1027:
6213:, vol. 103, no. 1 (January/February 2024), pp. 150–156. "The dollar is one of the few currencies that almost all major banks will accept, and... the most widely used... As a result, the dollar is the currency that many companies must use... to do international business." (p. 150.) "ocal banks facilitating that trade... normally... buy U.S. dollars and then use dollars to buy . To do so, however, the banks must have access to the U.S. financial system and... follow rules laid out by Washington." (pp. 151–152.) "But there is another, lesser-known reason why the commands overwhelming economic power. Most of the world's
6397:
6266:(pp. 154–155.) Farrell and Newman, writes Krugman, "are worried about the possibility of overreach. f the weaponizes the dollar against too many countries, they might... band together and adopt alternative methods of international payment. If countries become deeply worried about U.S. spying, they could lay fiber-optic cables that bypass the . And if Washington puts too many restrictions on American exports, foreign firms might turn away from U.S. technology." (p. 155.)
49:
6421:
6409:
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engaged in the seemingly endless war it had started against China in mid-1937, badly needed oil and other raw materials. Commercial access to these was gradually curtailed as the conquests continued. In July 1941 the
Western powers effectively halted trade with Japan. From then on, as the desperate Japanese schemed to seize the oil and mineral-rich East Indies and Southeast Asia, a Pacific war was virtually inevitable.
6433:
6385:
922:", are "of all the types of measures applied ... the one least frequently used". Giumelli also distinguishes between sanctions against international terrorists, in which "the nature of the request is not as important as the constraining aspect", and sanctions imposed in connection with "post-conflict scenarios", which should "include flexible demands and the potential for adaptation if the situation changes".
911:
presidential powers. When sanctions are imposed on a country, it can try to mitigate them by adjusting its economic policy. The size of the veto players determines how many constraints the government will face when trying to change status quo policies, and the larger the size of the veto players, the more difficult it is to find support for new policies, thus making the sanctions more effective.
6034:
6338:, vol. 44, no. 6 (24 March 2022), pp. 25–29. "US sanctions are based on monopoly power over a global commons: the world's reserve currency and medium of exchange." (p. 25.) "At some point the US may no longer be in a position to exploit its financial centrality as it does now. For large parts of the world that moment will be cause for celebration." (p. 29.)
1372:. The embargo was later extended to mid-2018. Under the embargo, Libya has suffered severe inflation because of increased dependence on the private sector to import goods. The sanctions caused large cuts to health and education, which caused social conditions to decrease. Even though the sanctions were in response to human rights, their effects were limited.
1115:(the blockade), the US embargo on Cuba remains as of 2022 one of the longest-standing embargoes in modern history. Few of the United States' allies embraced the embargo, and many have argued it has been ineffective in changing Cuban government behavior. While taking some steps to allow limited economic exchanges with Cuba, American President
1304:, or foreign investment. The most frequently used UNSC sanction documented in the dataset is an embargo against imported weapons, which applied in 87% of all cases and was directed against non-state actors more often than against governments. Targeted sanctions regimes may contain hundreds of names, a handful, or none at all.
6245:
equipment to much of the planet giv China the power to eavesdrop on the rest of the world – just as the has done.... The learned that Huawei had been dealing surreptitiously with Iran – and therefore violating U.S. sanctions. Then, it... used its special access to information on international bank
2005:
In response to cyber-attacks on April 1, 2015, President Obama issued an
Executive Order establishing the first-ever economic sanctions. The Executive Order was intended to impact individuals and entities ("designees") responsible for cyber-attacks that threaten the national security, foreign policy,
1005:
There is an importance, especially with relation to financial loss, for companies to be aware of embargoes that apply to their intended export or import destinations. Properly preparing products for trade, sometimes referred to as an embargo check, is a difficult and timely process for both importers
977:
One of the most popular suggestions to combat the humanitarian issues that arise from sanctions is the concept of “smart sanctions”, and a lot of research has been done on this concept also known as targeted sanctions. The term "smart sanctions" refers to measures like asset freezes, travel bans, and
936:
finds that "suspending aid is more effective than adopting economic sanctions because (1) aid suspensions are economically beneficial for the adopting state, while sanctions are costly, (2) aid suspensions directly affect the targeted government’s budget, (3) market forces undermine sanctions but not
910:
A strong connection has been found between the effectiveness of sanctions and the size of veto players in a government. Veto players represent individual or collective actors whose agreement is required for a change of the status quo, for example, parties in a coalition, or the legislature's check on
877:
Imposing sanctions on an opponent also affects the economy of the imposing country to a degree. If import restrictions are promulgated, consumers in the imposing country may have restricted choices of goods. If export restrictions are imposed or if sanctions prohibit companies in the imposing country
984:
Smart
Sanctions have also not been totally successful in avoiding civilian harm or unintended consequences. For example, arms embargoes can impact the self-defense efforts of those under attack, aviation bans can affect a nation's transportation sector and the jobs of civilians associated with them,
4573:
The 7 December 1941 Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor was one of the great defining moments in history. A single carefully-planned and well-executed stroke removed the United States Navy's battleship force as a possible threat to the
Japanese Empire's southward expansion. The Japanese military, deeply
1348:
conducted in violation of the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons. The resolution banned the sale of military and luxury goods and froze government assets. Since then, the UN has passed multiple resolutions subsequently expanding sanctions on North Korea. Resolution 2270 from 2016 placed
1084:
and to trade with both sides, but both countries objected to
American trade with the other. American policy aimed to use the new laws to avoid war and to force both France and Britain to respect American rights. The embargo failed to achieve its aims, and Jefferson repealed the legislation in March
1698:
by the US and its allies, notably by barring nuclear, missile and many military exports to Iran and target investments in: oil, gas and petrochemicals, exports of refined petroleum products, banks, insurance, financial institutions, and shipping. Enacted 1979, increased through the following years
890:
examined their study, he found that only 5 of their reported 40 successes were actually effective, reducing the success rate to 4%. In either case, the difficulty and unexpected nuances of measuring the actual success of sanctions in relation to their goals are both increasingly apparent and still
1380:
In 2013 the UN decreed an arms embargo against the CAR. The arms embargo was established in the context of an intercommunity conflict between the Séléka rebels, with a Muslim majority, and the predominantly
Christian militias. to fight back. Raised UN Security Council lifts arms embargo on CAR on
2023:
Brazil introduced sanctions against the US in March 2010. These sanctions were placed because the US government was paying cotton farmers for their products against World Trade
Organization rules. The sanctions cover cotton, as well as cars, chewing gum, fruit, and vegetable products. The WTO is
2009:
In response to intelligence analysis alleging
Russian hacking and interference with the 2016 US elections, President Obama expanded presidential authority to sanction in response to cyber activity that threatens democratic elections. Given that the original order was intended to protect critical
1287:
Most UNSC sanctions since the mid-1990s have targeted individuals and entities rather than entire governments, a change from the comprehensive trade sanctions of earlier decades. For example, the UNSC maintains lists of individuals indicted for crimes or linked to international terrorism, which
873:
impact on targeted states by reducing their GDP growth by an average of 2.3–3.5% per year—and more than 5% per year in the case of comprehensive UN embargoes—with the negative effects typically persisting for a period of ten years. By contrast, unilateral US sanctions had a considerably smaller
1567:
restrictions.” Also in 2010, the UN Council imposed sanctions on Iran due to their involvement in their nuclear program. These sanctions banned Iran from carrying out tests on their nuclear weapons and imposed an embargo on the transfer of weapons into the country. These sanctions resulted in
1017:
This process can become very complicated, especially for countries with changing embargoes. Before better tools became available, many companies relied on spreadsheets and manual processes to keep track of compliance issues. Today, there are software based solutions that automatically handle
856:
by many governments. Economic sanctions are usually imposed by a larger country upon a smaller country for one of two reasons: either the latter is a perceived threat to the security of the former nation or that country treats its citizens unfairly. They can be used as a coercive measure for
6265:
that her company was not doing business with Iran. Canadian authorities, acting on a U.S. request, arrested her... in
December 2018. After... almost three years under house arrest... Meng... was allowed to return to China... But by the prospects for Chinese dominance of 5G had vanished..."
937:
aid suspensions, and (4) aid suspensions are less likely to spark adverse behavioral reactions. The findings suggest that economic sanctions are less effective than previously thought and that large donor states have a higher chance of achieving political goals through economic coercion."
860:
The Global Sanctions Data Base categorizes nine objectives of sanctions: "changing policy, destabilizing regimes, resolving territorial conflicts, fighting terrorism, preventing war, ending war, restoring and promoting human rights, restoring and promoting democracy, and other objectives."
3110:
I examined the 40 claimed successes and found that only 5 stand up. Eighteen were actually settled by either direct or indirect use of force; in 8 cases there is no evidence that the target state made the demanded concessions; 6 do not qualify as instances of economic sanctions, and 3 are
725:
The efficacy of sanctions in achieving intended goals is a subject of debate. Scholars have also considered the policy externalities of sanctions. The humanitarian consequences of country-wide sanctions have been a subject of controversy. As a consequence, since the mid-1990s,
1913:-associated individuals. The cornerstone of the sanction is a consolidated list of persons maintained by the Security Council. All nations are obliged to freeze bank accounts and other financial instruments controlled by or used for the benefit of anyone on the list.
2006:
economic health, or financial stability of the US. Specifically, the Executive Order authorized the Treasury Department to freeze designees— assets. The European Union implemented their first targeted financial sanctions regarding cyber activity in 2020.
5108:
945:
Sanctions have been criticized on humanitarian grounds, as they negatively impact a nation's economy and can also cause collateral damage on ordinary citizens. Peksen implies that sanctions can degenerate human rights in the target country. Some
763:, diplomats and legal scholars regularly discussed using coordinated economic pressure to enforce international law. This idea was also included in reform proposals by Latin American and Chinese international lawyers in the years leading up to
1893:
902:
suggests sanctions are popular not because they are known to be effective, but because "there is nothing else between words and military action if you want to bring pressure upon a government". Critics of sanctions like Belgian jurist
4448:
1707:"have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests". These sanctions have taken a toll on
1255:
and wider trade sanctions that impacted the Georgian economy, particularly Georgian exports of wine, citrus fruits, and mineral water. In 2006, Russia banned all imports from Georgia which was able to deal a significant blow to the
1292:. According to a dataset covering the years 1991 to 2013, 95% of UNSC sanction regimes included "sectoral bans" on aviation and/or the import (or export) of arms or raw materials, 75% included "individual/group" sanctions such as
985:
and financial sanctions targeting individuals raise due process issues. One example of smart sanctions in practice can be seen with sanctions imposed by the United States on the Russian Federation following the latter's 2014
885:
is the most frequent foreign-policy objective of economic sanctions, accounting for just over 39 percent of cases of their imposition. Hufbauer et al. found that 34 percent of the cases studied were successful. However, when
2600:
701:
Sanctions can target an entire country or they can be more narrowly targeted at individuals or groups; this latter form of sanctions are sometimes called "smart sanctions". Prominent forms of economic sanctions include
1119:
nevertheless reaffirmed the policy in 2011, stating that without the granting of improved human rights and freedoms by Cuba's current government, the embargo remains "in the national interest of the United States".
758:
from trading with the UK. In practice the French Empire could not completely enforce the embargo, which proved as harmful (if not more so) to the continental nations involved as to the British. By the time of the
5250:
1670:
EU, US, Australia, Canada and Norway by Russia since August 2014 on beef, pork, fruit and vegetable produce, poultry, fish, cheese, milk and dairy items. On August 13, 2015, the embargo was expanded to include
5829:
1013:
does not accrue unwanted fines, taxes, or other punitive measures. Common examples of embargo checks include referencing embargo lists, cancelling transactions, and ensuring the validity of a trade entity.
1868:
by the US and its allies since 2015. An arms embargo and the selling of assets were banned due to human rights violations, high government corruption, links with drug cartels and electoral rigging in the
2120:
1888:
3980:
978:
arms embargoes that aim to target responsible parties like political leaders and elites with the goal of avoiding causing widespread collateral damage to innocent civilians and neighboring nations.
1280:. The nature of these sanctions may vary, and include financial, trade, or weaponry restrictions. Motivations can also vary, ranging from humanitarian and environmental concerns to efforts to halt
5134:
5112:
5876:
4456:
1111:. At first, the embargo applied only to arms sales; however, it later expanded to include other imports, eventually extending to almost all trade on February 7, 1962. Referred to by Cuba as
4424:
981:
Though there has been enthusiasm about the concept, as of 2016, the Targeted Sanctions Consortium (TSC) found that targeted sanctions only result in policy goals being met 22% of the time.
857:
achieving particular policy goals related to trade or for humanitarian violations. Economic sanctions are used as an alternative weapon instead of going to war to achieve desired outcomes.
1551:. Theresa Papademetriou states the exact restrictions the EU posed on Iran, "prohibition on the provision of insurance, increased restrictions on and notifications needed for transfers of
4492:
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argue that in nondemocratic regimes, the extent to which this affects political outcomes is contested, because by definition such regimes do not respond as strongly to the popular will.
1836:
4844:
1174:, that defines sanctions against US citizens involved in "violations of the human rights and freedoms of Russian citizens". It lists US citizens who are banned from entering Russia.
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3111:
indeterminate. If I am right, then sanctions have succeeded in only 5 of 115 attempts, and thus there is no sound basis for even qualified optimism about the effects of sanctions.
1648:
821:
In the lead-up to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States imposed severe trade restrictions on Japan to discourage further Japanese conquests in East Asia.
914:
Francesco Giumelli writes that the "set of sanctions ... that many observers would be likely to consider the most persuasive (and effective)", namely, UN sanctions against "
1407:
adopted a voluntary international oil-embargo against South Africa on November 20, 1987; that embargo had the support of 130 countries. South Africa, in response, expanded its
1146:
has been known to utilize economic sanctions to achieve its political goals. Russia's focus has been primarily on implementing sanctions against the pro-Western governments of
958:(UNSC) has generally refrained from imposing comprehensive sanctions since the mid-1990s, in part due to the controversy over the efficacy and civilian harms attributed to the
2307:
1352:
The efficacy of such sanctions has been questioned in light of continued nuclear tests by North Korea in the decade following the 2006 resolution. Professor William Brown of
6278:
5917:
4343:"Security Council Imposes Fresh Sanctions on Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2270 (2016) | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases"
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1223:, who was more supportive of Moscow won the election in 2010 to become the fourth president of Ukraine. After his election, gas prices were reduced substantially.
6069:
2020:
Vietnam as a result of capitalist influences over the 1990s and having imposed sanctions against Cambodia, is accepting of sanctions disposed with accountability.
6139:
5584:
2035:
1434:
was elected as the first post-Apartheid president. When asked in 1993 if economic sanctions had helped end apartheid, Mandela replied "Oh, there is no doubt."
5862:
5566:
1826:
932:
suspensions are typically considered as a type of economic sanctions. Previously mentioned work by Hufbauer, Schott, Elliot, and Oegg is a prominent example.
895:
a regime or country changes (i.e., whether it was the sanction or inherent instability) and doubly so to measure the full political effect of a given action.
4067:
The Kremlin Playbook: Understanding Russian influence in Central and Eastern Europe : a report of the CSIS Europe Program and the CSD Economics Program
1563:
in such fields, expansion of the list of goods and technology whose supply to Iran is either subject to prior authorization or is completely banned and new
4410:
1883:
1865:
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to power as the third president of the country. Saakashvili wanted to bring Georgia into NATO and the EU and was a strong supporter of the US-led war in
1708:
1133:
6229:
to analyze the data. As a result, the can monitor almost all international communication." (p. 154) This has allowed the U.S. "to effectively cut
6149:
6068:
Ashouri, Mahan "The Role of transnational Private Actors in Ukrain International Flight 752 Crash in Iran Under Economic Sanctions Pressure" (2021)
5941:
950:
believe that imposing trade restrictions only serves to hurt ordinary people as opposed to government elites, and others have likened the practice to
1349:
restrictions on transport personnel and vehicles employed by North Korea while also restricting the sale of natural resources and fuel for aircraft.
6217:, which carry data and messages around the planet, travel through the United States." (p. 152.) "he U.S. government has installed 'splitters':
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4106:
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in 1935 resulted in League sanctions against Mussolini's Italy under Article 16 of the Covenant. Oil supplies, however, were not stopped, nor the
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1771:
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1423:
1327:
986:
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4014:
3723:
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1419:
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that divide the beams of light carrying information into two streams. One... goes on to the intended recipients, ... the other goes to the
5787:
5467:
4782:
3961:
3747:
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6005:
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By far, regime change is the most frequent foreign policy objective of economic sanctions, accounting for 80 out of the 204 observations.
1069:
501:
3484:
2691:
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1215:. As the Ukrainian economy began to struggle, Yushchenko's approval ratings dropped significantly; reaching the single digits by the
2946:
2442:
4925:
2148:
1700:
1390:
6134:
EscribĂ -Folch, Abel, and Joseph Wright. "Dealing with tyranny: International sanctions and the survival of authoritarian rulers."
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3183:
Peksen, Dursun; Jeong, Jin Mun (30 August 2017). "Domestic Institutional Constraints, Veto Players, and Sanction Effectiveness".
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from trading with the target country, the imposing country may lose markets and investment opportunities to competing countries.
609:
2306:
Biersteker, Thomas J.; Tourinho, Marcos; Eckert, Sue E. (2016), Tourinho, Marcos; Eckert, Sue E.; Biersteker, Thomas J. (eds.),
1689:
Gaza Strip by Israel since 2001, under arms blockade since 2007 due to the large number of illicit arms traffic used to wage war
6368:
1844:
1313:
997:
suspending all transactions of sanctioned Russian banks, effectively canceling the credit cards of ordinary Russian consumers.
989:, which were intended to exert pressure on Russia's financial sector. The sanctions resulted in American credit card companies
730:(UNSC) sanctions have tended to target individuals and entities, in contrast to the country-wide sanctions of earlier decades.
5505:
4684:
4659:
2988:
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in relation to the spiraling security situation and hostilities in breach of the Agreement on Peace and Reconciliation in 2017
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6311:
3264:
3060:
2747:
2720:
2319:
1870:
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Nicaragua by the UK. Sanctions imposed in 2020 to push the government to respect democratic principles and legal institutions
1010:
662:
474:
112:
4043:
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Doxey, Margaret. "International sanctions: a framework for analysis with special reference to the UN and Southern Africa."
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1704:
1216:
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Offering an explanation as to why sanctions are still imposed even when they may be marginally effective, British diplomat
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that attempts to get an actor to change its behavior through disruption in economic exchange. Sanctions can be intended to
1600:
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1902:
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When a League member goes to war without submitting the dispute to the League Council or League Assembly (Articles 12–15)
6120:
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argued that "sanctions don't have much of an impact on an economy that has been essentially bankrupt for a generation".
5596:
1664:
1094:
760:
687:
531:
449:
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A law on sanctions for individuals violating fundamental human rights and freedoms of Russian citizens has been signed
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6522:
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Kirikakha, Aleksandra; Felbermayr, Gabriel J.; Syropoulos, Constantinos; Yalcin, Erdal; Yotov, Yoto V. (2021-12-10).
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1251:. Russia would soon implement a number of different sanctions on Georgia, including natural gas price raises through
1183:
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penalties applied by states or institutions against states, groups, or individuals. Economic sanctions are a form of
514:
315:
107:
6237:
programs in exchange for relief." (pp. 153–154.) " few years ago, American officials... were in a panic about
5853:
5805:
4826:
1191:, the third president of Ukraine who was elected in 2003, lobbied during his term to gain admission to NATO and the
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closed to Italy, and the conquest proceeded. The sanctions were lifted in 1936 and Italy left the League in 1937.
3161:
2660:
2228:
2156:
1970:
1859:
1715:
1404:
1273:
1269:
955:
727:
245:
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and reached its tightest point in 2010. In April 2019 the US threatened to sanction countries that continued to
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Felbermayr, Gabriel; Kirilakha, Aleksandra; Syropoulos, Constantinos; Yalcin, Erdal; Yotov, Yoto (2021-05-18).
4393:
2655:
1759:
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in response to major international events, receiving authority to do so under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the
6274:
5151:
4295:"Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea"
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in 2012 to force the junta to return power to the civilian government and re-install the National constitution
1462:. Deprived of access to vital oil, iron-ore and steel supplies, Japan started planning for military action to
4122:
2248:
2056:
1898:
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to and from Iran, restrictions on the supply of or traffic in technology and equipment to be used in certain
1339:
217:
1284:. Over two dozen sanctions measures have been implemented by the United Nations since its founding in 1945.
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6233:
out of the world financial system... Iran's economy stagnated... Eventually, Tehran agreed to cut back its
5949:
5045:
3900:
2931:
G. Bruce Strang, "'The Worst of all Worlds:' Oil Sanctions and Italy's Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936."
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2010:
infrastructure, it can be argued that the election process should have been included in the original order.
1257:
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167:
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3724:"Office of Foreign Assets Control - Sanctions Programs and Information | U.S. Department of the Treasury"
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783:, became prominent after the end of World War I. Leaders saw sanctions as a viable alternative to war.
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368:
310:
300:
232:
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According to the Global Sanctions Data Base, there have been 1,325 sanctions in the period 1950–2022.
837:(UN) in 1945. Throughout the Cold War, the use of sanctions increased gradually. After the end of the
5419:
655:
584:
541:
333:
207:
6195:, "The American Way of Economic war: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?" (review of
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impact on GDP growth, restricting it by 0.5–0.9% per year, with an average duration of seven years.
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3445:
2083:
1982:
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states. This quadrupled Ukraine's energy bill overnight. Russia subsequently cut off the supply of
870:
551:
546:
305:
227:
20:
6503:"The Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB): an update that includes the years of the Trump presidency"
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Libya by the UN in 2011 due to mass killings of Libyan protesters/rebels. Ended in 2012 after the
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3651:
3123:
A Strategic Understanding of UN Economic Sanctions: International Relations, Law, and Development
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1965:
1961:
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1548:
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The UN implemented sanctions against Somalia beginning in April 1992, after the overthrow of the
1099:
The United States embargo against Cuba began on March 14, 1958, during the overthrow of dictator
1040:
966:
629:
82:
6080:
Caruso, Raul. "The impact of international economic sanctions on trade: An empirical analysis."
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4764:"Biden administration freezes billions of dollars in Afghan reserves, depriving Taliban of cash"
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Cite error: The named reference ":6" was defined multiple times with different content (see the
1973:
was placed by the United States on steel to protect its industry from foreign producers such as
1703:
after an initial six-month waiver announced in November 2018 had expired. According to the BBC,
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or restrictions on travel, and just 10% targeted national finances or included measures against
6334:
6013:
4559:. Washington: Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center. 3 December 2000. Archived from
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Peksen, Dursen (2009). ""Better or Worse?": The Effect of Economic Sanctions on Human Rights".
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Ashford, Emma. “Not-So-Smart Sanctions: The Failure of Western Restrictions Against Russia.”
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List of people and organizations sanctioned in relation to human rights violations in Belarus
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Indonesia by Australia on live cattle due to the alleged cruel slaughter methods in Indonesia
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4710:"Macroeconomic Implications of US Sanctions on Iran: A Sectoral Financial Balances Analysis"
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6478:"The 'Global Sanctions Data Base': Mapping international sanction policies from 1950-2019"
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1873:. Sanctions imposed by Canada since 2017, and since 2018 by Mexico, Panama and Switzerland
8:
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4899:
4617:
3550:"International isolation and regional inequality: Evidence from sanctions on North Korea"
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Richard Pankhurst, "The Italo-Ethiopian War and League of Nations Sanctions, 1935–1936."
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779:. Debates about implementing sanctions through international organizations, such as the
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3259:(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE).
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Hufbauer, Gary Clyde; Schott, Jeffrey J.; Elliott, Kimberly Ann; Oegg, Barbara (2007).
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Hufbauer, Gary Clyde; Schott, Jeffrey J.; Elliott, Kimberly Ann; Oegg, Barbara (2008).
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1530:
1208:
1147:
751:
594:
122:
4980:
3374:
3357:
3300:"Carrots as Sticks: How Effective Are Foreign Aid Suspensions and Economic Sanctions?"
6577:
6563:
6532:
6518:
6325:
6307:
6200:
5712:
5708:
4731:
4593:
4500:
4084:
4074:
3573:
3496:
3466:
3379:
3342:
3260:
3235:
3204:
3056:
3020:
2969:
2862:
2850:
2804:
2784:
2743:
2716:
2623:
2582:
2570:
2529:
2479:
2475:
2416:
2378:
2358:
2315:
2285:
2243:
2063:
1935:
1934:
United Nations has since 1966 established 30 sanctions regimes to countries (such as
1236:
1220:
1212:
1188:
1171:
1167:
1100:
899:
797:
780:
695:
619:
431:
177:
150:
60:
3981:"Cuba trade embargo turns 50: Still no rum or cigars, though some freedom in travel"
3220:"Playing to the Home Crowd? Symbolic Use of Economic Sanctions in the United States"
3105:
6555:
6510:
6348:
5980:
5767:"Brazil slaps trade sanctions on U.S. to retaliate for subsidies to cotton farmers"
5696:
5305:
4721:
4538:
4342:
4221:
4159:
3598:
3561:
3410:
3369:
3330:
3231:
3192:
3085:
2992:
2965:
2961:
2840:
2776:
2673:
2615:
2560:
2521:
2471:
2445:," Economic Policy (Oxford University Press), April 2017, Vol. 32(90), pp. 319–355.
2408:
2350:
2218:
2213:
2195:
1506:
1323:
1108:
1065:
811:
755:
624:
589:
187:
77:
4073:(Washington, D.C.), Center for the Study of Democracy (Bulgaria). Washington, DC.
925:
Economic sanctions can be used for achieving domestic and international purposes.
6425:
6234:
6209:
5972:
5331:
5152:"Iran says new U.S. sanctions violate nuclear deal, vows 'proportional reaction'"
5096:
5029:
4787:
4587:
4126:
3462:
3050:
3014:
2877:
2737:
2710:
1926:
1748:
1482:
1412:
1330:
forbade members to sell, finance, or transfer any military equipment to Somalia.
1232:
1081:
1057:
947:
739:
491:
401:
338:
102:
87:
6559:
6514:
5984:
4528:
4294:
4226:
4209:
4164:
4145:
3458:
1724:
by the EU. Sanctions were imposed against Myanmar due to the worsening state of
1568:
drastic macroeconomic downturns for the Iranian economy including volatility in
1364:
On February 26, 2011, the UNSC issued an arms embargo against the Libya through
6548:"The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions data project: a retrospective"
6218:
2549:"Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion"
1989:
threatened retaliatory tariffs on a range of US goods that would mainly affect
1986:
1820:
1537:
1494:
1431:
1344:
The UNSC passed Resolution 1718 in 2006 in response to a nuclear test that the
1293:
1200:
1151:
887:
853:
834:
743:
707:
703:
634:
526:
358:
343:
192:
182:
132:
97:
31:
6085:
5918:"International: United Nations Welcomes Loosening of Sanctions in Gulf Region"
5537:"Panama sanctions Venezuela, including Maduro & 1st Lady family companies"
4613:
4146:"Pipeline Politics: Russian Energy Sanctions and the 2010 Ukrainian Elections"
3602:
3565:
2354:
6590:
6413:
5354:"U.S. declares Venezuela a national security threat, sanctions top officials"
4735:
4504:
4088:
3613:
Kanji, Laura. "Moving Targets: The Evolution and Future of Smart Sanctions."
3500:
3334:
3196:
2973:
2854:
2788:
2627:
2574:
2533:
2483:
2420:
2362:
2289:
2223:
2107:
1947:
1684:
1526:
1443:
1260:. Russia also expelled nearly 2,300 Georgians who worked within its borders.
933:
882:
869:
According to a study by Neuenkirch and Neumeier, UN economic sanctions had a
521:
426:
416:
353:
348:
262:
257:
157:
117:
6283:
Nossal, Kim Richard. "International sanctions as international punishment."
6073:
Brzoska, Michael. "International sanctions before and beyond UN sanctions."
5310:
4542:
4210:"Georgia on my mind? Russian sanctions and the end of the 'Rose Revolution'"
4179:
3960:
2918:
Gaines Post, Jr, "The Machinery of British Policy in the Ethiopian Crisis."
2677:
6452:
6437:
6389:
6251:
6192:
5692:
4038:
3843:
3527:"Sanctions against Zimbabwe: A Comparison with Ancient Near Eastern Sieges"
3383:
3076:
Pape, Robert A. (Summer 1998). "Why Economic Sanctions Still Do Not Work".
2203:
2130:
2039:
1990:
1939:
1786:
1762:
1755:
1639:
1573:
1522:
1498:
1459:
1396:
1297:
1116:
1104:
1030:
An undersupplied US gasoline station, closed during the oil embargo in 1973
915:
904:
830:
715:
444:
363:
252:
172:
5447:"Canada sanctions 40 Venezuelans with links to political, economic crisis"
4874:
4726:
4709:
2312:
Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action
1889:
List of people and organizations sanctioned during the Russo-Ukrainian War
1489:
against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported
6226:
5700:
3089:
2619:
2565:
2548:
2169:
1802:
1564:
1518:
1486:
1471:
1451:
1345:
1289:
1248:
776:
764:
738:
One of the most comprehensive attempts at an embargo occurred during the
691:
411:
127:
6546:
Morgan, T. Clifton; Bapat, Navin A.; Kobayashi, Yoshiharu (2021-12-10).
6320:
Stevenson, Tom, "First Recourse for Rebels" (review of Nicholas Mulder,
5506:"MĂ©xico rechaza elecciones en Venezuela y sanciona a siete funcionarios"
3638:
3422:
2656:"Understanding United Nations targeted sanctions: an empirical analysis"
2491:
2459:
6255:
4012:
3097:
2845:
2828:
2796:
2428:
2396:
2370:
2338:
2024:
currently supervising talks between the states to remove the sanctions.
1943:
1744:
1676:
1560:
1319:
994:
815:
711:
421:
267:
92:
48:
4963:"U.S. to end all waivers on imports of Iranian oil, crude price jumps"
3748:"Perform Sanction, PEPs and Watchlist Verification w/ Lexis Diligence"
3700:"US Trade Sanctions Are a Trap for the Unwary | Norton Rose Fulbright"
3299:
2460:"Sanctions Sometimes Smart: Targeted Sanctions in Theory and Practice"
2145:
due to Qatar's alleged support for terrorist organizations (2017–2021)
2047:
by Russia on agricultural products, wine and mineral water (2006–2013)
1667:. It covers arms, consumer goods and financial assets, enacted in 1958
1150:. The Kremlin's aim is particularly on states that aspire to join the
6169:(Washington DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 1990)
3414:
3019:(3 ed.). Washington, DC: Columbia University Press. p. 67.
2827:
Morgan, T. Clifton; Syropoulos, Constantinos; Yotov, Yoto V. (2023).
2253:
2152:
2073:
1725:
1577:
1400:
990:
454:
396:
4924:
4271:"New UN project uses financial incentives to try to save the dugong"
3526:
3398:
2780:
2712:
Recentering the World: China and Transformation of International Law
2412:
1628:
List of sanctioned countries (the below is not an exhaustive list):
6500:
6475:
6115:
Doxey, Margaret. "International sanctions in theory and practice."
5693:"Countering Malicious Cyber Activity: Targeted Financial Sanctions"
3254:
1951:
1906:
1812:
838:
679:
6322:
The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War
6271:
The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War
4119:
2739:
The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War
806:
When a non-member goes to war against a League member (Article 17)
786:
The League Covenant permitted the use of sanctions in five cases:
6358:
6165:
Hufbauer, Gary C., Jeffrey J. Schott, and Kimberley Ann Elliott.
4478:"Oil Embargo against Apartheid South Africa on richardknight.com"
2208:
2138:
2111:
2076:) by the US, UK, China and the Netherlands in 1940 to discourage
1993:. The US government then removed the steel tariffs in early 2004.
1955:
1910:
1819:—due to ongoing government sponsored and backed violence against
1808:
1680:
1672:
1552:
1252:
1163:
1159:
683:
202:
5977:
Nuyorican Feminist Performance: From the Café to Hip Hop Theater
4425:"Evaluating the Impacts and Effectiveness of Targeted Sanctions"
4013:
Daniel Hanson; Dayne Batten; Harrison Ealey (January 16, 2013).
6238:
5111:. Department for Business Innovation and Skills. Archived from
4246:"UN sanctions: what they are, how they work, and who uses them"
2189:
2095:
1978:
1816:
1794:
1533:
sources. Israel continued to receive Western support, however.
1490:
1143:
162:
72:
67:
5251:"Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Asset Control (OFAC)"
4981:"Iran oil: US to end sanctions exemptions for major importers"
6174:
International economic sanctions: a public choice perspective
6038:
5806:"Resolution 1483 - UN Security Council - Global Policy Forum"
5567:"Swiss impose sanctions on seven senior Venezuelan officials"
5003:
Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
4015:"It's Time For The U.S. To End Its Senseless Embargo Of Cuba"
2989:"Going Alone on Economic Sanctions Hurts U.S. More than Foes"
2829:"Economic Sanctions: Evolution, Consequences, and Challenges"
2692:"Continental System Napoleon British Embargo Napoleon's 1812"
2142:
1974:
1649:
European Union arms embargo on the People's Republic of China
1478:
1408:
951:
6349:
Business and Sanctions Consulting Network: List of Countries
6300:
Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy
6205:
Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy
3913:
1811:
reported that the EU has placed immediate sanctions on both
1768:
by the UN, US and EU on luxury goods (and arms) enacted 2006
1418:
All United Nations sanctions on South Africa ended over the
6262:
6230:
6184:
The United Nations sanctions policy & international law
6167:
Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy
5023:"Are EU Trade Oh hell no on Burma Compatible with WTO Law?"
2162:
Serbia by Kosovo's unilaterally declared government in 2011
1884:
List of individuals sanctioned during the Venezuelan crisis
1798:
1544:
1502:
1375:
1244:
1196:
1155:
891:
under debate. In other words, it is difficult to determine
6359:
Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions (TIES) Dataset
6093:
The sanctions decade: Assessing UN strategies in the 1990s
5680:. PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice, April, 2015.
5402:"EU readies sanctions on Venezuela, approves arms embargo"
5294:"The Cyprus Question before the European Court of Justice"
5135:
Senate overwhelmingly passes new Russia and Iran sanctions
4827:"Russia announces 'full embargo' on most food from US, EU"
4493:"To Cope With Embargoes, S. Africa Converts Coal Into Oil"
2947:"The impact of UN and US economic sanctions on GDP growth"
5877:"Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours"
5854:"Mali Coup Leaders Suffer Sanctions and Loss of Timbuktu"
5480:"Canada to impose sanctions on more Venezuelan officials"
5385:
5226:"U.S. Imposes New Sanctions on Sudan - Sudan | ReliefWeb"
4837:
4749:
3048:
3012:
2117:
Pakistan by the UK in 2002 on nuclear export restrictions
1917:
1774:(2006) – a reaction to the DPRK's claim of a nuclear test
1743:
international sanctions imposed on North Korea since the
1556:
1009:
There are many steps that must be taken to ensure that a
929:
775:
Sanctions in the form of blockades were prominent during
137:
5788:"Georgia Doubles Wine Exports as Russian Market Reopens"
4449:"Literature Review on the Effects of Targeted Sanctions"
2765:"Sanctions and Guaranties in International Organization"
2308:"The effectiveness of United Nations targeted sanctions"
2305:
1195:. Soon after Yushchenko entered office, Russia demanded
6242:
3162:"United Nations: US Riled by Economic Sanctions Report"
5420:"Canada imposes sanctions on key Venezuelan officials"
5170:"EU sanctions Russians over rights abuses in Chechnya"
4845:"Russia expands food imports embargo to non-EU states"
4000:"Officially Sanctioned: A Guide to the U.S. Blacklist"
2945:
Neuenkirch, Matthias; Neumeier, Florian (2015-12-01).
1931:
United Kingdom currently has sanctions on 27 countries
1791:
Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act
1384:
1268:
The United Nations issues sanctions by consent of the
864:
770:
6373:
6364:
The International Sanctions Termination (IST) dataset
5381:"President Trump Approves New Sanctions On Venezuela"
5109:"Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea)"
4930:"What You Need To Know About U.S. Economic Sanctions"
4900:"Australia bans all live cattle exports to Indonesia"
4069:. Mina, James, Stefanov, Ruslan, Vladimirov, Martin,
3895:
3820:"Export Control and Sanctions Compliance | About SAP"
3465:. Vienna: International Progress Organization, 1997.
2907:
Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations
2826:
6545:
5327:"White House sanctions seven officials in Venezuela"
4708:
Sashi, Sivramkrishna; Bhavish, Sharma (2019-12-01).
3966:"Proclamation 3447 – Embargo on all trade with Cuba"
3914:
Aaron Snyder; Jeffrey Herbener (December 15, 2004).
2443:
Sanctions and Exports Deflection: Evidence from Iran
2185:
1368:
in response to humanitarian abuses occurring in the
841:, there was a major increase in economic sanctions.
698:(an attempt to stop an actor from certain actions).
6100:
International sanctions in contemporary perspective
5559:
4269:Section, United Nations News Service (2011-03-14).
4244:Section, United Nations News Service (2016-05-04).
2091:
Macedonia total trade embargo by Greece (1994–1995)
1134:
Humanitarian impacts of U.S. sanctions against Iran
5852:
4523:
2944:
2435:
2088:India by the UK due to nuclear exports restriction
790:When Article 10 of the League Covenant is violated
6117:Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law
5979:. University of Michigan Press Ebook Collection.
4180:"Russia-Ukraine 'Gas War' Damages Both Economies"
4113:
3358:"Economic sanction: a weapon of mass destruction"
1333:
6588:
6082:Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy
6003:
5528:
4635:"European Union: Renewed Sanctions Against Iran"
4592:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 112–116.
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2314:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 220–247,
1064:(1806–1808) during the second term of President
833:, the League was replaced by the more expansive
5534:
5444:
4783:"Should Europe Lift Its Arms Embargo on China?"
4239:
4237:
3978:
3796:"World-Check KYC Screening & Due Diligence"
3617:37.4 (2016): 39–42. ProQuest. Web. 30 Nov. 2023
1862:by the UN on consumer goods, enacted since 1994
1856:by the EU and the US on arms and imports of oil
1772:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718
1437:
1226:
881:Hufbauer, Schott, and Elliot (2008) argue that
6045:European Union: Renewed Sanctions Against Iran
5850:
5472:
5412:
4807:"United States embargo against Cuba - History"
4780:
4529:"Nelson Mandela, A True Believer in Sanctions"
4071:Center for Strategic and International Studies
3435:
3396:
1638:China by the EU and the US. Sanctions made on
1177:
1018:sanctions and other complications with trade.
1000:
694:(an attempt to change an actor's behavior) or
19:"Embargo" redirects here. For other uses, see
5824:
5822:
5647:"Sanctions | United Nations Security Council"
5021:Howse, Robert L. and Genser, Jared M. (2008)
4367:"Why Did Sanctions Fail Against North Korea?"
2638:
2546:
2123:by Israel, US and other countries (2006–2007)
1307:
656:
6254:(... the founder's daughter), had committed
6146:United Nations sanctions and the rule of law
6004:Sukovic, Danilo; Jovanovic, Predrag (2001).
5324:
4707:
4234:
4031:
3962:National Archives and Records Administration
3255:Hufbauer, Schott, Elliott, and Oegg (2007).
3164:. Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
1346:Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)
824:
793:In case of war or threat of war (Article 11)
5498:
5438:
4105:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4034:"Obama Quietly Renews U.S. Embargo on Cuba"
3997:
3531:Journal of Gleanings from Academic Outliers
3283:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3182:
2547:Farrell, Henry; Newman, Abraham L. (2019).
2014:
1860:Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus embargo
1839:during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
1263:
6290:Royal Institute of International Affairs.
5819:
4629:
4627:
4101:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3593:Gordon, Joy. “Smart Sanctions Revisited.”
3438:"Video: Why Economic Sanctions Don't Work"
3355:
3128:
1877:
1034:
663:
649:
6156:Economic sanctions and American diplomacy
5309:
4960:
4945:
4725:
4225:
4163:
3373:
3159:
2844:
2564:
1985:ruled that the tariffs were illegal. The
1923:Australia currently sanctions 9 countries
1829:were also implemented in response to the
1470:, triggering the American entry into the
1464:seize the resource-rich Dutch East Indies
1207:in 2006, causing significant harm to the
1045:
852:Economic sanctions are used as a tool of
5892:
5690:
4926:United States Department of the Treasury
2986:
2708:
2653:
2121:Palestinian National Authority sanctions
1946:and more) and to organizations (such as
1793:that grouped together sanctions against
1517:efforts, and long-lasting shifts toward
1391:International sanctions during apartheid
1376:Sanction on the Central African Republic
1060:involved a series of laws passed by the
1025:
847:
6552:Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions
6507:Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions
5970:
5750:
5671:"Sanctions: U.S. action on cyber crime"
5285:
4624:
4585:
4268:
4243:
4207:
4143:
3524:
3297:
3137:"Analysis: Do economic sanctions work?"
2598:
2507:
2457:
2336:
2275:
1999:
1785:by the US. On 2 August 2017, President
1497:. The results included a sharp rise in
1288:raises novel legal questions regarding
733:
6589:
6297:
5915:
5893:Cockburn, Patrick (February 4, 1994).
5830:"India and Pakistan (Nuclear Exports)"
5399:
5378:
5291:
5180:
5071:"Clinton Ends Most N. Korea Sanctions"
4685:"A Brief History of Sanctions on Iran"
4660:"A Brief History of Sanctions on Iran"
4490:
3633:, vol. 95, no. 1, 2016, pp. 114–123.
3625:
3623:
3597:, vol. 25, no. 3, 2011, pp. 315–335.,
3589:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3482:
3356:Habibzadeh, Farrokh (September 2018).
3320:
3134:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2762:
2735:
2339:"The Hidden Hand of Economic Coercion"
2151:by the international community during
1918:By sanctioning country or organization
1871:2018 Venezuelan presidential elections
1623:
1314:United Nations arms embargo on Somalia
16:Financial penalties applied by nations
6354:The Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB)
6241:... which... seemed poised to supply
6158:(Council on Foreign Relations, 1998)
5753:"Obama extends cyber sanctions power"
5445:Zilio, Michelle (22 September 2017).
5318:
5298:European Journal of International Law
5033:Michigan Journal of International Law
4948:"A summary of sanctions against Iran"
4388:
4386:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4139:
4137:
4135:
3397:Mueller, John; Mueller, Karl (1999).
3217:
3160:Capdevila, Gustavo (18 August 2000).
2954:European Journal of Political Economy
2875:
2654:Giumelli, Francesco (November 2015).
2594:
2592:
2526:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041322-032240
2503:
2501:
2114:) trade embargo by the US (1964–1994)
1359:
1088:
796:When a League member does not pay an
6148:(Cambridge University Press, 2007).
6131:. (Cambridge University Press, 1999)
5426:. Thomson Reuters. 22 September 2017
4781:Leo Cendrowicz (February 10, 2010).
4639:Library of Congress, Washington, D.C
4557:"Pearl Harbor Raid, 7 December 1941"
3979:Elizabeth Flock (February 7, 2012).
3872:Uniserv GmbH - Customer Data Experts
3075:
2453:
2451:
2397:"Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work"
2394:
2390:
2388:
2332:
2330:
2301:
2299:
2271:
2269:
1587:
1583:
1138:
1130:United States sanctions against Iran
742:of 1803–1815. Aiming to cripple the
5875:Callimachi, Rukmini (3 April 2012)
4961:Wroughton, Lesley (22 April 2019).
4682:
4657:
4408:
4032:Uri Friedman (September 13, 2011).
3620:
3580:
3547:
3125:, Golnoosh Hakimdavar, p. 105.
3055:. Peterson Institute. p. 158.
2811:
2028:
1903:UN Security Council Resolution 1267
1385:Sanctions on apartheid South Africa
865:Effectiveness of economic sanctions
771:World War I and the Interwar period
13:
6453:"Global Sanctions Database - GSDB"
6062:
5942:"Kosovo imposes embargo on Serbia"
5916:Boomer, Elizabeth (Feb 17, 2021).
5905:from the original on Feb 24, 2024.
5769:. Content.usatoday.com. 2010-03-09
5400:Emmott, Robin (13 November 2017).
5202:"UK sanctions relating to Somalia"
4383:
4196:
4132:
4064:
4058:
3595:Ethics & International Affairs
3463:Economic Sanctions and Development
3230:(3). Ingentaconnect.com: 787–801.
2938:
2589:
2514:Annual Review of Political Science
2498:
2084:overthrow and execution of Gaddafi
1559:and gas fields and prohibition of
1547:due to their involvement in their
1199:pay the same rate that it charged
1123:
1095:United States embargo against Cuba
972:
761:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
47:
14:
6623:
6342:
6095:(Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000).
5895:"US finally ends Vietnam embargo"
5865:from the original on Feb 1, 2024.
5535:Camacho, Carlos (27 March 2018).
4714:Studies in Business and Economics
3135:Marcus, Jonathan (26 July 2010).
2909:(Hoover Institution Press, 1976).
2894:Genève-Afrique/Geneva-Africa 13.2
2769:American Political Science Review
2448:
2385:
2327:
2296:
2266:
1847:by the UN and sanctions by the UK
1644:Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
1505:revenues, an emergency period of
1184:Russian sanctions against Ukraine
316:International Chamber of Commerce
6539:
6494:
6469:
6445:
6431:
6419:
6407:
6395:
6383:
6037: This article incorporates
6032:
5997:
5964:
5934:
5909:
5886:
5869:
5851:Lydia Polgreen (April 2, 2012).
5844:
5798:
5780:
5759:
5744:
5691:Thompson, Natalie (2020-10-01).
5684:
5663:
5639:
5614:
5589:
5393:
5372:
5346:
5267:
5243:
5218:
5194:
5162:
5144:
5127:
5101:
5084:
5063:
5046:"Financial sanctions, Nicaragua"
5038:
4875:"Russia expands food import ban"
4851:. 13 August 2015. Archived from
4129:// Kremlin.ru, 28 December 2012.
3998:Eric Weiner (October 15, 2007).
3950:. monticello.org. April 8, 2013.
3298:Mertens, Claas (28 March 2024).
3236:10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00668.x
2833:Journal of Economic Perspectives
2709:Mitchell, Ryan Martinez (2022).
2476:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2010.01001.x
2278:"The United States of Sanctions"
2188:
2045:Georgian and Moldovan import ban
1591:
1458:in 1940–1941 in response to its
1366:Security Council Resolution 1970
1170:. Russia has enacted a law, the
6258:by falsely telling the British
6225:, which then uses high-powered
6136:International studies quarterly
5751:Bennett, Cory (29 March 2016).
5015:
4991:
4973:
4954:
4939:
4918:
4892:
4867:
4819:
4799:
4774:
4756:
4742:
4701:
4676:
4651:
4606:
4579:
4549:
4517:
4484:
4470:
4441:
4417:
4359:
4335:
4311:
4287:
4262:
4172:
4025:
4006:
3991:
3972:
3954:
3940:
3907:
3889:
3860:
3836:
3812:
3788:
3764:
3740:
3716:
3692:
3668:
3644:
3607:
3541:
3518:
3476:
3452:
3429:
3399:"Sanctions of Mass Destruction"
3390:
3349:
3314:
3304:International Studies Quarterly
3291:
3257:Economic Sanctions Reconsidered
3248:
3224:International Studies Quarterly
3211:
3176:
3153:
3116:
3069:
3052:Economic Sanctions Reconsidered
3042:
3016:Economic Sanctions Reconsidered
3006:
2987:Griswold, Daniel (2000-11-27).
2980:
2925:
2912:
2899:
2886:
2869:
2756:
2729:
2702:
2684:
2229:International political economy
2157:disinvestment from South Africa
1971:2002 United States steel tariff
1405:United Nations General Assembly
1270:United Nations Security Council
956:United Nations Security Council
728:United Nations Security Council
6207:, Henry Holt, 2023, 288 pp.),
5971:Esteves, Sandra MarĂa (2005).
5948:. 21 July 2011. Archived from
5073:. Globalpolicy.org. 1999-09-18
4946:Josh Levs (January 23, 2012).
4144:Newnham, Randall (July 2013).
3652:"Do I need an export licence?"
3185:Journal of Conflict Resolution
2966:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2015.09.001
2876:Buell, Raymond Leslie (1925).
2715:. Cambridge University Press.
2540:
1466:, which required a preemptive
1334:Sanctions on North Korea, 2006
1:
5541:Latin American Herald Tribune
5379:Neuman, Scott (22 May 2018).
5325:Rhodan, Maya (9 March 2015).
4750:"Sanctions risk by countries"
4491:Murphy, Caryle (1979-04-27).
3375:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31944-5
3279:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2259:
2249:Specially Designated National
2168:by the UN in response to the
2068:Italian invasion of Abyssinia
1765:. but tightened again in 2010
1747:of 1950–1953 eased under the
1656:, enacted in response to the
1642:, enacted in response to the
1420:Negotiations to end Apartheid
1340:Sanctions against North Korea
6602:Non-tariff barriers to trade
5188:"UN arms embargo on Somalia"
4208:Newnham, Randall E. (2015).
4065:A., Conley, Heather (2016).
3874:. 2021-01-22. Archived from
3615:Harvard International Review
3485:"Sanctions as siege warfare"
3218:Whang, Taehee (2011-09-01).
2920:International History Review
2882:. H. Holt. pp. 564–565.
2464:International Studies Review
1438:Other multilateral sanctions
1428:1994 South African elections
1227:Russian sanctions on Georgia
940:
392:Intellectual property rights
7:
6560:10.4337/9781839102721.00009
6515:10.4337/9781839102721.00010
6457:globalsanctionsdatabase.com
5985:10.3998/mpub.6710954.cmp.21
4453:www.unicefinemergencies.com
4227:10.1016/j.euras.2015.03.008
4214:Journal of Eurasian Studies
4165:10.1016/j.euras.2013.03.001
4151:Journal of Eurasian Studies
3848:AnaSys a Bottomline Company
2599:Drezner, Daniel W. (2022).
2510:"Global Economic Sanctions"
2508:Drezner, Daniel W. (2024).
2458:Drezner, Daniel W. (2011).
2337:Drezner, Daniel W. (2003).
2276:Drezner, Daniel W. (2021).
2181:
1178:Russia sanctions on Ukraine
1078:War of the Fourth Coalition
1021:
1001:Implications for businesses
374:Economic and monetary union
296:International Monetary Fund
233:Voluntary export restraints
10:
6628:
6304:Greenwood Publishing Group
6285:International Organization
6260:financial services company
6110:International organization
6006:"A Decade Under Sanctions"
5190:. SIPRI. 20 December 2019.
4683:Sen, Ashish (2018-05-08).
4658:Sen, Ashish (2018-05-08).
4586:Maugeri, Leonardo (2006).
4394:"UN Arms embargo on Libya"
3554:Journal of Urban Economics
3483:Gordon, Joy (1999-04-04).
3207:– via Sage Journals.
2991:. Cato.org. Archived from
2763:Potter, Pitman B. (1922).
2343:International Organization
1807:by the EU. In March 2021,
1730:human rights infringements
1388:
1337:
1322:regime in 1991 during the
1311:
1308:Sanctions on Somalia, 1992
1181:
1148:former Soviet Union states
1127:
1092:
1080:; the US wanted to remain
1049:
1038:
369:Customs and monetary union
311:World Customs Organization
301:International Trade Centre
18:
6091:Cortright, David, et al.
4319:"North Korea | Countries"
3603:10.1017/S0892679411000323
3566:10.1016/j.jue.2017.11.002
3525:Vengeyi, Obvious (2015).
3323:Journal of Peace Research
2742:. Yale University Press.
2736:Mulder, Nicholas (2022).
2355:10.1017/S0020818303573052
1705:US sanctions against Iran
1665:Cuban embargoes by the US
1511:global economic recession
871:statistically significant
825:From World War II onwards
334:Preferential trading area
6298:Selden, Zachary (1999).
6223:National Security Agency
3903:. digitalhistory.uh.edu.
3335:10.1177/0022343308098404
3197:10.1177/0022002717728105
2933:Diplomacy and Statecraft
2395:Pape, Robert A. (1997).
2038:export controls) by the
2015:Bilateral trade disputes
1983:World Trade Organization
1264:United Nations sanctions
750:in 1806 promulgated the
615:Balassa–Samuelson effect
610:Ricardian trade theories
497:Largest consumer markets
306:World Trade Organization
21:Embargo (disambiguation)
6597:International sanctions
6292:International Sanctions
6248:chief financial officer
6144:Farrall, Jeremy Matam.
6077:91.6 (2015): 1339–1349.
5883:. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
5292:Talmon, Stefan (2001).
4999:"Mali sanctions regime"
4614:"Energy Crisis (1970s)"
4275:UN News Service Section
4250:UN News Service Section
3641:. Accessed 6 Dec. 2023.
3436:Emile Yusupoff (2013).
2879:International Relations
2678:10.1111/1468-2346.12448
2670:Oxford University Press
2234:International sanctions
2149:South African sanctions
1966:United States embargoes
1962:United States sanctions
1899:United Nations sanction
1878:By targeted individuals
1850:Sudan by the US in 1997
1837:international sanctions
1827:international sanctions
1456:sanctions against Japan
1041:United States sanctions
1035:United States sanctions
967:unintended consequences
630:Lerner symmetry theorem
6335:London Review of Books
6138:54.2 (2010): 335–359.
6039:public domain material
6010:transparentnost.org.rs
5732:Cite journal requires
5622:"UK sanctions regimes"
5486:. Reuters. 30 May 2018
5095:July 23, 2010, at the
3704:www.projectfinance.law
3548:Lee, Yong Suk (2018).
3078:International Security
2553:International Security
2401:International Security
2094:Mali total embargo by
1753:South Korean President
1738:North Korean sanctions
1468:attack on Pearl Harbor
1370:First Libyan Civil War
1302:sovereign wealth funds
1278:United Nations Charter
1046:US Embargo Act of 1807
1031:
960:sanctions against Iraq
920:sovereign wealth funds
746:economically, Emperor
720:financial transactions
718:, and restrictions on
605:Gravity model of trade
502:Leading trade partners
407:Government procurement
208:Exchange rate controls
52:
6287:43.2 (1989): 301–322.
6172:Kaempfer, William H.
6129:The Sanctions Paradox
6112:26.3 (1972): 527–550.
6075:International Affairs
5311:10.1093/ejil/12.4.727
5028:June 7, 2010, at the
4795:on February 13, 2010.
4727:10.2478/sbe-2019-0053
3916:"The Embargo of 1807"
3901:"The Embargo of 1807"
3897:University of Houston
3448:on February 27, 2014.
2935:19.2 (2008): 210–235.
2661:International Affairs
2608:International Affairs
2601:"How not to sanction"
2239:Magnitsky legislation
2166:Yugoslavian sanctions
2053:by the US (1990–2003)
1709:humanitarian concerns
1658:National Security Law
1633:Afghanistan sanctions
1540:made the decision to
1354:Georgetown University
1282:nuclear proliferation
1029:
848:Politics of sanctions
585:Heckscher–Ohlin model
580:Competitive advantage
575:Comparative advantage
462:Trade and development
223:Countervailing duties
51:
5701:10.2139/ssrn.3770816
4534:History News Network
4527:(13 December 2013).
4429:graduateinstitute.ch
4046:on November 13, 2013
3090:10.1162/isec.23.1.66
2922:1#4 (1979): 522–541.
2566:10.1162/isec_a_00351
2441:Haidar, J.I., 2017."
2135:United Arab Emirates
2000:By targeted activity
1905:in 1999 against all
1866:Venezuelan sanctions
1833:that started in 2014
1789:signed into law the
1605:adding missing items
1399:for its policies of
1395:In effort to punish
1076:were engaged in the
987:annexation of Crimea
748:Napoleon I of France
734:History of sanctions
600:Intra-industry trade
328:Economic integration
278:Economic integration
273:Economic nationalism
6612:Human rights abuses
6127:Drezner, Daniel W.
6098:Doxey, Margaret P.
6050:Library of Congress
6016:on 27 December 2022
5973:"Mandala de Elegua"
5922:Library of Congress
5794:. 16 December 2013.
5597:"Sanctions Regimes"
5585:Diario Las Americas
5547:on 24 February 2021
5281:. 27 November 2011.
5139:The Washington Post
4855:on 28 February 2021
4768:The Washington Post
4618:The History Channel
2176:Embargo Act of 1807
1845:Somali arms embargo
1831:Russo-Ukrainian War
1624:By targeted country
1442:The United States,
1241:Mikheil Saakashvili
1052:Embargo Act of 1807
965:Sanctions can have
888:Robert A. Pape
228:Anti-dumping duties
168:Non-tariff barriers
113:Import substitution
6269:Mulder, Nicholas.
6215:fiber-optic cables
6154:Hufbauer, Gary C.
5881:The Globe and Mail
5859:The New York Times
5808:. Globalpolicy.org
5628:. 31 December 2020
5451:The Globe and Mail
5255:William & Mary
5052:. 15 November 2021
4563:on 6 December 2000
4525:Jonathan Zimmerman
4184:www.worldpress.org
4125:2013-01-02 at the
3985:washingtonpost.com
3964:(15 August 2016).
3927:Grove City College
3752:www.lexisnexis.com
3368:(10150): 816–817.
2846:10.1257/jep.37.1.3
2620:10.1093/ia/iiac065
2110:(and then unified
2102:Nicaraguan embargo
2066:in 1935 after the
1603:; you can help by
1576:, and increase in
1531:alternative energy
1360:Sanctions on Libya
1089:US embargo of Cuba
1056:The United States
1032:
752:Continental System
676:Economic sanctions
595:Economic geography
402:Competition policy
198:Technical barriers
178:Tariff-rate quotas
123:Trade facilitation
108:Export orientation
53:
6330:978 0 300 25936 0
6313:978-0-275-96387-3
6246:data to that 's
6119:15 (1983): 273+.
5275:"Syria sanctions"
5232:. 4 November 1997
5035:29(2): pp. 165–96
3948:"Embargo of 1807"
3800:www.refinitiv.com
3772:"SAP Help Portal"
3728:home.treasury.gov
3676:"SAP Help Portal"
3266:978-0-88132-408-2
3062:978-0-88132-536-2
2749:978-0-300-26252-0
2722:978-1-108-49896-8
2321:978-1-107-13421-8
2244:Political economy
2064:League of Nations
2034:Comecon nations (
1936:Southern Rhodesia
1780:Russian sanctions
1722:Myanmar sanctions
1701:buy oil from Iran
1621:
1620:
1584:Current sanctions
1448:Republic of China
1221:Viktor Yanukovych
1213:Russian economies
1189:Viktor Yushchenko
1172:Dima Yakovlev Law
1139:Russian sanctions
1101:Fulgencio Batista
900:Jeremy Greenstock
798:arbitration award
781:League of Nations
673:
672:
620:Linder hypothesis
432:Emissions trading
6619:
6582:
6581:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6498:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6488:
6473:
6467:
6466:
6464:
6463:
6449:
6436:
6435:
6434:
6424:
6423:
6422:
6412:
6411:
6410:
6400:
6399:
6398:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6379:
6317:
6059:
6057:
6056:
6036:
6035:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6021:
6012:. Archived from
6001:
5995:
5994:
5992:
5991:
5968:
5962:
5961:
5959:
5957:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5928:
5913:
5907:
5906:
5890:
5884:
5873:
5867:
5866:
5856:
5848:
5842:
5841:
5840:on Feb 18, 2010.
5836:. Archived from
5826:
5817:
5816:
5814:
5813:
5802:
5796:
5795:
5784:
5778:
5777:
5775:
5774:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5748:
5742:
5741:
5735:
5730:
5728:
5720:
5688:
5682:
5681:
5675:
5667:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5657:
5643:
5637:
5636:
5634:
5633:
5618:
5612:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5593:
5587:
5582:
5580:
5578:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5543:. Archived from
5532:
5526:
5521:
5519:
5517:
5502:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5491:
5476:
5470:
5461:
5459:
5457:
5442:
5436:
5435:
5433:
5431:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5397:
5391:
5390:
5376:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5365:
5350:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5322:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5289:
5283:
5282:
5271:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5261:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5222:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5198:
5192:
5191:
5184:
5178:
5177:
5176:. 22 March 2021.
5166:
5160:
5159:
5158:. 2 August 2017.
5148:
5142:
5131:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5105:
5099:
5088:
5082:
5081:
5079:
5078:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5057:
5042:
5036:
5019:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5009:
4995:
4989:
4988:
4987:. 22 April 2019.
4977:
4971:
4970:
4958:
4952:
4951:
4943:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4922:
4916:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4896:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4886:
4871:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4860:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4833:. 7 August 2014.
4823:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4813:
4803:
4797:
4796:
4791:. Archived from
4778:
4772:
4771:
4760:
4754:
4753:
4746:
4740:
4739:
4729:
4705:
4699:
4698:
4696:
4695:
4689:Atlantic Council
4680:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4670:
4664:Atlantic Council
4655:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4645:
4631:
4622:
4621:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4570:
4568:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4455:. Archived from
4445:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4407:
4405:
4404:
4390:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4363:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4353:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4329:
4315:
4309:
4308:
4306:
4305:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4281:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4256:
4241:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4205:
4194:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4176:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4141:
4130:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4100:
4092:
4062:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4042:. Archived from
4029:
4023:
4022:
4010:
4004:
4003:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3929:. Archived from
3925:. Pennsylvania:
3920:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3854:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3782:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3686:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3648:
3642:
3627:
3618:
3611:
3605:
3591:
3578:
3577:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3503:. Archived from
3480:
3474:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3444:. Archived from
3433:
3427:
3426:
3415:10.2307/20049279
3394:
3388:
3387:
3377:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3278:
3270:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3034:
3033:
3010:
3004:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2951:
2942:
2936:
2929:
2923:
2916:
2910:
2905:George W. Baer,
2903:
2897:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2848:
2824:
2809:
2808:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2694:. Archived from
2688:
2682:
2681:
2651:
2636:
2635:
2630:. Archived from
2614:(5): 1533–1552.
2605:
2596:
2587:
2586:
2568:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2505:
2496:
2495:
2455:
2446:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2303:
2294:
2293:
2273:
2219:Economic warfare
2214:Economic freedom
2198:
2196:Economics portal
2193:
2192:
2029:Former sanctions
1854:Syrian sanctions
1616:
1613:
1595:
1594:
1588:
1507:energy rationing
1381:August 1, 2024.
1324:Somali Civil War
1274:General Assembly
1258:Georgian economy
1201:Western European
1109:Cuban Revolution
1066:Thomas Jefferson
812:Abyssinia Crisis
756:European nations
665:
658:
651:
625:Leontief paradox
590:New trade theory
193:Export subsidies
78:Balance of trade
26:
25:
6627:
6626:
6622:
6621:
6620:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6587:
6586:
6585:
6570:
6544:
6540:
6525:
6499:
6495:
6486:
6484:
6474:
6470:
6461:
6459:
6451:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6432:
6430:
6420:
6418:
6408:
6406:
6396:
6394:
6384:
6382:
6374:
6345:
6314:
6210:Foreign Affairs
6182:Köchler, Hans.
6065:
6063:Further reading
6054:
6052:
6042:
6033:
6030:
6029:
6019:
6017:
6002:
5998:
5989:
5987:
5969:
5965:
5955:
5953:
5940:
5939:
5935:
5926:
5924:
5914:
5910:
5899:The Independent
5891:
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5605:
5603:
5601:www.dfat.gov.au
5595:
5594:
5590:
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5574:
5573:. 28 March 2018
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5429:
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5418:
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5413:
5398:
5394:
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5363:
5361:
5360:. 10 March 2015
5352:
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5199:
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5186:
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5168:
5167:
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5150:
5149:
5145:
5141:. 15 June 2017.
5132:
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5106:
5102:
5097:Wayback Machine
5089:
5085:
5076:
5074:
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5030:Wayback Machine
5020:
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5005:
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4992:
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4978:
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4959:
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4935:. treasury.gov.
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4127:Wayback Machine
4118:
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4011:
4007:
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3992:
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3968:. archives.gov.
3959:
3955:
3946:
3945:
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3933:
3918:
3912:
3908:
3894:
3890:
3881:
3879:
3868:"Embargo Check"
3866:
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3852:
3850:
3844:"Embargo Check"
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3649:
3645:
3631:Foreign Affairs
3628:
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3581:
3546:
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3523:
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3510:
3508:
3481:
3477:
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3442:The Libertarian
3434:
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3403:Foreign Affairs
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2781:10.2307/1943965
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2413:10.2307/2539368
2393:
2386:
2335:
2328:
2322:
2304:
2297:
2282:Foreign Affairs
2274:
2267:
2262:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2059:by Arab nations
2057:Israeli boycott
2051:Iraqi sanctions
2031:
2017:
2002:
1927:India sanctions
1920:
1880:
1749:Sunshine Policy
1626:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1592:
1586:
1549:nuclear program
1483:1973 oil crisis
1481:instigated the
1440:
1413:synthetic crude
1393:
1387:
1378:
1362:
1342:
1336:
1316:
1310:
1266:
1233:Rose Revolution
1229:
1186:
1180:
1141:
1136:
1128:Main articles:
1126:
1124:Other countries
1097:
1091:
1058:Embargo of 1807
1054:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1024:
1011:business entity
1006:and exporters.
1003:
975:
973:Smart Sanctions
948:policy analysts
943:
867:
850:
827:
773:
754:—which forbade
740:Napoleonic Wars
736:
669:
640:
639:
570:
562:
561:
517:
507:
506:
477:
467:
466:
437:Trade sanctions
387:
379:
378:
339:Free-trade area
329:
321:
320:
291:
283:
282:
248:
238:
237:
183:Import licenses
153:
143:
142:
103:Trade diversion
63:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6625:
6615:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6599:
6584:
6583:
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6538:
6523:
6493:
6468:
6443:
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6428:
6416:
6404:
6392:
6372:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6344:
6343:External links
6341:
6340:
6339:
6324:, Yale, 2022,
6318:
6312:
6295:
6288:
6281:
6267:
6201:Abraham Newman
6190:
6180:
6170:
6163:
6152:
6142:
6132:
6125:
6124:
6123:
6113:
6096:
6089:
6078:
6071:
6064:
6061:
6028:
6027:
5996:
5963:
5952:on Mar 4, 2016
5946:The Sofia Echo
5933:
5908:
5885:
5868:
5843:
5818:
5797:
5779:
5758:
5743:
5734:|journal=
5683:
5662:
5638:
5613:
5588:
5558:
5527:
5510:Sumarium group
5497:
5471:
5464:Punto de Corte
5437:
5411:
5392:
5371:
5345:
5317:
5304:(4): 727–750.
5284:
5266:
5242:
5217:
5193:
5179:
5161:
5143:
5126:
5115:on 9 June 2009
5100:
5083:
5062:
5037:
5014:
4990:
4972:
4953:
4938:
4917:
4891:
4866:
4836:
4831:Deutsche Welle
4818:
4798:
4773:
4755:
4741:
4720:(3): 182–204.
4700:
4675:
4650:
4623:
4605:
4598:
4589:The Age of Oil
4578:
4548:
4516:
4483:
4469:
4440:
4416:
4382:
4371:Foreign Policy
4358:
4334:
4310:
4286:
4261:
4233:
4220:(2): 161–170.
4195:
4171:
4158:(2): 115–122.
4131:
4112:
4079:
4057:
4024:
4005:
3990:
3971:
3953:
3939:
3936:on 2013-05-17.
3906:
3888:
3859:
3835:
3811:
3787:
3763:
3739:
3715:
3691:
3667:
3643:
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3606:
3579:
3540:
3517:
3475:
3451:
3428:
3389:
3348:
3313:
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3175:
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3041:
3025:
3005:
2979:
2937:
2924:
2911:
2898:
2885:
2868:
2810:
2775:(2): 297–303.
2755:
2748:
2728:
2721:
2701:
2698:on 2011-07-10.
2683:
2637:
2634:on 2022-12-09.
2588:
2539:
2497:
2447:
2434:
2384:
2349:(3): 643–659.
2326:
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1987:European Union
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1696:Iran sanctions
1693:
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1660:
1651:
1636:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1598:
1596:
1585:
1582:
1572:, increase in
1538:European Union
1513:, large-scale
1495:Yom Kippur War
1477:In 1973–1974,
1439:
1436:
1432:Nelson Mandela
1424:Resolution 919
1411:production of
1389:Main article:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1361:
1358:
1338:Main article:
1335:
1332:
1328:Resolution 751
1312:Main article:
1309:
1306:
1272:(UNSC) and/or
1265:
1262:
1228:
1225:
1182:Main article:
1179:
1176:
1152:European Union
1140:
1137:
1125:
1122:
1093:Main article:
1090:
1087:
1050:Main article:
1047:
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1039:Main article:
1036:
1033:
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1020:
1002:
999:
974:
971:
942:
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866:
863:
854:foreign policy
849:
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835:United Nations
826:
823:
808:
807:
804:
801:
794:
791:
772:
769:
744:United Kingdom
735:
732:
716:arms embargoes
704:trade barriers
671:
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645:
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635:Terms of trade
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527:Trading nation
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359:Economic union
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6569:9781839102721
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6402:United States
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6309:
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6296:
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6280:
6279:online review
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6197:Henry Farrell
6194:
6193:Krugman, Paul
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5230:reliefweb.int
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4906:. 8 June 2011
4905:
4901:
4895:
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4870:
4854:
4850:
4849:English Radio
4846:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4822:
4808:
4802:
4794:
4790:
4789:
4784:
4777:
4770:. 2021-08-17.
4769:
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4609:
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4599:9780275990084
4595:
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4536:
4535:
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4520:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4487:
4479:
4473:
4459:on 2019-05-04
4458:
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4399:
4398:www.sipri.org
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4086:
4082:
4080:9781442279582
4076:
4072:
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4041:
4040:
4035:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4009:
4001:
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3986:
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3967:
3963:
3957:
3949:
3943:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3917:
3910:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3878:on 2022-04-07
3877:
3873:
3869:
3863:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3801:
3797:
3791:
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3729:
3725:
3719:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3681:
3677:
3671:
3657:
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3647:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3626:
3624:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3544:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3521:
3507:on 2019-12-25
3506:
3502:
3498:
3495:(11): 18–22.
3494:
3490:
3486:
3479:
3472:
3471:3-900704-17-1
3468:
3464:
3460:
3455:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3294:
3286:
3282:
3276:
3268:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3214:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3179:
3163:
3156:
3142:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3119:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3045:
3038:
3028:
3026:9780881324822
3022:
3018:
3017:
3009:
2995:on 2011-09-23
2994:
2990:
2983:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2928:
2921:
2915:
2908:
2902:
2895:
2889:
2881:
2880:
2872:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2732:
2724:
2718:
2714:
2713:
2705:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2679:
2675:
2672:: 1351–1368.
2671:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2595:
2593:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2502:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2470:(1): 96–108.
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2407:(2): 90–136.
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2389:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2331:
2323:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2300:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2224:Globalization
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2186:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2108:North Vietnam
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2062:Italy by the
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2032:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1872:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1685:Liechtenstein
1682:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1615:
1606:
1602:
1599:This list is
1597:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1536:In 2010, the
1534:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1435:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1382:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1350:
1347:
1341:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1298:central banks
1295:
1294:asset freezes
1291:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1217:2010 election
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1131:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1053:
1042:
1028:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1007:
998:
996:
992:
988:
982:
979:
970:
968:
963:
961:
957:
954:warfare. The
953:
949:
938:
935:
934:Claas Mertens
931:
926:
923:
921:
917:
912:
908:
906:
901:
896:
894:
889:
884:
883:regime change
879:
875:
872:
862:
858:
855:
845:
842:
840:
836:
832:
822:
819:
817:
813:
805:
802:
799:
795:
792:
789:
788:
787:
784:
782:
778:
768:
766:
762:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
731:
729:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
708:asset freezes
705:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
666:
661:
659:
654:
652:
647:
646:
644:
643:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
566:
565:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
532:United States
530:
528:
525:
523:
522:Trade mission
520:
519:
516:
511:
510:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
476:
471:
470:
463:
460:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
442:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
427:Trade justice
425:
423:
420:
418:
417:Globalization
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
389:
383:
382:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
354:Single market
352:
350:
349:Customs union
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
331:
325:
324:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
293:
290:Organizations
287:
286:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
263:Laissez-faire
261:
259:
258:Protectionism
256:
254:
251:
250:
247:
242:
241:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
173:Import quotas
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
152:
147:
146:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
118:Trade finance
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
65:
62:
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42:
39:
38:
35:
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6551:
6541:
6506:
6496:
6485:. Retrieved
6481:
6471:
6460:. Retrieved
6456:
6447:
6369:Online Books
6333:
6332:, 434 pp.),
6321:
6299:
6291:
6284:
6270:
6252:Meng Wanzhou
6208:
6204:
6183:
6173:
6166:
6155:
6145:
6135:
6128:
6116:
6109:
6099:
6092:
6081:
6074:
6053:. Retrieved
6044:
6031:
6018:. Retrieved
6014:the original
6009:
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5988:. Retrieved
5976:
5966:
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5950:the original
5945:
5936:
5925:. Retrieved
5921:
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5880:
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5838:the original
5833:
5810:. Retrieved
5800:
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5782:
5771:. Retrieved
5761:
5746:
5725:cite journal
5686:
5677:
5665:
5654:. Retrieved
5650:
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5630:. Retrieved
5625:
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5600:
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5575:. Retrieved
5570:
5561:
5549:. Retrieved
5545:the original
5540:
5530:
5514:. Retrieved
5512:(in Spanish)
5509:
5500:
5488:. Retrieved
5483:
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5450:
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5423:
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5362:. Retrieved
5357:
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5229:
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5113:the original
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5065:
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5049:
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5006:. Retrieved
5002:
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4903:
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4883:. Retrieved
4881:. 2015-08-13
4878:
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4853:the original
4848:
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4801:
4793:the original
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4638:
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4561:the original
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4457:the original
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4428:
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4346:
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4298:
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4278:. Retrieved
4274:
4264:
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4249:
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4187:. Retrieved
4183:
4174:
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4149:
4115:
4066:
4060:
4048:. Retrieved
4044:the original
4039:The Atlantic
4037:
4027:
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4008:
3993:
3984:
3974:
3956:
3942:
3931:the original
3922:
3909:
3891:
3880:. Retrieved
3876:the original
3871:
3862:
3851:. Retrieved
3847:
3838:
3827:. Retrieved
3823:
3814:
3803:. Retrieved
3799:
3790:
3779:. Retrieved
3776:help.sap.com
3775:
3766:
3755:. Retrieved
3751:
3742:
3731:. Retrieved
3727:
3718:
3707:. Retrieved
3703:
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3683:. Retrieved
3680:help.sap.com
3679:
3670:
3659:. Retrieved
3655:
3646:
3630:
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3609:
3594:
3560:(C): 34–51.
3557:
3553:
3543:
3534:
3530:
3520:
3509:. Retrieved
3505:the original
3492:
3488:
3478:
3459:Hans Köchler
3454:
3446:the original
3441:
3431:
3409:(3): 43–53.
3406:
3402:
3392:
3365:
3361:
3351:
3326:
3322:
3316:
3307:
3303:
3293:
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3250:
3239:. Retrieved
3227:
3223:
3213:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3166:. Retrieved
3155:
3144:. Retrieved
3140:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3109:
3084:(1): 66–77.
3081:
3077:
3071:
3051:
3044:
3036:
3030:. Retrieved
3015:
3008:
2997:. Retrieved
2993:the original
2982:
2957:
2953:
2940:
2932:
2927:
2919:
2914:
2906:
2901:
2893:
2888:
2878:
2871:
2836:
2832:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2738:
2731:
2711:
2704:
2696:the original
2686:
2665:
2659:
2632:the original
2611:
2607:
2559:(1): 42–79.
2556:
2552:
2542:
2517:
2513:
2467:
2463:
2437:
2404:
2400:
2346:
2342:
2311:
2281:
2204:Arms embargo
2131:Saudi Arabia
2040:Western bloc
1991:swing states
1940:South Africa
1787:Donald Trump
1763:Bill Clinton
1760:US President
1756:Kim Dae Jung
1714:Mali by the
1640:arms embargo
1627:
1612:January 2015
1609:
1574:unemployment
1535:
1515:conservation
1485:through its
1476:
1460:expansionism
1441:
1417:
1397:South Africa
1394:
1379:
1363:
1351:
1343:
1317:
1286:
1267:
1230:
1187:
1142:
1117:Barack Obama
1113:"el bloqueo"
1112:
1105:Fidel Castro
1098:
1055:
1016:
1008:
1004:
983:
980:
976:
964:
944:
927:
924:
916:central bank
913:
909:
905:Marc Bossuyt
897:
892:
880:
876:
868:
859:
851:
843:
831:World War II
828:
820:
809:
800:(Article 12)
785:
774:
737:
724:
700:
675:
674:
445:Currency war
436:
364:Fiscal union
253:Mercantilism
212:
151:Restrictions
29:
6227:computation
6084:9.2 (2003)
5792:RIA Novosti
5468:El Nacional
4859:10 November
4323:www.nti.org
3537:(1): 69–87.
3191:: 194–217.
2960:: 110–125.
2896:(1974): 5+.
2839:(1): 3–29.
2172:(1992–2001)
2170:Bosnian War
1901:imposed by
1823:individuals
1803:North Korea
1519:natural gas
1487:oil embargo
1472:Pacific War
1452:Netherlands
1430:, in which
1290:due process
1249:Afghanistan
1205:natural gas
1107:during the
1062:US Congress
918:assets and
777:World War I
765:World War I
712:travel bans
450:Trade costs
412:Outsourcing
128:Trade route
41:World trade
6591:Categories
6509:: 62–106.
6487:2021-05-18
6462:2021-05-18
6256:bank fraud
6055:2023-12-14
5990:2022-06-27
5927:2022-06-16
5901:. London.
5812:2009-05-30
5773:2015-03-30
5656:2022-06-28
5651:www.un.org
5632:2022-06-28
5424:CBC Canada
5260:2022-06-27
5236:2022-06-07
5211:2022-06-27
5077:2015-03-30
5056:2022-06-16
5008:2022-06-16
4950:. cnn.com.
4885:2018-06-17
4812:2022-06-16
4694:2023-12-18
4669:2023-12-18
4644:2023-12-18
4543:Q121303715
4510:2020-12-12
4463:2017-12-07
4434:2017-12-07
4403:2017-12-06
4376:2017-10-27
4352:2017-10-27
4347:www.un.org
4328:2017-10-27
4304:2017-10-27
4299:www.un.org
4280:2017-10-27
4255:2017-10-27
4189:2017-10-27
4050:August 23,
4019:forbes.com
4002:. npr.org.
3882:2021-03-05
3853:2021-03-05
3829:2021-03-05
3805:2021-03-05
3781:2021-03-05
3757:2021-03-05
3733:2021-03-05
3709:2021-03-05
3685:2021-03-05
3661:2021-03-05
3511:2019-10-16
3489:The Nation
3362:The Lancet
3241:2015-03-30
3146:2015-03-30
3032:2018-05-10
2999:2015-03-30
2260:References
2155:(see also
2078:militarism
1944:Yugoslavia
1745:Korean War
1677:Montenegro
1601:incomplete
1561:investment
1529:and other
1499:oil prices
1320:Siad Barre
1158:, such as
995:MasterCard
816:Suez Canal
696:deterrence
680:commercial
515:By country
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6277:also see
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1578:inflation
1401:apartheid
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941:Criticism
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455:Trade war
397:Smuggling
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6426:Pakistan
5903:Archived
5863:Archived
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3899:(2013).
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