick enough to provide ecosystem function and maintain genetic diversity. This recovery plan sought to manage both local and global threats, while at the same time acknowledging certain threats to Staghorn coral cannot be directly managed, like disease or
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they achieved 30 cm in diameter before being planted in natural coral reefs off the coast of
Florida. Between 2007 and 2013, thousands of Staghorn colonies were planted, and survivorship remained high in the first few years, ranging between 23% and 72%. However, after five years, a decline in coral survivorship became evident, with survival rates of planted Staghorn colonies falling below 10%.
105:
367:. It grows within various areas of a reef but is most commonly found within shallow fore and back reefs, as well as patch reefs, where water depths rarely exceed 20 meters (65 ft). Staghorn corals can exhibit very fast growth, adding up to 5 cm (~2 in) in new skeleton for every 1 cm of existing skeleton each year, making them one of the fastest growing fringe coral species in the
935:) living symbiotically in the coral tissues are expelled, leaving the coral completely white and without its main nutrient source. In this state, coral is under its highest stress, and becomes more likely to contract disease, or starve, increasing its chance of mortality. If temperatures return to normal levels, the coral is able to reintegrate the
902:
can spread up to 4 cm (40 mm) on branches daily, resulting in a total loss of tissue coverage of about 21 cm² (210 mm²) per day. Once infected, a
Staghorn colony loses on average 84% of its total tissue coverage, going from around 96% before infection, to about 12% after infection completion, with a
1143:
In 2007, the Coral
Restoration Foundation in conjunction with the NOAA Recovery Plan (NRP) began the artificial restoration of Staghorn coral off the coast of the Florida Keys. Staghorn coral colonies were grown and cultivated in an offshore nursery, fixed on discs or hung from fishing lines, until
960:
On
December 18, 1997, both species were removed as candidates for listing due to the unavailability of evidence on their biological status or threats. On June 23, 1999, both species were again added to the candidates list for potential inclusion for listing under the ESA, as new evidence emerged of
700:
is the process by which an entire coral colony gives rise to one or more new ones. This involves the breaking off of branches from existing
Staghorn coral colonies and their subsequent implantation and growth on nearby substrates. In Staghorn corals, much like other stony corals, this appears to be
993:
and the
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) found that listing these species may be warranted and initiated a formal review of their biological status by convening the Atlantic Acropora Biological Review Team to summarize the best scientific and commercial data available in the status review
778:
The method by which coral planula choose a spot on the reef to attach to is far more complex than previously thought. Instead of drifting through the water aimlessly and attaching at a random point, coral planula have developed various key adaptations to aid in their search for the perfect home.
2985:
Howe-Kerr, Lauren I.; Grupstra, Carsten G. B.; Rabbitt, Kristen M.; Conetta, Dennis; Coy, Samantha R.; Klinges, J. Grace; Maher, Rebecca L.; McConnell, Kaitlin M.; Meiling, Sonora S.; Messyasz, Adriana; Schmeltzer, Emily R.; Seabrook, Sarah; Sims, Jordan A.; Veglia, Alex J.; Thurber, Andrew R.
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posing by far the greatest risk. This disease is host specific, meaning it only affects certain species of coral, the
Staghorn among them. First observed in 1979, this disease is often credited with the massive population decline of shallow reef building corals, like the Staghorn and Elkhorn,
485:. This substance is secreted slowly by specialized calicoblastic cells, positioned in the layer directly above the coral skeleton. Over time, these calcium carbonate secretions build on one another, eventually creating large aragonite coral structures and the foundations of the world's
1622:
Carpenter, Kent E.; Abrar, Muhammad; Aeby, Greta; Aronson, Richard B.; Banks, Stuart; Bruckner, Andrew; Chiriboga, Angel; Cortés, Jorge; Delbeek, J. Charles; DeVantier, Lyndon; Edgar, Graham J.; Edwards, Alasdair J.; Fenner, Douglas; Guzmán, Héctor M.; Hoeksema, Bert W. (2008-07-25).
1350:
Carpenter, Kent E.; Abrar, Muhammad; Aeby, Greta; Aronson, Richard B.; Banks, Stuart; Bruckner, Andrew; Chiriboga, Angel; Cortés, Jorge; Delbeek, J. Charles; DeVantier, Lyndon; Edgar, Graham J.; Edwards, Alasdair J.; Fenner, Douglas; Guzmán, Héctor M.; Hoeksema, Bert W. (2008-07-25).
739:
within each individual polyp. Although they technically have the ability to self-fertilize, research suggests that single colonies are either completely or partially self-sterile, therefore, for successful reproduction of coral planula, two distinct colonies or parents are needed.
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as well as a source of oxygenation and waste removal. To fulfill the needs of the coral host, the zooxanthellae have become extremely densely packed within the coral tissue, in some cases up to and exceeding 1 million individual cells per centimeter squared of coral area.
2866:"An Overview of Ocean Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature, Ocean Heat Content, Ocean pH, Dissolved Oxygen Concentration, Arctic Sea Ice Extent, Thickness and Volume, Sea Level and Strength of the AMOC (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation)"
1038:
In
December 2012, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) once more suggested reclassifying the Elkhorn and Staghorn corals as endangered. However, by September 2014, they determined that both coral species would continue to be listed as threatened.
1018:. They also found that fused-Staghorn coral doesn't meet the criteria for listing, as it is identified as a hybrid and therefore doesn't fall under the ESA's definition of a distinct species. In 2006, the Staghorn coral, along with the closely related
507:
that lives within the corals tissue, and varies widely depending on the species and environment in which it lives. When it comes to the
Staghorn coral specifically, tissue color can vary from light brown and beige to green, blue or purple.
716:
Due to the nature of fragmentation, all new colonies are genetic clones of the original which can result in entire reefs of
Staghorn coral being genetically identical, potentially rendering them more susceptible to disease or bleaching.
1134:
cover and only exposed rock or dead coral skeleton are needed, the four areas listed above best fit this description and were therefore designated in this rule as the best possible habitat for successful Staghorn coral reproduction.
2863:
Garcia-Soto, Carlos; Cheng, Lijing; Caesar, Levke; Schmidtko, S.; Jewett, Elizabeth B.; Cheripka, Alicia; Rigor, Ignatius; Caballero, Ainhoa; Chiba, Sanae; Báez, Jose Carlos; Zielinski, Tymon; Abraham, John Patrick (2021).
491:
The Staghorn coral typically grows large, thick stems called "branches", which can range anywhere from 1 to 3 inches in width. These branches grow in close proximity to one another, and sometimes resemble the antlers of a
3133:"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Proposed Listing Determinations for 82 Reef-Building Coral Species; Proposed Reclassification of Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis from Threatened to Endangered"
897:
in the coral tissue that form distinctive white bands slowly spreading from the bottom of a branch to the top, leaving behind nothing but bare coral skeleton as the disease progresses. In Staghorn coral,
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3157:
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species, perhaps none more than stony corals, like the Staghorn. Stony corals are extremely sensitive to temperature fluctuations and as ocean temperatures rise, corals become more susceptible to
1096:. The goal of this designation was to address the key conservation objective when it came to the Staghorn coral, that is, to facilitate an increase in reproduction, both sexually and asexually.
3227:
3107:
3075:
1171:
751:. The mechanism by which these corals choose a spawn day is still unknown, however, it is almost certainly influenced by a multitude of factors including water temperature, the
1196:
Richards, Z.T.; Miller, D.J.; Wallace, C.C. (2013). "Molecular phylogenetics of geographically restricted Acropora species: Implications for threatened species conservation".
618:
and comes from the photosynthetic symbiotic zooxanthellae that inhabit the tissue of the Staghorn. This method accounts for up to 90% of their total nutritional requirements.
3158:"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Final Listing Determinations on Proposal To List 66 Reef-Building Coral Species and To Reclassify Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals"
1475:"Proceedings of the Caribbean Acropora Workshop : potential application of the U.S. Endangered Species Act as a conservation strategy, April 16-18, 2002, Miami, Florida"
587:
This relationship has allowed corals to exist in relatively nutrient poor environments for millions of years, as almost all nutrients are recycled with very little waste.
461:
Staghorn coral is most commonly found within 20 meters (65 ft) of the water's surface, in clear, non-turbid environments consistent with fore, back and patch reefs in the
747:
and production of fertile offspring. Staghorn coral spawning is typically restricted to late summer, in the months of July and August and occurs several days following a
2138:
1408:"Growth Dynamics of the Threatened Caribbean Staghorn Coral Acropora cervicornis: Influence of Host Genotype, Symbiont Identity, Colony Size, and Environmental Setting"
835:. As sponges grow uninhibited, they outcompete, smother and prevent the settlement of coral planula as they become the dominant habitat forming organisms on the reef.
500:
A fully grown and healthy colony could have potential hundreds of these branches, and achieve sizes up to and exceeding 2 meters (6.5 ft) in both height and width.
939:
back into its tissues, however, as ocean warming events become more common, as a result of climate change, bleached corals are less likely to recover completely.
3329:
4267:
919:
has accelerated over the past decade, resulting in approximately 4.5 times greater ocean warming than the previous 100 years. Ocean warming affects all
571:. At the same time, the coral has become dependent on the dinoflagellates for up to 90% of their total nutritional requirements, which includes various
1076:, and successful coral recruitment, were also outlined in the recovery plan as essential to the long term conservation goals of the Staghorn coral.
694:
produces genetically identical polyps to the ones that currently exist in the colony, meaning that all polyps in a colony are clones of each other.
3259:
Ware, Matthew; Garfield, Eliza N.; Nedimyer, Ken; Levy, Jessica; Kaufman, Les; Precht, William; Winters, R. Scott; Miller, Steven L. (2020-05-06).
1506:
Ware, Matthew; Garfield, Eliza N.; Nedimyer, Ken; Levy, Jessica; Kaufman, Les; Precht, William; Winters, R. Scott; Miller, Steven L. (2020-05-06).
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species. The main purpose of this plan was to rebuild the population and ensure its long-term viability with the ultimate goal of removal from the
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1053:
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and can be transmitted via direct contact between coral colonies, through the water column into damaged tissues, and even by certain species of
791:
All of this together allows for the successful navigation of coral planula to nearby reefs, and the selection of a spot while avoiding harmful
701:
the most common mode of reproduction and can result in a single coral giving rise to many new colonies, or sometimes entirely new coral reefs.
644:
is poorly understood, however, it is thought that in stony corals, of which Staghorn is one, that it may account for anywhere from 0 to 66% of
409:
4138:
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1155:
1002:
On May 9, 2005, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) determined that sufficient evidence existed to reclassify both the Staghorn (
401:
Islands were covered with vast, dense colonies of Staghorn coral consisting largely of single-species stands; however, a combination of
359:. It is characterized by thick, upright branches which can grow in excess of 2 meters (6.5 ft) in height and resemble the antlers of a
1981:
Burmester, Elizabeth M.; Breef-Pilz, Adrienne; Lawrence, Nicholas F.; Kaufman, Les; Finnerty, John R.; Rotjan, Randi D. (2018-10-18).
674:
is the process by which a single coral colony grows, and consists of two types of polyp budding. The first, known as intra-tentacular
3261:"Survivorship and growth in staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) outplanting projects in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary"
1508:"Survivorship and growth in staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) outplanting projects in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary"
4060:
1107:, of which approximately 1,383 square miles (3,582 sq km) of marine habitat was designated critical; St Thomas - Saint John in the
465:. In this environment, water temperatures typically range anywhere from 66 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit (19 - 27 degrees Celsius) with
552:
has resulted in the incorporation of specialized dinoflagellates into the tissue of various coral species, including those of the
4099:
3635:
599:
Various species of Zooplankton. Coral are able to feed on these microscopic organisms using their feeding tentacles and mouths.
1859:"The role of zooxanthellae in the thermal tolerance of corals: a 'nugget of hope' for coral reefs in an era of climate change"
1123:
installation comprising approximately 5.5 square miles (14.3 sq km) of area was exempted due to national security interests.
4164:
3787:
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serve as one of the most important reef building corals, functioning as marine nurseries for juvenile fish, buffer zones for
4104:
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and involves the ingestion of organisms from the polyp itself, where each individual polyp within the colony is capable of
2455:"Local overfishing patterns have regional effects on health of coral, and economic transitions can promote its recovery"
1406:
Lirman, Diego; Schopmeyer, Stephanie; Galvan, Victor; Drury, Crawford; Baker, Andrew C.; Baums, Iliana B. (2014-09-30).
633:
are feeding. Using their long feeding tentacles, polyps are able to catch passing food, stunning it with their stinging
3710:
1119:, of which approximately 126 square miles (326 sq km) of marine habitat was designated critical. Within this area, one
611:, meaning they have two main methods of acquiring the nutrients needed to sustain their growth and continued survival.
1807:"A comparison of photographic analyses used to quantify zooxanthella density and pigment concentrations in Cnidarians"
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4151:
3725:
1957:
990:
4239:
3830:
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1983:"The impact of autotrophic versus heterotrophic nutritional pathways on colony health and wound recovery in corals"
1306:
678:, is the formation of new polyps from the internal splitting of existing ones. The second, called extra-tentacular
4282:
4143:
3761:
1708:
Allemand, Denis; Tambutté, Éric; Zoccola, Didier; Tambutté, Sylvie (2011), Dubinsky, Zvy; Stambler, Noga (eds.),
970:
713:, or any disturbances in the water which would cause the breakage and successive replantation of coral branches.
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1326:
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Release of eggs and sperm are synchronized in a single event called broadcasting. This increases the success of
4019:
3992:
1061:
1023:
1015:
986:
957:
413:
1111:, of which approximately 121 square miles (313 sq km) of marine habitat was designated critical; and finally,
3685:
128:
3194:"Endangered and Threatened Species; Availability of the Final Recovery Plan for Staghorn and Elkhorn Corals"
2685:"Genetic Signature of Resistance to White Band Disease in the Caribbean Staghorn Coral Acropora cervicornis"
1573:
3610:
1116:
1108:
697:
1072:
and population restocking as well as actions at the ecosystem level to improve community functioning like
3715:
3675:
2752:"White Band Disease (type I) of Endangered Caribbean Acroporid Corals is Caused by Pathogenic Bacteria"
2093:"The effect of external nutrient resources on the population dynamics of zooxanthellae in a reef coral"
2050:
1918:
1625:"One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts"
1353:"One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts"
645:
393:
Up until the late 1970s, much of the fore reef zones within the Atlantic around the coasts of Southern
3108:"Endangered and Threatened Species: Final Listing Determinations for Elkhorn Coral and Staghorn Coral"
3076:"Endangered and Threatened Species: Final Listing Determinations for Elkhorn Coral and Staghorn Coral"
3048:
2489:
Loh, Tse-Lynn; McMurray, Steven E.; Henkel, Timothy P.; Vicente, Jan; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2015-04-28).
2407:
1806:
4244:
3802:
3567:
1294:
1103:, of which approximately 1,329 square miles (3,442 sq km) of marine habitat was designated critical;
874:
is the result of potentially many very infectious bacterial pathogens, including some from the genus
702:
148:
3812:
3665:
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Endangered Staghorn Coral photographed off Haulover Bay, Saint John, US Virgin Islands, June 2013.
629:. This is the most common during night when photosynthesis is restricted and micro-organisms like
4208:
3655:
1271:
4195:
3228:"Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals"
2092:
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3797:
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Bacterial infections also pose a great risk to Staghorn corals, as well as the closely related
405:
and various anthropogenic factors have reduced this coral coverage by over 95% in some areas.
4190:
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3720:
3562:
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1026:. The US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) officially designated critical habitat for
847:
White-band disease is one of the biggest threats to the continued survival of Staghorn coral.
260:
243:
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4117:
2988:"Viruses of a key coral symbiont exhibit temperature-driven productivity across a reefscape"
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to prevent escape, eventually orientating it towards the mouth at the center for digestion.
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2629:
2618:"Identification of Candidate Coral Pathogens on White Band Disease-Infected Staghorn Coral"
2564:
2491:"Indirect effects of overfishing on Caribbean reefs: sponges overgrow reef-building corals"
2419:
2355:
2232:
2104:
2051:"Reef Corals: Mutualistic Symbioses Adapted to Nutrient-Poor Environments Get access Arrow"
1994:
1919:"Reef Corals: Mutualistic Symbioses Adapted to Nutrient-Poor Environments Get access Arrow"
1818:
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1205:
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A. Henry, Joseph; P. E. Yanong, Roy; P. McGuire, Maia; T. Patterson, Joshua (2020-09-06).
8:
3820:
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from tissue where none already exist, this includes the space around or between existing
113:
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3020:
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2937:
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1998:
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by as much as 25% as their predators are systematically fished out and removed from the
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2921:
2920:
Sully, S.; Burkepile, D. E.; Donovan, M. K.; Hodgson, G.; van Woesik, R. (2019-03-20).
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1938:
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1450:
1407:
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864:
402:
269:
143:
2820:"Coral disease outbreak: pattern, prevalence and transmission in Acropora cervicornis"
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where the Staghorn inhabits, but on many coral reefs around the world. The effects of
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Muscatine, L.; Falkowski, P.G; Dubinsky, Z.; Cook, P.A; McCloskey, L.R (1989-04-22).
2028:
2010:
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and become immobile and dependent on the coral as a host for safety and a source of
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2018:
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1213:
4042:
2302:"Rapid settlement in broadcast spawning corals: implications for larval dispersal"
532:, stony corals have formed a symbiotic relationship with 8 phylogenetic clades of
3927:
3897:
3746:
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3346:
3285:
2709:
2642:
2551:
Gignoux-Wolfsohn, S. A.; Marks, Christopher J.; Vollmer, Steven V. (2012-11-13).
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1432:
1084:
On December 26, 2008, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) alongside the
924:
687:
683:
4221:
2431:
2344:"Moonrise timing is key for synchronized spawning in coral Dipsastraea speciosa"
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1830:
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1217:
3912:
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3625:
3003:
2945:
2553:"White Band Disease transmission in the threatened coral, Acropora cervicornis"
2454:
1958:"Zooxanthellae...What's That - Corals: NOAA's National Ocean Service Education"
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2014:
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1441:
1384:
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1257:
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1093:
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1052:
On March 6, 2015, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) alongside the
1027:
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133:
62:
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2301:
1956:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
1648:
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973:
petitioned the US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) to list Elkhorn (
787:, water pressure, and even hear and smell environmental phenomena on nearby
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3414:
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1900:
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437:, to the coasts of the various Caribbean islands. It occurs in the western
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Lin, Che-Hung; Takahashi, Shunichi; J. Mulla, Aziz; Yoko, Nozawa (2021).
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has increased by approximately 1.3°F from 1900 to 2019. This increase in
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37:
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Asexual reproduction most typically involves budding and fragmentation.
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Staghorn coral is found throughout the Western Atlantic Ocean, from the
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As of 2006, Staghorn coral is listed as Critically Endangered under the
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3922:
3845:
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3825:
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2074:
1982:
1942:
1247:
Aronson, R.; Bruckner, A.; Moore, J.; Precht, B. & E. Weil (2008).
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contributing to as much as 95% of their decline. in the past 30 years.
788:
576:
486:
82:
47:
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2006:
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160:
87:
30:
3948:
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1934:
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can occur at anytime, and is usually the result of turbid flow from
477:
The skeleton of the Staghorn coral is made up of a specific type of
3971:
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3443:
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were first identified as candidates for reclassification under the
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441:, but is absent from U.S. waters in the Gulf of Mexico, as well as
373:
220:
180:
77:
72:
57:
52:
42:
3049:"Federal Register, Volume 64 Issue 120 (Wednesday, June 23, 1999)"
1980:
1126:
In order for successful attachment of coral larvae, areas with no
3705:
3490:
2258:
Harrison, Peter L. (2011), Dubinsky, Zvy; Stambler, Noga (eds.),
2167:
Harrison, Peter L. (2011), Dubinsky, Zvy; Stambler, Noga (eds.),
2097:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences
1100:
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679:
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Like the vast majority of coral species, Staghorn coral are both
503:
The colour of stony corals is largely dependent on the symbiotic
450:
442:
434:
394:
379:
92:
67:
4169:
2922:"A global analysis of coral bleaching over the past two decades"
516:
4014:
3730:
3437:
2984:
2862:
1707:
961:
large scale population decline as compared to historic levels.
894:
876:
828:
762:
736:
412:
and are federally designated as a threatened species under the
170:
2090:
4216:
3508:
3369:
2616:
Gignoux-Wolfsohn, Sarah A.; Vollmer, Steven V. (2015-08-04).
1131:
886:
815:
is one of the biggest threats to coral reefs not only in the
799:
and shading, giving the planula the best chance at survival.
706:
580:
572:
383:
352:
2919:
2550:
656:
There are two methods by which Staghorn corals can produce,
104:
1405:
784:
756:
493:
449:; the northern limit of this species is Palm Beach County,
360:
2453:
Milne, Russell; Bauch, Chris; Anand, Madhur (2021-08-15).
1022:, was officially listed as a threatened species under the
855:, both of which are essential reef building corals in the
725:
Like the majority of stony coral species within the genus
3513:
1621:
1349:
3258:
2488:
2341:
1857:
Berkelmans, Ray; van Oppen, Madeleine J.H (2006-09-22).
1505:
779:
These include basic sensory abilities to avoid damaging
2615:
2406:
Gleason, Daniel F.; Hofmann, Dietrich K. (2011-11-15).
1863:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1086:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
1054:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
1955:
1716:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 119–150,
1195:
1099:
This critical habitat comprised four specific areas:
985:) coral as either threatened or endangered under the
1805:
Johnson, Cameron E.; Goulet, Tamar L. (2007-12-28).
1056:
published a recovery plan for both the Staghorn and
453:, where only small populations have been documented
3330:
NOAA Fisheries Species Directory - Staghorn Coral (
2266:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 59–85,
2175:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 59–85,
1856:
827:are wide ranging, and can lead to an overgrowth of
524:
which reside in the tissue of living coral species.
2750:Kline, David I.; Vollmer, Steven V. (2011-06-14).
2412:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
2048:
1916:
1811:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
1578:Florida Fish And Wildlife Conservation Commission
563:Over time, these dinoflagellates have lost their
469:ranging from 33 to 37 ppt (parts per thousand).
4259:
2683:Libro, Silvia; Vollmer, Steven V. (2016-01-19).
2818:Williams, Dana E.; Miller, Margaret W. (2005).
2452:
2817:
2405:
410:International Union for Conservation of Nature
3557:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
3354:
2260:"Sexual Reproduction of Scleractinian Corals"
2169:"Sexual Reproduction of Scleractinian Corals"
1804:
2749:
2682:
2215:
1491:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1272:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T133381A3716457.en
927:These events occur where the photosynthetic
4268:IUCN Red List critically endangered species
2299:
1680:"A GUIDE TO COMMON STONY CORALS OF FLORIDA"
947:
766:An example of a coral planula of the genus
735:, meaning it produces both female and male
386:, and center points of biodiversity in the
3368:
3361:
3347:
1092:as critical habitat for both Staghorn and
640:The contribution of nutrients gained from
122:
103:
3302:
3284:
3019:
2961:
2891:
2881:
2791:
2726:
2708:
2659:
2641:
2592:
2524:
2506:
2377:
2367:
2218:"Reproduction by Fragmentation in Corals"
2022:
1890:
1549:
1531:
1449:
1431:
1270:
1088:officially designated large parts of the
2408:"Coral larvae: From gametes to recruits"
2257:
2166:
2049:Muscatine, L.; W. Porter, James (1977).
1917:Muscatine, L.; W. Porter, James (1977).
842:
761:
594:
515:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3096:
2264:Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition
2173:Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition
1714:Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition
663:
614:The first and most important method is
520:Symbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus
4260:
3636:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
3254:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3070:
3068:
3043:
3041:
3039:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2858:
2856:
2813:
2811:
2546:
2544:
2484:
2482:
2143:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
2044:
2042:
1776:
1774:
1748:
1746:
1703:
1701:
1699:
720:
424:
3953:
3952:
3788:Environmental issues with coral reefs
3342:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2337:
2335:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2086:
2084:
1912:
1910:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1710:"Coral Calcification, Cells to Reefs"
1479:NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-24
1292:
1198:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
958:Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA).
903:mortality rate of approximately 28%.
3093:
2609:
2300:Miller, K.; Mundy, C. (2003-07-01).
1062:Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)
1024:Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)
1016:Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)
987:Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)
952:On June 11, 1991, both Staghorn and
3245:
3211:
3175:
3065:
3036:
2908:
2853:
2808:
2541:
2479:
2251:
2039:
1771:
1743:
1696:
1615:
1258:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1240:
964:
783:, as well as the ability to detect
731:, Staghorn coral is a simultaneous
419:
13:
3323:
2414:. Coral Reefs: Future Directions.
2394:
2332:
2202:
2155:
2081:
1907:
1845:
1590:
1472:
1079:
1068:. Population enhancement, through
942:
14:
4294:
1754:"Staghorn Coral | NOAA Fisheries"
1598:"Staghorn Coral | NOAA Fisheries"
1343:
1319:
1033:
906:
3831:International Coral Reef Society
3671:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
3452:
1307:World Register of Marine Species
1170:
1154:
773:
528:Throughout millions of years of
147:
35:
3762:Stony coral tissue loss disease
3150:
3125:
2978:
2743:
2676:
2446:
2293:
2131:
1974:
1949:
1798:
1671:
1042:
971:Center for Biological Diversity
893:. It is characterized by thick
651:
2827:Marine Ecology Progress Series
2216:C. Highsmith, Raymond (1982).
1566:
1499:
1466:
1399:
1286:
1138:
807:
414:Endangered Species Act of 1973
308:Madrepora muricata cervicornis
1:
3691:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
1473:W., Bruckner, Andrew (2003).
1182:
1030:and Staghorn corals in 2008.
292:Acropora muricata cervicornis
3286:10.1371/journal.pone.0231817
2710:10.1371/journal.pone.0146636
2643:10.1371/journal.pone.0134416
1533:10.1371/journal.pone.0231817
1433:10.1371/journal.pone.0107253
511:
472:
300:Isopora muricata cervicornis
7:
3716:Southeast Asian coral reefs
2870:Frontiers in Marine Science
2432:10.1016/j.jembe.2011.07.025
2272:10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_6
2181:10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_6
1831:10.1016/j.jembe.2007.10.003
1722:10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_9
1218:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.06.020
1204:(3). Elsevier BV: 837–851.
1014:), as threatened under the
1006:), and the closely related
371:. Due to this fast growth,
10:
4299:
3676:New Caledonia barrier reef
3004:10.1038/s43705-023-00227-7
2946:10.1038/s41467-019-09238-2
1147:
997:
838:
802:
682:, is the formation of new
536:algae within the genus of
456:
3961:
3890:
3858:
3811:
3780:
3739:
3576:
3568:Spur and groove formation
3499:
3461:
3450:
3380:
2883:10.3389/fmars.2021.642372
2467:10.1101/2021.08.15.456395
2318:10.1007/s00338-003-0290-9
1165:, Florida Keys, July 2010
496:, hence its common name,
275:
268:
249:
242:
144:Scientific classification
142:
120:
111:
102:
23:
4278:Corals described in 1816
3631:East African coral coast
1161:Staghorn coral alive at
1047:
948:Candidate identification
891:Coralliophila abbreviata
885:, like the coral eating
2369:10.1073/pnas.2101985118
1786:Aquarium of the Pacific
1649:10.1126/science.1159196
1377:10.1126/science.1159196
1331:Aquarium of the Pacific
981:), and fused-Staghorn (
590:
4283:ESA threatened species
3798:Coral reef restoration
2117:10.1098/rspb.1989.0025
1875:10.1098/rspb.2006.3567
969:On March 4, 2004, the
848:
770:
600:
550:symbiotic relationship
525:
463:Western Atlantic Ocean
445:and the west coast of
4191:Paleobiology Database
3793:Coral reef protection
3757:Skeletal eroding band
3563:Catlin Seaview Survey
3551:Census of Coral Reefs
3529:mesophotic coral reef
2926:Nature Communications
1987:Ecology and Evolution
1962:oceanservice.noaa.gov
1684:University of Florida
1265:: e.T133381A3716457.
846:
765:
621:The second method is
598:
519:
324:Madrepora cervicornis
129:Critically Endangered
4020:acropora-cervicornis
4007:Acropora_cervicornis
3993:Acropora cervicornis
3963:Acropora cervicornis
3903:Aquaculture of coral
3686:Non-tropical regions
3332:Acropora cervicornis
2139:"How do corals eat?"
1297:Acropora cervicornis
1251:Acropora cervicornis
989:. On June 23, 2004,
664:Asexual reproduction
558:Acropora cervicornis
345:Acropora cervicornis
253:Acropora cervicornis
3821:Coral Reef Alliance
3711:Solomon Archipelago
3616:Belize Barrier Reef
3591:African coral reefs
3277:2020PLoSO..1531817W
3164:. 10 September 2014
2992:ISME Communications
2938:2019NatCo..10.1264S
2839:2005MEPS..301..119W
2768:2011NatSR...1E...7K
2701:2016PLoSO..1146636L
2634:2015PLoSO..1034416G
2569:2012NatSR...2E.804G
2424:2011JEMBE.408...42G
2360:2021PNAS..11801985L
2348:Biological Sciences
2237:1982MEPS....7..207H
2109:1989RSPSB.236..311M
1999:2018EcoEv...810805B
1993:(22): 10805–10816.
1869:(1599): 2305–2312.
1823:2007JEMBE.353..287J
1641:2008Sci...321..560C
1524:2020PLoSO..1531817W
1424:2014PLoSO...9j7253L
1369:2008Sci...321..560C
1210:2013MolPE..69..837R
1070:habitat restoration
721:Sexual reproduction
425:Geographic location
355:, within the Order
316:Madrepora attenuata
235:A. cervicornis
114:Conservation status
3767:White band disease
3752:Black band disease
3721:Tuvalu Archipelago
3701:Raja Ampat Islands
3641:Great Barrier Reef
3234:. 26 November 2008
3114:. 26 November 2008
3082:. 26 November 2008
2847:10.3354/meps301119
2756:Scientific Reports
2557:Scientific Reports
2245:10.3354/meps007207
1117:U.S Virgin Islands
1109:U.S Virgin Islands
872:White-band disease
865:white-band disease
849:
771:
755:, wave action and
601:
560:(Staghorn coral).
526:
403:white-band disease
363:, hence the name,
348:) is a branching,
284:Acropora attenuata
4255:
4254:
4178:Open Tree of Life
3955:Taxon identifiers
3946:
3945:
3854:
3853:
3772:White pox disease
3621:Coral Sea Islands
3139:. 7 December 2012
2776:10.1038/srep00007
2577:10.1038/srep00804
2508:10.7717/peerj.901
2281:978-94-007-0114-4
2190:978-94-007-0114-4
2103:(1284): 311–324.
2007:10.1002/ece3.4531
1731:978-94-007-0114-4
1635:(5888): 560–563.
1363:(5888): 560–563.
925:bleaching events.
479:calcium carbonate
336:
335:
328:
320:
312:
304:
296:
288:
137:
4290:
4248:
4247:
4235:
4234:
4225:
4224:
4212:
4211:
4199:
4198:
4186:
4185:
4173:
4172:
4160:
4159:
4147:
4146:
4134:
4133:
4121:
4120:
4108:
4107:
4095:
4094:
4082:
4081:
4069:
4068:
4056:
4055:
4046:
4045:
4033:
4032:
4023:
4022:
4010:
4009:
3997:
3996:
3995:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3950:
3949:
3933:Deep-water coral
3908:Coral dermatitis
3809:
3808:
3524:Deep-water coral
3456:
3363:
3356:
3349:
3340:
3339:
3317:
3316:
3306:
3288:
3256:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3232:Federal Register
3224:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3198:Federal Register
3190:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3162:Federal Register
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3137:Federal Register
3129:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3112:Federal Register
3104:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3080:Federal Register
3072:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3045:
3034:
3033:
3023:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2965:
2917:
2906:
2905:
2895:
2885:
2860:
2851:
2850:
2824:
2815:
2806:
2805:
2795:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2730:
2712:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2645:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2596:
2548:
2539:
2538:
2528:
2510:
2486:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2403:
2392:
2391:
2381:
2371:
2339:
2330:
2329:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2222:
2213:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2164:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2088:
2079:
2078:
2046:
2037:
2036:
2026:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1914:
1905:
1904:
1894:
1854:
1843:
1842:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1782:"Staghorn Coral"
1778:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1705:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1574:"Staghorn coral"
1570:
1564:
1563:
1553:
1535:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1490:
1482:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1453:
1435:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1327:"Staghorn Coral"
1323:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1313:
1299:(Lamarck, 1816)"
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1274:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1193:
1174:
1158:
965:Petition to list
857:Western Atlantic
821:Western Atlantic
709:, nearby ships,
420:Species overview
388:Western Atlantic
369:Western Atlantic
326:
318:
310:
302:
294:
286:
255:
152:
151:
131:
126:
125:
107:
97:
34:
27:Temporal range:
21:
20:
16:Species of coral
4298:
4297:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4288:
4287:
4258:
4257:
4256:
4251:
4243:
4238:
4230:
4228:
4220:
4215:
4207:
4202:
4194:
4189:
4181:
4176:
4168:
4163:
4155:
4150:
4142:
4137:
4129:
4124:
4116:
4111:
4103:
4098:
4090:
4085:
4077:
4072:
4064:
4059:
4051:
4049:
4041:
4036:
4028:
4026:
4018:
4013:
4005:
4000:
3991:
3990:
3985:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3957:
3947:
3942:
3928:Coralline algae
3898:Artificial reef
3886:
3859:Symbiotic algae
3850:
3807:
3803:Reef resilience
3776:
3747:Coral bleaching
3735:
3601:Andros, Bahamas
3572:
3546:Coral reef fish
3495:
3457:
3448:
3376:
3367:
3326:
3324:Further reading
3321:
3320:
3271:(5): e0231817.
3257:
3246:
3237:
3235:
3226:
3225:
3212:
3203:
3201:
3192:
3191:
3176:
3167:
3165:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3142:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3117:
3115:
3106:
3105:
3094:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3073:
3066:
3057:
3055:
3053:www.govinfo.gov
3047:
3046:
3037:
2983:
2979:
2918:
2909:
2861:
2854:
2822:
2816:
2809:
2748:
2744:
2695:(1): e0146636.
2681:
2677:
2628:(8): e0134416.
2614:
2610:
2549:
2542:
2487:
2480:
2471:
2469:
2451:
2447:
2404:
2395:
2340:
2333:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2256:
2252:
2220:
2214:
2203:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2089:
2082:
2067:10.2307/1297526
2047:
2040:
1979:
1975:
1966:
1964:
1954:
1950:
1935:10.2307/1297526
1915:
1908:
1855:
1846:
1803:
1799:
1790:
1788:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1763:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1706:
1697:
1688:
1686:
1676:
1672:
1620:
1616:
1607:
1605:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1582:
1580:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1518:(5): e0231817.
1504:
1500:
1484:
1483:
1471:
1467:
1404:
1400:
1348:
1344:
1335:
1333:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1311:
1309:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1245:
1241:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1178:
1175:
1166:
1159:
1150:
1141:
1082:
1080:Protected areas
1050:
1045:
1036:
1000:
967:
950:
945:
943:Listing history
929:dinoflagellates
909:
900:tissue necrosis
841:
810:
805:
776:
723:
666:
660:and sexually.
654:
646:carbon fixation
593:
540:(also known as
514:
475:
459:
427:
422:
332:
331:
303:(Lamarck, 1816)
295:(Lamarck, 1816)
279:
264:
257:
251:
238:
146:
138:
127:
123:
116:
98:
96:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
29:
28:
25:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4296:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4249:
4236:
4226:
4213:
4200:
4187:
4174:
4161:
4157:staghorn-coral
4148:
4135:
4122:
4109:
4096:
4083:
4070:
4057:
4047:
4034:
4024:
4011:
3998:
3983:
3967:
3965:
3959:
3958:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3913:Precious coral
3910:
3905:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3875:
3862:
3860:
3856:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3817:
3815:
3806:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3743:
3741:
3740:Coral diseases
3737:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3726:Virgin Islands
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3626:Coral Triangle
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3582:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3505:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3467:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3386:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3366:
3365:
3358:
3351:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3244:
3210:
3200:. 6 March 2015
3174:
3149:
3124:
3092:
3064:
3035:
2986:(2023-04-03).
2977:
2907:
2852:
2807:
2742:
2675:
2608:
2540:
2478:
2445:
2393:
2331:
2292:
2280:
2250:
2225:Marine Ecology
2201:
2189:
2154:
2130:
2080:
2061:(7): 454–460.
2038:
1973:
1948:
1929:(7): 454–460.
1906:
1844:
1817:(2): 287–295.
1797:
1770:
1758:NOAA Fisheries
1742:
1730:
1695:
1670:
1614:
1602:NOAA Fisheries
1589:
1565:
1498:
1465:
1418:(9): e107253.
1398:
1342:
1318:
1293:WoRMS (2010).
1285:
1239:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1169:
1167:
1160:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1140:
1137:
1081:
1078:
1066:climate change
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1035:
1034:Listing review
1032:
1004:A. cervicornis
999:
996:
991:NOAA Fisheries
979:A. cervicornis
966:
963:
949:
946:
944:
941:
908:
907:Climate change
905:
853:Elkhorn corals
840:
837:
809:
806:
804:
801:
775:
772:
722:
719:
665:
662:
653:
650:
592:
589:
569:carbon dioxide
534:dinoflagellate
513:
510:
474:
471:
458:
455:
439:Gulf of Mexico
426:
423:
421:
418:
340:Staghorn coral
334:
333:
330:
329:
321:
313:
305:
297:
289:
280:
277:
276:
273:
272:
266:
265:
258:
247:
246:
240:
239:
232:
230:
226:
225:
218:
214:
213:
208:
204:
203:
198:
194:
193:
188:
184:
183:
178:
174:
173:
168:
164:
163:
158:
154:
153:
140:
139:
121:
118:
117:
112:
109:
108:
100:
99:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
41:
36:
26:
24:Staghorn coral
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4295:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4048:
4044:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4003:
3999:
3994:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3973:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3951:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3881:
3880:
3876:
3874:
3873:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3866:Zooxanthellae
3864:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3836:Project AWARE
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3814:
3813:Organizations
3810:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3681:Ningaloo Reef
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3586:List of reefs
3584:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3578:Coral regions
3575:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3455:
3445:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3352:
3350:
3345:
3344:
3341:
3335:
3333:
3328:
3327:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3255:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3233:
3229:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3069:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2903:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2859:
2857:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2812:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2604:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2547:
2545:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2483:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2338:
2336:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2312:(2): 99–106.
2311:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2283:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2254:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2085:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2043:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1911:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1801:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1775:
1759:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1733:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1494:
1488:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1346:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1298:
1289:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1252:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1188:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1152:
1151:
1145:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1094:Elkhorn coral
1091:
1087:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1058:Elkhorn coral
1055:
1040:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1020:Elkhorn coral
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
995:
992:
988:
984:
980:
977:), Staghorn (
976:
972:
962:
959:
955:
954:Elkhorn coral
940:
938:
937:zooxanthellae
934:
933:zooxanthellae
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
904:
901:
896:
892:
888:
884:
883:invertebrates
880:
878:
873:
869:
866:
862:
858:
854:
845:
836:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
800:
798:
797:sedimentation
794:
790:
786:
782:
774:Coral planula
769:
764:
760:
758:
757:tidal periods
754:
750:
746:
745:fertilization
741:
738:
734:
733:hermaphrodite
730:
729:
718:
714:
712:
708:
704:
703:Fragmentation
699:
698:Fragmentation
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
661:
659:
649:
647:
643:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
623:heterotrophic
619:
617:
612:
610:
609:heterotrophic
606:
597:
588:
585:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
542:zooxanthellae
539:
535:
531:
523:
518:
509:
506:
505:zooxanthellae
501:
499:
495:
489:
488:
484:
480:
470:
468:
464:
454:
452:
448:
447:South America
444:
440:
436:
432:
417:
415:
411:
406:
404:
400:
396:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
375:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
351:
347:
346:
341:
327:Lamarck, 1816
325:
322:
317:
314:
311:Lamarck, 1816
309:
306:
301:
298:
293:
290:
287:(Brook, 1893)
285:
282:
281:
274:
271:
267:
262:
256:
254:
248:
245:
244:Binomial name
241:
237:
236:
231:
228:
227:
224:
223:
219:
216:
215:
212:
209:
206:
205:
202:
199:
196:
195:
192:
189:
186:
185:
182:
179:
176:
175:
172:
169:
166:
165:
162:
159:
156:
155:
150:
145:
141:
135:
130:
119:
115:
110:
106:
101:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
39:
32:
22:
19:
3962:
3879:Symbiodinium
3877:
3870:
3781:Conservation
3696:Pulley Ridge
3555:
3463:Octocorallia
3429:
3382:Hexacorallia
3331:
3268:
3264:
3236:. Retrieved
3231:
3202:. Retrieved
3197:
3166:. Retrieved
3161:
3152:
3141:. Retrieved
3136:
3127:
3116:. Retrieved
3111:
3084:. Retrieved
3079:
3056:. Retrieved
3052:
2995:
2991:
2980:
2929:
2925:
2873:
2869:
2830:
2826:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2692:
2688:
2678:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2560:
2556:
2498:
2494:
2470:. Retrieved
2458:
2448:
2418:(1): 42–57.
2415:
2411:
2351:
2347:
2309:
2305:
2295:
2285:, retrieved
2263:
2253:
2228:
2224:
2194:, retrieved
2172:
2146:. Retrieved
2142:
2133:
2100:
2096:
2058:
2054:
1990:
1986:
1976:
1965:. Retrieved
1961:
1951:
1926:
1922:
1866:
1862:
1814:
1810:
1800:
1789:. Retrieved
1785:
1762:. Retrieved
1760:. 2023-12-08
1757:
1735:, retrieved
1713:
1687:. Retrieved
1683:
1673:
1632:
1628:
1617:
1606:. Retrieved
1604:. 2023-12-08
1601:
1592:
1581:. Retrieved
1577:
1568:
1515:
1511:
1501:
1487:cite journal
1478:
1468:
1415:
1411:
1401:
1360:
1356:
1345:
1334:. Retrieved
1330:
1321:
1310:. Retrieved
1302:
1296:
1288:
1276:. Retrieved
1262:
1256:
1250:
1242:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1142:
1125:
1098:
1083:
1051:
1043:Conservation
1037:
1011:
1003:
1001:
983:A. prolifera
982:
978:
974:
968:
951:
910:
890:
875:
870:
850:
811:
793:UV radiation
789:coral reefs.
781:UV radiation
777:
767:
742:
726:
724:
715:
696:
670:
667:
655:
652:Reproduction
642:heterotrophy
639:
627:heterotrophy
620:
613:
602:
586:
562:
557:
553:
545:
538:Symbiodinium
537:
527:
522:Symbiodinium
521:
502:
497:
490:
487:coral reefs.
476:
460:
431:Florida Keys
428:
407:
392:
376:cervicornis,
372:
364:
357:Scleractinia
344:
343:
339:
337:
323:
315:
307:
299:
291:
283:
252:
250:
234:
233:
221:
201:Scleractinia
191:Hexacorallia
18:
4204:SeaLifeBase
4126:NatureServe
4074:iNaturalist
3987:Wikispecies
3872:Amphidinium
3661:Lakshadweep
3596:Amazon Reef
3501:Coral reefs
3374:coral reefs
2932:(1): 1264.
2893:10508/11963
2833:: 119–128.
2306:Coral Reefs
2231:: 207–226.
1278:11 November
1139:Restoration
1105:Puerto Rico
917:temperature
913:temperature
825:overfishing
813:Overfishing
808:Overfishing
768:Leptoseris.
753:lunar cycle
635:nematocysts
631:zooplankton
616:autotrophic
605:autotrophic
577:amino acids
556:genus like
319:Brook, 1893
211:Acroporidae
4262:Categories
3938:Fire coral
3923:Coral sand
3846:Reef Check
3826:Green Fins
3541:Microatoll
3481:Organ pipe
3405:Hermatypic
3238:2024-04-09
3204:2024-04-09
3168:2024-03-29
3143:2024-03-29
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