525:
1544:
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1493:. Wealthy countries in colder regions had either felt little overall economic impact from climate change, or possibly benefited, whereas poor hotter countries very likely grew less than if global warming had not occurred. Part of this observation stems from the fact that greenhouse gas emissions come mainly from high-income countries, while low-income countries are affected by it negatively. So, high-income countries are producing significant amounts of emissions, but the impacts are unequally threatening low-income countries, who do not have access to the resources to recover from such impacts. This further deepens the inequalities within the poor and the rich, hindering sustainability efforts. Impacts of climate change could even push millions of people into poverty.
938:
1553:
832:
451:. According to the compensation principle, so long as those benefiting from a particular project compensate the losers, and there is still something left over, then the result is an unambiguous gain in welfare. If there are no mechanisms allowing compensation to be paid, then it is necessary to assign weights to particular individuals. One of the mechanisms for compensation is impossible for this problem: mitigation might benefit future generations at the expense of current generations, but there is no way that future generations can compensate current generations for the costs of mitigation. On the other hand, should future generations bear most of the costs of climate change, compensation to them would not be possible.
497:(CEA) is preferable to CBA when the benefits of impacts, adaptation and mitigation are difficult to estimate in monetary terms. A CEA can be used to compare different policy options for achieving a well-defined goal. This goal (i.e. the benefit) is usually expressed as the amount of GHG emissions reduction in the analysis of mitigation measures. For adaptation measures, there is no single common goal or metric for the economic benefits. Adaptation involves responding to different types of risks in different sectors and local contexts. For example, the goal might be the reduction of land area in hectares at risk to sea level rise.
1436:
such as a plan, policy or strategy. For many developing countries, the implementation of certain actions specified in the plans is conditional on receiving international support. in these countries, a majority (85%) of finance needs are expected to be met from international public climate finance, i.e. funding from developed to developing countries. There is less data available for adaptation costs and adaptation finance needs in high income countries. Data show that per capita needs tend to increase with income level, but these countries can also afford to invest more domestically.
254:
464:
821:
980:
1466:. To calculate the social welfare function requires an aggregation of the impacts of climate change policies and climate change itself across all affected individuals. This calculation involves a number of complexities and controversial equity issues. For example, the monetization of certain impacts on human health. There is also controversy over the issue of benefits affecting one individual offsetting negative impacts on another. These issues to do with equity and aggregation cannot be fully resolved by economics.
33:
1148:
1021:
725:. Considerations in a risk-based approach might include, for example, the potential for low-probability, worst-case climate change impacts. One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making. Sequential decision making refers to the process in which the decision maker makes consecutive observations of the process before making a final decision. This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete
6466:: The global benefits of pathways limiting warming to 2°C (>67%) outweigh global mitigation costs over the 21st century, if aggregated economic impacts of climate change are at the moderate to high end of the assessed range, and a weight consistent with economic theory is given to economic impacts over the long term. This holds true even without accounting for benefits in other sustainable development dimensions or nonmarket damages from climate change (medium confidence).
384:
droughts and windstorms. They show that for example, hot years are linked to lower income growth in poor countries, and low rainfall is linked to reduced incomes in Africa. Other econometric studies show that there are negative impacts of hotter temperatures on agricultural output, and on labour productivity in factories, call centres and in outdoor industries such as mining and forestry. The analyses are used to estimate the costs of climate change in the future.
360:(IAMs) are also used make aggregate estimates of the costs of climate change. These (cost-benefit) models balance the economic implications of mitigation and climate damages to identify the pathway of emissions reductions that will maximize total economic welfare. In other words, the trade-offs between climate change impacts, adaptation, and mitigation are made explicit. The costs of each policy and the outcomes modelled are converted into monetary estimates.
9524:
10686:
9512:
126:. Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut. Early, well-planned action will minimize the costs. Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs. Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions depend on the quantity of emissions allowed for that region in future, as well as the timing of interventions. Economists estimate the cost of climate change mitigation at between 1% and 2% of
1425:
benefits. For example, it is estimated that every US$ 1 billion invested in adaptation against coastal flooding leads to a US$ 14 billion reduction in economic damages. Investing in more resilient infrastructure in developing countries would provide an average of $ 4 in benefit for each $ 1 invested. In other words, a small percentage increase in investment costs can mitigate the potentially very large disruption to infrastructure costs.
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across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present. Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil-fuels exporting regions and in poorer regions. Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries. The actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger.
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9536:
890:
adaptation, annual global GDP might be reduced by 10–23% by 2100 because of climate change. The same assessment finds smaller GDP changes with reductions of 1–8%, assuming assuming low warming, more adaptation, and using different models. These global economic cost estimates do not take into account impacts on social well-being or welfare or distributional effects. Nor do they fully consider climate change adaptation responses.
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1269:
7520:
480:
damage functions have been developed for sea level rise, agricultural productivity, or heat effects on labour productivity. In a CBA framework, damages are monetized to facilitate comparison with the benefits of proposed actions or policies. Sensitivity analysis is conducted to assess the robustness of the results to changes in assumptions and parameters, including those of the damage function.
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overall adaptation plans for the country, city, or region. It also depends on the assessment methods used. A 2023 study analysed country-level information submitted to the UNFCCC in
National Adaptation Plans and Nationally Determined Contributions (85 countries). It estimated global adaptation needs of developing countries annual average to be US$ 387 billion, for the period up to 2030.
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problem of aggregated analyses is that they often reduce different types of impacts into a small number of indicators. It can be argued that some impacts are not well-suited to this, e.g., the monetization of mortality and loss of species diversity. On the other hand, where there are monetary costs of avoiding impacts, it may not be possible to avoid monetary valuation of those impacts.
1181:; a cost that is directly passed on to the consumer and affects the affordability of food. Some farms do not sell their produce but instead feed a family or community; without that food, people will not have enough to eat. This results in decreased production, increased food prices, and potential starvation in parts of the world. The agriculture industry in
781:, originally applied in the areas of finance and investment. It has also been applied to the analysis of climate change. The idea is that a reasonable response to uncertainty is to invest in a wide portfolio of options. More specifically, the aim is to minimise the variance and co-variance of the performance of investments in the portfolio. In the case of
275:(IPCC) has relied on process-based integrated assessment models to quantify mitigation scenarios. They have been used to explore different pathways for staying within climate policy targets such as the 1.5 °C target agreed upon in the Paris Agreement. Moreover, these models have underpinned research including energy policy assessment and simulate the
407:(CBA) has been applied to the problem of climate change. In a CBA framework, the negative and positive impacts associated with a given action are converted into monetary estimates. This is also referred to as a monetized cost–benefit framework. Various types of model can provide information for CBA, including energy-economy-environment models (
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weighting, the result is that there is a much weaker argument in favour of mitigation action in rich countries. Valuing climate change impacts in poorer countries less than domestic climate change impacts (both in terms of policy and the impacts of climate change) would be consistent with observed spending in rich countries on foreign aid
1122:, which is projected to account for 60% of this loss. The construction sector is also projected to be severely impacted and accounts for 19% of projected losses. Other sectors that are most at risk are environmental goods and services, refuse collection, emergency, repair work, transport, tourism, sports and some forms of industrial work.
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good must pay for it. Some people will benefit more from the public good than others, thus creating inequalities in the absence of benefit taxes. A difficulty with public goods is determining who exactly benefits from the public good, although some estimates of the distribution of the costs and benefits of global warming have been made –
807:
sensitivity of future investments, estimating the risk from climate change and estimating the additional investment needed to increase resilience. More detailed studies undertake investment and financial flow analysis at a sectoral level to provide detailed costing of the additional marginal costs needed for building resilience.
959:. The science of tipping points is complex and there is great uncertainty as to how they might unfold. Economic analyses often exclude the potential effect of tipping points. A 2018 study noted that the global economic impact is underestimated by a factor of two to eight, when tipping points are excluded from consideration.
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871:
individual extreme heat events and rainfall events. Using all available data on attributable changes, one study estimated the global losses to average US$ 143 billion per year between 2000 and 2019. This includes a statistical loss of life value of 90 billion and economic damages of 53 billion per year.
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The emissions of the richest 1% of the global population account for more than twice the combined share of the poorest 50%. Compliance with the 1.5 °C goal of the Paris
Agreement would require the richest 1% to reduce their current emissions by at least a factor of 30, while per-person emissions
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A third approach looks at the problem from the perspective of who has contributed most to the problem. Because the industrialized countries have contributed more than two-thirds of the stock of human-induced GHGs in the atmosphere, this approach suggests that they should bear the largest share of the
1424:
Adaptation costs are the costs of planning, preparing for, facilitating and implementing adaptation. Adaptation benefits can be estimated in terms of reduced damages from the effects of climate change. In economic terms, the cost to benefit ratio of adaptation shows that each dollar can deliver large
1117:
published a report titled: "Working on a warmer planet: The impact of heat stress on labour productivity and decent work", in which it claims that even if the rise in temperature will be limited to 1.5 degree, by the year 2030, Climate Change will cause losses in productivity reaching 2.2% of all the
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On the other hand, a view may be taken that points to the benefits of improved information over time. This may suggest an approach where near-term emissions abatement is more modest. Another way of viewing the problem is to look at the potential irreversibility of future climate change impacts (e.g.,
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may be unsuitable for analysing climate change mitigation as a whole. But it is still useful for analysing the difference between a 1.5 °C target and 2 °C. One way of estimating the cost of reducing emissions is by considering the likely costs of potential technological and output changes.
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Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs. The economic repercussions of mitigation vary widely across regions and households, depending on policy design and level of international cooperation. Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs
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There are a number of benefits of using aggregated assessments to measure economic impacts of climate change. They allow impacts to be directly compared between different regions and times. Impacts can be compared with other environmental problems and also with the costs of avoiding those impacts. A
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It has been estimated that 3.5 million people die prematurely each year from air pollution from fossil fuels. The health benefits of meeting climate goals substantially outweigh the costs of action. The health benefits of phasing out fossil fuels measured in money (estimated by economists using
806:
Investment and financial flow (I&FF) studies typically consider how much it might cost to increase the resilience of future investments or financial flows. They also investigate the potential sources of investment funds and the types of financing entities or actors. Aggregated studies assess the
1511:, this reduces the effectiveness of pooling. However, there is reason to believe that different regions will be affected differently by climate change. This suggests that pooling might be effective. Since developing countries appear to be potentially most at risk from the effects of climate change,
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The total economic impacts from climate change increase for higher temperature changes. For instance, total damages are estimated to be 90% less if global warming is limited to 1.5 °C compared to 3.66 °C, a warming level chosen to represent no mitigation. In an Oxford
Economics study high
852:
Global estimates are often based on an aggregation of independent sector and/or regional studies and results, with complex interactions modelled. For example, there is uncertainty in how physical and natural systems may respond to climate change. Potential socioeconomic changes, including how human
175:
The economic impacts of climate change also include any mitigation (for example, limiting the global average temperature below 2 °C) or adaption (for example, building flood defences) employed by nations or groups of nations, which might infer economic consequences. They also take into account
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These damages are compared to a baseline of no climate change and are then applied against overall expected global growth in gross domestic product, said study lead author Max Kotz, a climate scientist. So while it's 19% globally less than it could have been with no climate change, in most places,
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emissions. On the other hand, economic growth may drive technological change and increase energy efficiency. Economic growth may be associated with specialization in certain economic sectors. If specialization is in energy-intensive sectors, then there will be a strong link between economic growth
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basis, which has traditionally been used in welfare economics, an argument can be made for richer countries taking on most of the burdens of mitigation. However, another result is possible with a different modeling of impacts. If an approach is taken where the interests of poorer people have lower
1435:
Both the cost estimates and needs estimates have high uncertainty. Adaptation costs are usually derived from economic modelling analysis (global or sectoral models). Adaptation needs are based on programme and project-level costing. These programmes depend on the high level adaptation instrument –
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Further, the role of climate change in undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies can be calculated as the loss of "years of full health".One estimate presented in 2016 suggests that under the scenario of strong warming and low adaptation due to high global conflict and rivalry, such losses may
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A warming planet also threatens to put more homes into disrepair or wipe them out from the existing housing stock altogether, exacerbating our housing shortage. For example, if a fire or natural disaster doesn't completely destroy a unit, the owner has to decide whether to then repair or demolish
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One approach considers the problem from the perspective of who benefits most from the public good. This approach is sensitive to the fact that different preferences exist between different income classes. The public good is viewed in a similar way as a private good, where those who use the public
1428:
A 2023 study found the overall adaptation costs for all developing countries to be around US$ 215 billion per year for the period up to 2030. The highest adaptation expenses are for river flood protection, infrastructure and coastal protection. They also found that in most cases, adaptation costs
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The economic impact of changes in annual mean temperature is estimated to be lower at higher latitudes despite higher temperature changes due to lower estimated economic vulnerability to temperature changes. Reduced daily temperature variability at high latitudes shows positive estimated economic
839:
Global aggregate costs (also known as global damages or losses) sum up the predicted impacts of climate change across all market sectors (e.g. including costs to agriculture, energy services and tourism) and can also include non-market impacts (e.g. on ecosystems and human health) for which it is
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in order to take into account uncertainty in climate impacts, GHG emission trends etc. The options should ideally be diversified to be effective in different scenarios: i.e. some options suited for a no/low climate change scenario, with other options being suited for scenarios with severe climate
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Global
Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and
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Rogelj, J. Popp, A. Calvin, K.V. Luderer, G. Emmerling, J. Gernaat, D. Fujimori, S. Strefler, J. Hasegawa, T. Marangoni, G. Krey, V. Kriegler, E. Riahi, K. van Vuuren, D.P. Doelman, J. Drouet, L. Edmonds, J. Fricko, O. Harmsen, M. Havlik, P. Humpenöder, F. Stehfest, E. Tavoni, M. (5 March 2018).
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Several factors affect mitigation cost estimates. One is the baseline. This is a reference scenario that the alternative mitigation scenario is compared with. Others are the way costs are modelled, and assumptions about future government policy. Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions
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are similar to some of the worst country-level losses during historical economic recessions. Economic losses are risks to living standards, which are more likely to be severe in developing countries. Climate change can push more people into extreme poverty or keep people poor, especially through
454:
CBA has several strengths: it offers an internally consistent and global comprehensive analysis of impacts. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis allows critical assumptions in CBA analysis to be changed. This can identify areas where the value of information is highest and where additional research
383:
are used giving weather variation over time and spatial areas, eg. ground station observations or (interpolated) gridded data. These are typically aggregated for economic analysis eg. to investigate effects on national economies. These studies examine temperature and rainfall, and events such as
500:
CEA involves the costing of each option, and providing a cost per unit of effectiveness. For example, cost per tonne of GHG reduced ($ /tCO2). This allows the ranking of policy options. This ranking can help decision-maker to understand which are the most cost-effective options, i.e. those that
479:
Damage functions play an important role in estimating the costs associated with potential damages caused by climate-related hazards. They quantify the relationship between the intensity of the hazard, other factors such as the vulnerability of the system, and the resulting damages. For example,
1432:
It is difficult to estimate both the costs of adaptation and the adaptation finance needs. The costs of adaptation varies with the objective and the level of adaptation required and what is acceptable as residual, i.e. 'unmanaged' risk. Similarly, adaptation finance needs vary depending on the
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become more common and more intense, floods and droughts can destroy crops and eliminate food supply, while disrupting agricultural activities and rendering workers jobless. With more costs to the farmer, some will no longer find it financially feasible to farm: i.e. some farmers may choose to
682:
On the second point, it has been suggested that insurance could be bought against climate change risks. Policymakers and investors are beginning to recognize the implications of climate change for the financial sector, from both physical risks (damage to property, infrastructure, and land) and
604:
Scenarios are neither "predictions" nor "forecasts" but are stories of possible futures that provide alternate outcomes relevant to a decision-maker or other user. These alternatives usually also include a "baseline" or reference scenario for comparison. "Business-as-usual" scenarios have been
363:
The models incorporate aspects of the natural, social, and economic sciences in a highly aggregated way. Compared to other climate-economy models (including process-based IAMs), they do not have the structural detail necessary to model interactions with energy systems, land-use etc. and their
889:
Estimates are found to increase non-linearly with global average temperature change. Global temperature change projection ranges (corresponding to each cost estimate) are based on IPCC assessment on the physical science in the same report. It finds that with high warming (~4 °C) and low
870:
quantifies how climate change is altering the probability and magnitude of extreme events. On a case-by-case basis, it is feasible to estimate how the magnitude and/or probability of the extreme event has shifted due to climate change. These attributable changes have been identified for many
860:
Global economic losses due to extreme weather, climate and water events are increasing. Costs have increased sevenfold from the 1970s to the 2010s. Direct losses from disasters have averaged above US$ 330 billion annually between 2015 and 2021. Climate change has contributed to the increased
516:
of climate change impacts. "Disaggregated" refers to the choice to assess impacts in a variety of indicators or units, e.g., changes in agricultural yields and loss of biodiversity. By contrast, monetized CBA converts all impacts into a common unit (money), which is used to assess changes in
378:
A more recent modelling approach uses empirical, statistical methods to investigate how the economy is affected by weather variation. This approach can causatively identify effects of temperature, rainfall and other climate variables on agriculture, energy demand, industry and other economic
1109:
that have been studied, aggregate costs of heat stress (through loss of work time) have been estimated, as have the costs of malnutrition. However, it is usual for studies to aggregate the number of 'years of life lost' adjusted for years living with disability to measure effects on health.
893:
One 2020 study estimated economic losses due to climate change could be between 127 and 616 trillion dollars extra until 2100 with current commitments, compared to 1.5 °C or well below 2 °C compatible action. Failure to implement current commitments raises economic losses to
1518:
Disease, rising seas, reduced crop yields, and other harms driven by climate change will likely have a major deleterious impact on the economy by 2050 unless the world sharply reduces greenhouse gas emissions in the near term, according to a number of studies, including a study by the
1478:
costs. This stock of emissions has been described as an "environmental debt". In terms of efficiency, this view is not supported. This is because efficiency requires incentives to be forward-looking, and not retrospective. The question of historical responsibility is a matter of
341:
CGE models are useful whenever we wish to estimate the effect of changes in one part of the economy upon the rest. They have been used widely to analyse trade policy. More recently, CGE has been a popular way to estimate the economic effects of measures to reduce greenhouse gas
849:) by 2050, and increase a lot further under high emissions. In comparison, limiting global warming to 2 °C would by 2050 cost about $ 6 trillion per year, or far less than the anticipated annual damages, emphasizing the economic benefits of proactive climate mitigation.
508:
method. Many of these methods work well when different stakeholders work together on a problem to understand and manage risks. For example, by discussing how well certain options might work in the real world. Or by helping in measuring the costs and benefits as part of a CEA.
1587:
and emissions growth. If specialization is in less energy-intensive sectors, e.g. the services sector, then there might be a weak link between economic growth and emissions growth. In general, there is some degree of flexibility between economic growth and emissions growth.
865:
factors have contributed to the observed trend of global disaster losses, such as population growth and increased wealth. This shows that increased exposure is the most important driver of losses. However, part of these are also due to human-induced climate change.
1560:
emissions (size of pie charts) differ substantially among high-emitting regions, the pattern of higher income classes emitting more than lower income classes is consistent across regions. The world's top 1% of emitters emit over 1000 times more than the bottom
966:
from 2006 for the
British Government predicted that world GDP would be reduced by several percent due to climate related costs. However, their calculations may omit ecological effects that are difficult to quantify economically (such as human deaths or
68:(IAMs) are useful. Those models link main features of society and economy with the biosphere and atmosphere into one modelling framework. The total economic impacts from climate change are difficult to estimate. In general, they increase the more the
1196:
Notably, one estimate suggests that a warming of 3 °C (5.4 °F) relative to late 20th century (i.e. closer to 4 °C (7.2 °F) when compared to preindustrial temperatures – a level associated with the SSP5-8.5 scenario) would cause
3183:
In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of
Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
1610:(IPCC). They find that some degrowth scenarios "minimize many key risks for feasibility and sustainability compared to technology-driven pathways" with a core problem of such being feasibility in the context of contemporary decision-making of
195:
and thus save lives. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies reached $ 319 billion in 2017, and $ 5.2 trillion when indirect costs such as air pollution are priced in. In other areas, the cost of climate change mitigation may divert
922:
emission scenario, a temperature rise of 2 degrees by the year 2050 would reduce global GDP by 2.5–7.5%. By the year 2100 in this case, the temperature would rise by 4 degrees, which could reduce the global GDP by 30% in the worst case.
3245:
Clarke L., K. Jiang, K. Akimoto, M. Babiker, G. Blanford, K. Fisher-Vanden, J.-C. Hourcade, V. Krey, E. Kriegler, A. Löschel, D. McCollum, S. Paltsev, S. Rose, P.R. Shukla, M. Tavoni, B.C.C. van der Zwaan, and D.P. van Vuuren, 2014:
3178:
Clarke L., K. Jiang, K. Akimoto, M. Babiker, G. Blanford, K. Fisher-Vanden, J.-C. Hourcade, V. Krey, E. Kriegler, A. Löschel, D. McCollum, S. Paltsev, S. Rose, P.R. Shukla, M. Tavoni, B.C.C. van der Zwaan, and D.P. van Vuuren, 2014:
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transition risk due to changes in policy, technology, and consumer and market behavior. Financial institutions are becoming increasingly aware of the need to incorporate the economics of low carbon emissions into business models.
228:(statistical models) are used to integrate the broad impacts of climate change with other economic drivers, to quantify the economic costs and assess the value of climate-related policies, often for a specific sector or region.
789:
acts as insurance against the chance that unfavourable impacts occur. The performance of adaptation options could either be defined in economic terms, e.g. revenue, or as physical metrics, e.g. the quantity of water conserved.
744:
strategy concerned with reducing future climate impacts might favor stringent, near-term emissions reductions. As stated earlier, carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere, and to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of
7592:
Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and
Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
983:
Countries with the lowest GDPs per capita (yellow) and the lowest cumulative emissions will often suffer the greatest declines in their income relative to a hypothetical future where the impacts of climate change were not
1236:, some heatwaves could become extreme enough to cause mass mortality in outdoor labourers, although they will remain relatively uncommon (up to around once per decade starting from 2l00 under the most extreme scenario).
844:
11-29%), relative to a counterfactual where no climate change occurs. The global economy and per capita income would still grow relative to present, but the global annual damages would reach about $ 38 trillion (in 2005
1450:
No consensus exists on who should bear the burden of adaptation and mitigation costs. Several different arguments have been made over how to spread the costs and benefits of taxes or systems based on emissions trading.
1163:
results in very moist air. There is a risk that agricultural labourers will be physically unable to work outdoors on hot summer days at the end of the century, particularly under the scenario of greatest emissions and
134:
are also difficult to estimate, depending on different factors. Across all developing countries, they have been estimated to be about USD 215 billion per year up to 2030, and are expected to be higher in the following
2784:
Luderer, Gunnar; Leimbach, Marian; Bauer, Nico; Kriegler, Elmar; Baumstark, Lavinia; Bertram, Christoph; Giannousakis, Anastasis; Hilaire, Jerome; Klein, David (2015). "Description of the REMIND Model (Version 1.6)".
660:
is positive. The expected value is the mean of the distribution of expected outcomes. In other words, it is the average expected outcome for a particular decision. This criterion has been justified on the basis that:
641:
Risk management can be used to evaluate policy decisions based a range of criteria or viewpoints, and is not restricted to the results of particular type of analysis, e.g., monetized CBA. Another approach is that of
5059:
4782:
Weather and
Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
4525:
Eriksen, Siri; Schipper, E. Lisa F.; Scoville-Simonds, Morgan; Vincent, Katharine; Adam, Hans
Nicolai; Brooks, Nick; Harding, Brian; Khatri, Dil; Lenaerts, Lutgart; Liverman, Diana; Mills-Novoa, Megan (1 May 2021).
586:). Projections of future atmospheric concentrations based on emission pathways are also affected by scientific uncertainties, e.g., over how carbon sinks, such as forests, will be affected by future climate change.
2824:
Baumstark, Lavinia; Bauer, Nico; Benke, Falk; Bertram, Christoph; Bi, Stephen; Gong, Chen Chris; Dietrich, Jan
Philipp; Dirnaichner, Alois; Giannousakis, Anastasis; Hilaire, Jérôme; Klein, David (28 October 2021).
1009:
in 2021 the economies of wealthy countries like the US would likely shrink by approximately 7%, while some developing nations would be devastated, losing around 20% or in some cases 40% of their economic output.
1337:
Another estimate says that financial flows for climate mitigation and adaptation are going to be over $ 800 billion per year. These financial requirements are predicted to exceed $ 4 trillion per year by 2030.
994:
particularly climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and fisheries. Climate change may also increase income inequality within countries as well as between them, particularly affecting low-income groups.
2921:
749:, emissions would need to be drastically reduced from their present level. Stringent near-term emissions reductions allow for greater future flexibility with regard to a low stabilization target, e.g., 450
605:
developed in which there are no additional policies beyond those currently in place, and socio-economic development is consistent with recent trends. This term is now used less frequently than in the past.
6148:
4746:
Bouwer, Laurens M. (2019), Mechler, Reinhard; Bouwer, Laurens M.; Schinko, Thomas; Surminski, Swenja (eds.), "Observed and Projected Impacts from Extreme Weather Events: Implications for Loss and Damage",
1962:
3543:"Reflections on Climate Change, Economic Development, and Global Equity : Presented at the 2007 Leontief Prize Ceremony Tufts University Global Development and Environment Institute October 17, 2007"
998:
impact, with opposite effects at lower latitudes and Europe. Economic effects due to changes in total annual precipitation show regional patterns generally opposite to changes in the number of wet days.
2663:"The MESSAGE Integrated Assessment Model and the ix modeling platform (ixmp): An open framework for integrated and cross-cutting analysis of energy, climate, the environment, and sustainable development"
988:
Other studies investigate economic losses by GDP change per country or by per country per capita. Findings show large differences among countries and within countries. The estimated GDP changes in some
4780:
Seneviratne, S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner, and B. Zhou, 2021:
1323:
Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut. Early, well-planned action will minimize the costs. Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs.
694:
perspective, values outside of "likely" ranges are relevant, because, though these values are less probable, they could be associated with more severe climate impacts (the statistical definition of
7182:
4829:
Wei, Yi-Ming; Han, Rong; Wang, Ce; Yu, Biying; Liang, Qiao-Mei; Yuan, Xiao-Chen; Chang, Junjie; Zhao, Qingyu; Liao, Hua; Tang, Baojun; Yan, Jinyue; Cheng, Lijing; Yang, Zili; et al. (2020).
582:
The projected temperature in climate change scenarios is subject to scientific uncertainty (e.g., the relationship between concentrations of GHGs and global mean temperature, which is called the
5149:
1531:
will be reduced by $ 23 trillion annually, unless greenhouse gas emissions are adequately mitigated. As a consequence, according to the Swiss Re study, climate change will impact how the
7272:
415:(CGE) structural models investigate effects of policies (including climate policies) on economic growth, trade, employment, and public revenues. However, most CBA analyses are produced using
2045:
O'Neill, B., M. van Aalst, Z. Zaiton Ibrahim, L. Berrang Ford, S. Bhadwal, H. Buhaug, D. Diaz, K. Frieler, M. Garschagen, A. Magnan, G. Midgley, A. Mirzabaev, A. Thomas, and R.Warren, 2022:
653:
means that the benefits of a climate policy outweigh the costs of the policy. The standard rule used by public and private decision makers is that a risk will be acceptable if the expected
1507:
Traditional insurance works by transferring risk to those better able or more willing to bear risk, and also by the pooling of risk. Since the risks of climate change are, to some extent,
3778:
6608:, a climate economist at Columbia University's business school who wasn't part of the research, said what he calls 'climateflation' is 'all too real and the numbers are rather striking.'
1352:
of different methods to assess the cost and amount of possible abatement over time. The marginal abatement costs of the various measures will differ by country, by sector, and over time.
501:
deliver high benefits for low costs. CEA can be used for minimising net costs for achieving pre-defined policy targets, such as meeting an emissions reduction target for a given sector.
7756:
The Economics of Climate Change, the Second Report of the 2005-2006 session (HL 12-I and HL 12-II), produced by the UK Parliament House of Lords (HOL) Economics Affairs Select Committee
6939:
Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
6778:
Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
441:. The valuation of costs and benefits of climate change can be controversial because some climate change impacts are difficult to assign a value to, e.g., ecosystems and human health.
157:
estimating economic costs of facilitating and implementing climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies (varying with the objectives and the levels of action required); see also
1017:
government report in November 2018 raised the possibility of US GDP going down 10% as a result of the warming climate, including huge shifts in geography, demographics and technology.
971:) or whose economic consequences will manifest slowly. Therefore, their calculations may be an underestimate. The study has received both criticism and support from other economists.
5425:
4699:
3269:
874:
Estimates of the economic impacts from climate change in future years are most often measured as percent global GDP change, relative to GDP without additional climate change. The
4076:
Assessing the Benefits of Avoided Climate Change: Cost-Benefit Analysis and Beyond. Proceedings of Workshop on Assessing the Benefits of Avoided Climate Change, March 16–17, 2009
2875:
853:
societies might mitigate and adapt to climate change also need consideration. The uncertainty and complexities associated with climate change and have led analysts to develop "
5199:
1177:
employs the majority of the population in most low-income countries and increased costs can result in worker layoffs or pay cuts. Other farmers will respond by raising their
941:
The amount by which greenhouse gas emissions are reduced is forecast to substantially affect the number of Winter Olympic Game venues that will have reliably cold conditions.
335:) models. A CGE model consists of equations describing model variables and a database (usually very detailed) consistent with these model equations. The equations tend to be
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7446:
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Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022:
3289:
Pearce, D. W.; et al., "6.1.2 The nature of damage assessment. In (book chapter) 6. The Social Costs of Climate Change: Greenhouse Damage and the Benefits of Control",
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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
5051:
4733:
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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3586:
Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3227:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2187:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2051:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1847:
Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1059:
The distribution of warming impacts from emitters has been unequal, with high-income, high-emitting countries benefitting while harming low-income, low-emitting countries.
5313:"Climate Change Could Cut World Economy by $ 23 Trillion in 2050, Insurance Giant Warns: Poor Nations Would Be Particularly Hard Hit, But Few Would Escape, Swiss Re Said"
2070:
Luomi, Mari (2020). Global Climate Change Governance: The search for effectiveness and universality (Report). International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD).
6254:
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Calvin, Katherine; Patel, Pralit; Clarke, Leon; Asrar, Ghassem; Bond-Lamberty, Ben; Cui, Ryna Yiyun; Di Vittorio, Alan; Dorheim, Kalyn; Edmonds, Jae (15 February 2019).
1979:
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Bezner Kerr, R., T. Hasegawa, R. Lasco, I. Bhatt, D. Deryng, A. Farrell, H. Gurney-Smith, H. Ju, S. Lluch-Cota, F. Meza, G. Nelson, H. Neufeldt, and P. Thornton, 2022:
3268:
Kolstad C., K. Urama, J. Broome, A. Bruvoll, M. Cariño Olvera, D. Fullerton, C. Gollier, W.M. Hanemann, R. Hassan, F. Jotzo, M.R. Khan, L. Meyer, and L. Mundaca, 2014:
2661:
Huppmann, Daniel; Gidden, Matthew; Fricko, Oliver; Kolp, Peter; Orthofer, Clara; Pimmer, Michael; Kushin, Nikolay; Vinca, Adriano; Mastrucci, Alessio (February 2019).
7235:
UNEP (1 December 2020). "Figure ES.8. Per capita and absolute CO 2 consumption emissions by four global income groups for 2015. In (book chapter) Executive Summary".
9424:
455:
might have the highest payoffs. However, there are many uncertainties that affect cost–benefit analysis, for example, sector- and country-specific damage functions.
107:
is a long-term problem. Furthermore, there is still a lot of uncertainty about the exact impacts of climate change and the associated damages to be expected. Future
6481:
Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
6457:
Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3806:, Cambridge MA, USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change, Joint Program Report Series, pp. 3–4
3274:
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3252:
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Sampedro, Jon; Smith, Steven J.; Arto, Iñaki; González-Eguino, Mikel; Markandya, Anil; Mulvaney, Kathleen M.; Pizarro-Irizar, Cristina; Van Dingenen, Rita (2020).
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Sampedro, Jon; Smith, Steven J.; Arto, Iñaki; González-Eguino, Mikel; Markandya, Anil; Mulvaney, Kathleen M.; Pizarro-Irizar, Cristina; Van Dingenen, Rita (2020).
6695:
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1959:
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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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1140:
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9265:
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4912:
4654:"Contiguous U.S. ranked fifth warmest during 2020; Alaska experienced its coldest year since 2012 / 2020 Billion Dollar Disasters and Other Notable Extremes"
3672:
New, M., D. Reckien, D. Viner, C. Adler, S.-M. Cheong, C. Conde, A. Constable, E. Coughlan de Perez, A. Lammel, R. Mechler, B. Orlove, and W. Solecki, 2022:
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721:
Two related ways of thinking about the problem of climate change decision-making in the presence of uncertainty are iterative risk management and sequential
6012:
5567:
4676:
2336:"The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate"
1582:
is one of the causes of increasing greenhouse gas emissions. As the economy expands, demand for energy and energy-intensive goods increases, pushing up CO
8701:
8522:
3398:
Arrow, K. J.; et al., "4.1.1 Areas of agreement and disagreement. In (book chapter) 4. Intertemporal Equity, Discounting, and Economic Efficiency",
4047:"19.4.2.2 Scenario analysis and analysis of stabilisation targets. In (book chapter) 19. Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change"
736:
An approach based on sequential decision making recognizes that, over time, decisions related to climate change can be revised in the light of improved
10882:
8696:
7277:"Methodological note: ... The analysis accounts for energy-related CO2, and not other greenhouse gases, nor those related to land use and agriculture."
6115:
In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1803:
17:
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Munasinghe, M.; et al. (1996). "5. Applicability of Techniques of Cost-Benefit Analysis to Climate Change". In Bruce, J. P.; et al. (eds.).
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Yohe, G.W. (May 2010). "Addressing Climate Change through a Risk Management Lens". In Gulledge, J.; Richardson, L. J.; Adkins, L.; Seidel, S. (eds.).
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945:
Studies in 2019 suggested that economic damages due to climate change have been underestimated, and may be severe, with the probability of disastrous
925:
One 2018 study found that potential global economic gains if countries implement mitigation strategies to comply with the 2 °C target set at the
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10852:
10842:
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1502:
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that some regions or sectors benefit from low levels of warming, for example through lower energy demand or agricultural advantages in some markets.
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6822:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
6146:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
4304:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
4243:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3853:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2498:
1960:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
7402:
6565:
5292:
4238:"3.5.1.1 An iterative risk-management framework to articulate options. In (book chapter) 3: Issues related to mitigation in the long-term context"
3614:
Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3312:
Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
701:
Analysts have also looked at how uncertainty over climate sensitivity affects economic estimates of climate change impacts. Policy guidance from
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6363:
Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5°C and +2°C
608:
In scenario analysis, scenarios are developed that are based on differing assumptions of future development patterns. An example of this are the
489:
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3971:
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2391:
1407:, where people are displaced from their homes destroyed by unusually extreme disasters like wildfire, has been increasing in the United States.
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working hours, every year. This is equivalent to 80 million full-time jobs, or 2,400 billion dollars. The sector expected to be most
861:
probability and magnitude of extreme events. When a vulnerable community is exposed to extreme climate or weather events, disasters can occur.
416:
398:
352:
5271:
4504:
2512:
Böhringer, Christoph; Rutherford, Thomos F. (September 2009). "Integrated assessment of energy policies: Decomposing top-down and bottom-up".
429:
For (1), in CBA where WTP/WTA is used, climate change impacts are aggregated into a monetary value, with environmental impacts converted into
10932:
10877:
10847:
10792:
10777:
10757:
8205:
824:
After 2050, the global impacts of the high-emission scenario on economic output estimated to exceed those of the low-emission scenario at 1%
339:
in spirit, often assuming cost-minimizing behaviour by producers, average-cost pricing, and household demands based on optimizing behaviour.
266:
1603:
840:
possible to assign monetary values. A study in 2024 projected that by 2050, climate change will reduce average global incomes by likely 19 (
10917:
10912:
10902:
10872:
10857:
10832:
10782:
10767:
8438:
6113:
5417:
4691:
3748:"19.1.1 Purpose, scope and structure of the chapter. In (book chapter) 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change"
10837:
10827:
10822:
10812:
10797:
10772:
10659:
10615:
8322:
2236:"12.3 Implications of mitigation choices for sustainable development goals. In (book chapter) 12. Sustainable Development and mitigation"
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6589:
4983:
2547:
8586:
8539:
6736:
Adaptation Gap Report 2023: Underfinanced. Underprepared. Inadequate investment and planning on climate adaptation leaves world exposed
3655:
619:
Scenarios often support sector-specific analysis of the physical effects and economic costs of climate change. Scenarios are used with
4606:
2004:
Adaptation Gap Report 2023: Underfinanced.Underprepared. Inadequate investment and planning on climate adaptation leaves world exposed
524:
246:
9465:
8581:
8161:
6494:
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3611:
Toth, F. L.; et al. (2001). "10. Decision-making Frameworks". In Metz, B.; Davidson, O; Swart, R.; Pan, J.; et al. (eds.).
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supply 51% of Canadian agriculture; any changes in the production of food crops from these areas could have profound effects on the
761:
in allowing for lower, long-term stabilization targets. This option may be lost if near-term emissions abatement is less stringent.
8796:
8512:
8230:
8007:
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4395:
1119:
426:(WTP) or willingness to accept (WTA) compensation as a measure of value, and (2) a criterion for accepting or rejecting proposals:
7443:
9152:
8941:
8104:
1543:
1417:
1330:. While this is a large sum, it is still far less than the subsidies governments provide to the ailing fossil fuel industry. The
283:, and WITCH-GLOBIOM. While these scenarios are highly policy-relevant, interpretation of the scenarios should be done with care.
123:
7331:
Economic and population growth are among the most important drivers of increases in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion...
5325:
3078:"Environmental impact assessment for climate change policy with the simulation-based integrated assessment model E3ME-FTT-GENIE"
1459:. Additionally, this approach does not provide guidance as to how the surplus of benefits from climate policy should be shared.
408:
8801:
8764:
8618:
8603:
8517:
8166:
8110:
2182:
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119:
5205:(Report). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science.
4669:"Calculating the Cost of Weather and Climate Disasters / Seven things to know about NCEI's U.S. billion-dollar disasters data"
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6186:"Health co-benefits and mitigation costs as per the Paris Agreement under different technological pathways for energy supply"
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5238:
4766:
4605:. National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
4588:
4373:
4343:
Goldemberg, J.; et al., "1.3.2 Sequential decision making. In (book chapter) 1. Introduction: Scope of the assessment",
4315:
4254:
4023:
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1890:"Health co-benefits and mitigation costs as per the Paris Agreement under different technological pathways for energy supply"
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DSK-model). These models typically do not assume rational and representative agents, nor market equilibrium in the long term.
6639:
5083:"The Effects of Climate Change on GDP by Country and the Global Economic Gains From Complying With the Paris Climate Accord"
4931:
4887:
2922:"A Review of Criticisms of Integrated Assessment Models and Proposed Approaches to Address These, through the Lens of BECCS"
171:
informing decisions about global climate management strategy (through UN institutions) or policy decisions in some countries
9482:
8433:
8428:
6335:
4279:
Toth, F. L .; et al., "10.1.4.1 Decision Making under Uncertainty. In (book chapter) 10. Decision-making Frameworks",
3505:
2573:
Riahi, Keywan; van Vuuren, Detlef P.; Kriegler, Elmar; Edmonds, Jae; O’Neill, Brian C.; Fujimori, Shinichiro; Bauer, Nico;
2420:
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change : Working Group III Contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report
952:
179:
There are wider policy (and policy coherence) considerations of interest. For example, in some areas, policies designed to
3378:
Goldemberg, J.; et al., "1.3 Contribution of Economics. In (book chapter) 1. Introduction: scope of the Assessment",
2827:"REMIND2.1: transformation and innovation dynamics of the energy-economic system within climate and sustainability limits"
64:, the trade offs between climate change impacts, adaptation, and mitigation are made explicit. For this kind of analysis,
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740:. This is particularly important with respect to climate change, due to the long-term nature of the problem. A near-term
143:
Economic analysis of climate change is an umbrella term for a range of investigations into the economic costs around the
96:
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1312:
2579:"The Shared Socioeconomic Pathways and their energy, land use, and greenhouse gas emissions implications: An overview"
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154:
estimating sectoral or regional economic costs of climate change (e.g. costs to agriculture sector or energy services)
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4528:"Adaptation interventions and their effect on vulnerability in developing countries: Help, hindrance or irrelevance?"
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13 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive, which includes the Appendix, and the Executive Summary in other languages.
3415:
Ahmad, Q. K.; et al., "2.5.4.1. Insurance and the Cost of Uncertainty. In (book chapter) 2. Methods and Tools",
3309:
Markandya, A.; et al. (2001). "7. Costing Methodologies.". In Metz, B.; Davidson, O; Swart, R.; Pan, J. (eds.).
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2637:
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411:) that study energy systems and their transitions. Some of these models may include a physical model of the climate.
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5012:
4734:
The Report of the Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
4421:
2630:
Integrated assessment of global environmental change with IMAGE 3.0 : model description and policy applications
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9190:
9170:
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3972:"Climate Change and Financial Risk Central banks and financial regulators are starting to factor in climate change"
3848:"3.1.4 Economic growth and convergence. In (book chapter) 3. Issues related to mitigation in the long term context"
7778:
6937:
6891:
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5970:
Hasegawa, Tomoko; Fujimori, Shinichiro; Takahashi, Kiyoshi; Yokohata, Tokuta; Masui, Toshihiko (29 January 2016).
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5491:
4603:"Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters / United States Billion-Dollar Disaster Events 1980- (CPI-Adjusted)"
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2046:
91:. However, there are also non-market impacts which are harder to translate into economic costs. These include the
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8648:
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Barker, T.; et al. (2007). "Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective.". In B. Metz; et al. (eds.).
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Goldemberg, J.; et al., "1.4.1 General issues. In (book chapter) 1. Introduction: scope of the Assessment",
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for each country) are substantially more than the cost of achieving the 2 degree C goal of the Paris Agreement.
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7209:
6495:"Analysis: Inflation is finally falling. But the days when prices rose just 2% may never return | CNN Business"
5755:"Are food insecure smallholder households making changes in their farming practices? Evidence from East Africa"
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depend on the quantity of emissions allowed for that region in future, as well as the timing of interventions.
1046:
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147:, and for preventing or softening those effects. These investigations can serve any of the following purposes:
7762:
6862:. Second Report of 2005–2006 Volume II, HL Paper No. 12-II. House of Lords Economic Affairs Select Committee.
6856:
Hepburn, C. (28 February 2005). "Memorandum by Dr Cameron Hepburn, St Hugh's College, University of Oxford.".
4505:
Portfolio analysis as a means of managing uncertainties in climate change adaptation: Some initial reflections
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are critical thresholds that, when crossed, lead to large, accelerating and often irreversible changes in the
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There is a growing number of weather-related disasters in the United States costing above one billion dollars
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Banuri, T.; et al. (1996). "3. Equity and Social Considerations". In Bruce, J. P.; et al. (eds.).
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are in the vicinity of US$ 17 trillion per year up to 2100, compared to a very high emission scenario.
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An example of a framework that is based on risk management is portfolio analysis. This approach is based on
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4751:, Climate Risk Management, Policy and Governance, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 63–82,
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Kulshreshtha SN (March 2011). "Climate Change, Prairie Agriculture and Prairie Economy: The new normal".
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624:
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445:
332:
216:
Various economic tools are employed to understand the economic aspects around impacts of climate change,
3825:
3129:"Faraway, So Close: Coupled Climate and Economic Dynamics in an Agent-based Integrated Assessment Model"
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studies. It found wide variety in the results. These vary depending on the assumptions used in the IPCC
579:
changes. These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions.
151:
estimating the potential global aggregate economic costs of climate change (i.e. global climate damages)
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Method for the Adaptation Economic Assessment to accompany the UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA)
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This graph shows estimation confidence intervals from a meta-analysis of researchers as well as by the
108:
6590:"Higher temperatures mean higher food and other prices. A new study links climate shocks to inflation"
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Scott, Daniel; Knowles, Natalie L. B.; Ma, Siyao; Rutty, Michelle; Steiger, Robert (10 January 2022).
4984:"Higher temperatures mean higher food and other prices. A new study links climate shocks to inflation"
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Ahmad, Q. K.; et al., "2.5.1.3 Discounting the future. In (book chapter) 2. Methods and Tools",
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simulate physical, chemical and biological processes under climate change, and the economic effects.
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49:
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Ahmad, Q. K.; et al., "2.7.2.2 Cost-Benefit Analysis. In (book chapter) 2. Methods and Tools",
1482:. It has been suggested that developed countries could address the issue by making side-payments to
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10132:
10003:
9880:
9419:
9414:
9404:
9345:
9185:
8691:
8656:
8544:
8471:
8312:
8141:
8077:
8038:
7403:"2021-2022 EIB Climate Survey, part 3 of 3: The economic and social impact of the green transition"
6665:
5729:
4831:"Self-preservation strategy for approaching global warming targets in the post-Paris Agreement era"
4422:"3.7 Results of later action scenarios. In (book chapter) Chapter 3: The emissions gap – an update"
3826:"7.4 Key future impacts and vulnerabilities. In (book chapter) 7. Industry, Settlement and Society"
1838:
1349:
1292:
1050:
1038:
1025:
825:
729:, and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts. Governments may use
258:
10353:
4152:"Climatic Cost-benefit Analysis Under Uncertainty and Learning on Climate Sensitivity and Damages"
4002:
3577:
2874:
Bosetti, Valentina; Carraro, Carlo; Galeotti, Marzio; Massetti, Emanuele; Tavoni, Massimo (2006).
1024:
Economic impacts differ by region, North Africa, Middle East, South, Southeast and East Asia show
758:
686:
In the scientific literature, there is sometimes a focus on "best estimate" or "likely" values of
232:
look at market and non-market impacts affecting the whole economy through its inputs and outputs.
10952:
10303:
10137:
10127:
10117:
10107:
9845:
9835:
9795:
9785:
9658:
9579:
9528:
9450:
9360:
9102:
9074:
8754:
8408:
8386:
7993:
7696:(2007), Parry, M.L.; Canziani, O.F.; Palutikof, J.P.; van der Linden, P.J.; Hanson, C.E. (eds.),
6735:
6155:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States., XXX pp.
5960:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.007.
4692:"New study calculates climate change's economic bite will hit about $ 38 trillion a year by 2049"
2737:"GCAM v5.1: representing the linkages between energy, water, land, climate, and economic systems"
1969:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States., XXX pp.
1655:
1619:
1570:
1463:
854:
794:
778:
564:
554:
430:
184:
73:
37:
10708:
6814:"2.6.4 Equity consequences of different policy instruments. In (book chapter) 2. Framing issues"
6119:
5052:"Global GDP will suffer at least a 3% hit by 2050 from unchecked climate change, say economists"
4489:
Portfolio Analysis: Decision Support Methods for Adaptation, MEDIATION Project, Briefing Note 5.
10473:
10318:
10178:
10121:
10077:
10040:
9790:
9730:
9705:
9675:
9648:
9127:
8947:
8889:
8806:
8791:
8676:
8317:
8263:
8258:
8253:
8248:
8243:
8238:
5874:
Beddington JR, Asaduzzaman M, Clark ME, Bremauntz AF, Guillou MD, Jahn MM, et al. (2012).
4805:
4718:
WMO Atlas of Mortality and Economic Losses from Weather, Climate and Water Extremes (1970–2019)
2703:
Fujimori, Shinichiro; Masui, Toshihiko; Matsuoka, Yuzuru (2017), "AIM/CGE V2.0 Model Formula",
2211:"TS.5.4 Perspectives on climate change and sustainability. In (book chapter) Technical summary"
1615:
1327:
1256:
Carbon-intensive industries and investors are expected to experience a significant increase in
1042:
541:
472:
448:
336:
286:
127:
84:
79:
Many effects of climate change are linked to market transactions and therefore directly affect
60:
from an economic perspective. There are many economic models and frameworks. For example, in a
7290:; Wolf, Christopher; Newsome, Thomas M; Barnard, Phoebe; Moomaw, William R (5 November 2019).
6095:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256,
5218:
Macroeconomic and Financial Policies for Climate Change Mitigation: A Review of the Literature
4785:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1513–1766,
3888:
3337:
Ahmad, Q. K.; et al., "2.5.3 Nonmarket impacts. In (book chapter) 2. Methods and Tools",
1618:
rebound- and relocation-effects. This is supported by other studies which state that absolute
785:, performance is measured by how much GHG emissions reduction is achieved. On the other hand,
10690:
10605:
10288:
10263:
10248:
10222:
10161:
9840:
9780:
9760:
9755:
9516:
9162:
9039:
8847:
8302:
8225:
7791:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,
7349:
4781:
3076:
Mercure, Jean-Francois; Pollit, Hector; Neil, Edward; Holden, Philip; Unnada, Unnada (2018).
1660:
737:
726:
702:
188:
165:
164:
monetising the projected impacts to society per additional metric tonne of carbon emissions (
36:
Estimated median income loss or gain per person by 2050 due to climate change, compared to a
7643:
7641:(2001), McCarthy, J. J.; Canziani, O. F.; Leary, N. A.; Dokken, D. J.; White, K. S. (eds.),
6546:
4448:
4207:
The consequences of uncertainty: Climate sensitivity and economic sensitivity to the climate
2003:
1389:
fueled by climate change have increased housing costs through insurance and by exacerbating
253:
10716:
10654:
10358:
10102:
10072:
10025:
9988:
9914:
9865:
9830:
9770:
9735:
9670:
9653:
9355:
9233:
8894:
8464:
8391:
7475:
7358:
6979:
6291:
6197:
5983:
5924:
5887:
5675:
5517:
Working on a warmer planet The impact of heat stress on labour productivity and decent work
5448:
5371:
5158:"Climate change and the future of the Olympic Winter Games: athlete and coach perspectives"
5094:
4842:
4602:
4163:
3463:
3447:
Ackerman, Frank; DeCanio, Stephen J.; Howarth, Richard B.; Sheeran, Kristen (August 2009).
2984:
2838:
2748:
2290:
2248:
2149:
2132:
1901:
1706:
1645:
1574:
968:
846:
646:, where analysts attempt to estimate the probability of future changes in emission levels.
643:
590:
576:
434:
9603:
7524:
6169:
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change: Part III: The Economics of Stabilisation.
5972:"Economic implications of climate change impacts on human health through undernourishment"
4103:"Projections and Uncertainties about Climate Change in an Era of Minimal Climate Policies"
3798:
2279:"Quantified, Localized Health Benefits of Accelerated Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reductions"
1873:
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change: Part III: The Economics of Stabilisation.
757:. To put it differently, stringent near-term emissions abatement can be seen as having an
544:
per person, though the rate of increase diminishes with average GDPs/pp of about $ 10,000.
8:
10584:
10393:
10212:
10112:
10092:
10052:
10008:
9993:
9949:
9890:
9815:
9805:
9775:
9698:
9372:
9147:
8376:
8371:
7944:
4653:
1512:
1490:
841:
687:
583:
10253:
9685:
7623:(2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H. O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (eds.).
7479:
7362:
7158:"Climate Change Could Cut World Economy by $ 23 Trillion in 2050, Insurance Giant Warns"
6983:
6312:
6295:
6279:
6201:
5987:
5948:
5946:
5928:
5891:
5698:
5679:
5663:
5452:
5392:
5375:
5359:
5098:
4846:
4620:
4167:
4018:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, p. 8,
3467:
3029:
Hafner, Sarah; Anger-Kraavi, Annela; Monasterolo, Irene; Jones, Aled (1 November 2020).
2988:
2842:
2752:
2334:
Watts N; Amann M; Arnell N; Ayeb-Karlsson S; Belesova K; Boykoff M; et al. (2019).
2294:
2252:
1905:
1727:
1710:
1694:
10639:
10610:
10568:
10373:
10082:
10062:
10030:
9944:
9939:
9919:
9870:
9810:
9800:
9745:
9740:
9572:
9200:
9132:
9049:
8899:
8864:
8821:
8816:
8811:
8381:
7566:
7504:
7463:
7379:
7344:
7138:
7064:
7010:
6967:
6640:"Opinion: Climate inflation is eating your paycheck — and it's only going to get worse"
6483:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
6454:
IPCC (2022). Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; Slade, R.; Al Khourdajie, A.; et al. (eds.).
6385:
6233:
6013:"Half world's fossil fuel assets could become worthless by 2036 in net zero transition"
5856:
5753:
Kristjanson P, Neufeldt H, Gassner A, Mango J, Kyazze FB, Desta S, et al. (2012).
5664:"North China Plain threatened by deadly heatwaves due to climate change and irrigation"
5466:
5252:
5177:
4932:"Opinion: Climate inflation is eating your paycheck — and it's only going to get worse"
4888:"Opinion: Climate inflation is eating your paycheck — and it's only going to get worse"
4863:
4830:
4567:
4179:
4132:
3728:
3639:
3479:
3089:
3058:
3008:
2920:
Gambhir, Ajay; Butnar, Isabela; Li, Pei-Hao; Smith, Pete; Strachan, Neil (8 May 2019).
2902:
2806:
2685:
2492:
2373:
2311:
2278:
2071:
1937:
1595:
1532:
1483:
1202:
990:
750:
537:
423:
419:. These aggregate-type IAMs are particularly designed for doing CBA of climate change.
6118:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A. Archived from
5963:
5746:
5568:"Rapid global switch to renewable energy estimated to save millions of lives annually"
2351:
1594:
scenarios, where economic output either declines or declines in terms of contemporary
48:
uses economic tools and models to calculate the magnitude and distribution of damages
10503:
10478:
10388:
10268:
10156:
9959:
9895:
9860:
9850:
9720:
9434:
9097:
8842:
8608:
8396:
8359:
8146:
8100:
7914:
7901:
7863:
7843:
7805:
7792:
7732:
7707:
7674:
7654:
7605:
7570:
7558:
7509:
7491:
7384:
7287:
7142:
7130:
7056:
7015:
6997:
6946:
6863:
6829:
6785:
6621:"Home insurance rates are rising due to climate change. What could break that cycle?"
6389:
6375:
6317:
6237:
6225:
5943:
5936:
5795:
5733:
5722:
5703:
5657:
5655:
5634:
5606:
5470:
5397:
5333:
5256:
5244:
5234:
5181:
5122:
4913:"Home insurance rates are rising due to climate change. What could break that cycle?"
4868:
4762:
4621:
Smith, Adam B.; NOAA National Centers For Environmental Information (December 2020).
4571:
4559:
4369:
4311:
4250:
4183:
4151:
4136:
4124:
4019:
3898:
3860:
3720:
3640:
Estimation of climate change damage functions for 140 regions in the GTAP 9 data base
3158:
3109:
3062:
3050:
3000:
2946:
2906:
2894:
2856:
2798:
2766:
2716:
2643:
2633:
2610:
2529:
2480:
2456:
2433:
2423:
2377:
2365:
2316:
2164:
1941:
1929:
1763:
1732:
1650:
1404:
1225:
1186:
1156:
979:
946:
820:
793:
It is important to compare alternative portfolios of options across different future
529:
518:
505:
373:
290:
225:
100:
10428:
7343:
Wiedmann, Thomas; Lenzen, Manfred; Keyßer, Lorenz T.; Steinberger, Julia K. (2020).
7265:"The world's top 1% of emitters produce over 1000 times more CO2 than the bottom 1%"
7109:"Adaptation to Climate Change: Threats and Opportunities for the Insurance Industry"
7068:
5867:
5860:
3732:
3483:
3012:
2826:
2810:
2689:
2595:
2578:
2450:
769:) against the irreversibility of making investments in efforts to reduce emissions.
10702:
10553:
10498:
10483:
10468:
10453:
10383:
10363:
10343:
10298:
9905:
9855:
9825:
9820:
9710:
9636:
9477:
9044:
9027:
8968:
8859:
8623:
8342:
8215:
8151:
7958:
7550:
7499:
7483:
7374:
7366:
7313:
7305:
7120:
7046:
7005:
6987:
6945:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 145–178.
6903:
6828:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 117–168.
6756:
6367:
6307:
6299:
6215:
6205:
6096:
6055:
5991:
5932:
5895:
5846:
5838:
5766:
5693:
5683:
5499:
5456:
5387:
5379:
5224:
5198:; Edenhofer, Ottmar; Halliday, Alex; Heal, Geoffrey; et al. (September 2019).
5169:
5112:
5102:
4858:
4850:
4813:
4786:
4752:
4630:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4527:
4310:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 619–690.
4211:
4175:
4171:
4114:
3710:
3681:
3471:
3230:
3199:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3099:
3046:
3042:
2992:
2936:
2886:
2846:
2790:
2756:
2708:
2677:
2600:
2590:
2574:
2521:
2401:
2355:
2347:
2306:
2298:
2256:
2190:
2154:
2144:
2101:
2054:
2007:
1919:
1909:
1755:
1722:
1714:
1390:
1386:
205:
10433:
7554:
6784:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–124.
6172:
6011:
Watts, Jonathan; Kirk, Ashley; McIntyre, Niamh; Gutiérrez, Pablo; Kommenda, Niko.
5652:
5498:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170,
5173:
3680:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2539–2654,
3229:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2897–2930,
2681:
2053:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2411–2538,
2011:
1876:
1326:
Economists estimate the cost of climate change mitigation at between 1% and 2% of
1213:
increases: up to 250 days the worst-affected parts of these two continents and of
32:
10664:
10558:
10523:
10488:
10423:
10348:
10333:
10227:
10183:
10020:
9954:
9929:
9924:
9900:
9631:
9616:
9429:
9350:
9314:
9243:
9217:
9205:
9122:
9054:
8929:
8786:
8403:
8354:
8332:
7962:
7450:
7236:
6361:
6210:
6185:
6152:
5813:
4299:"Article 2 of the Convention and mitigation. In (book chapter) Technical Summary"
3592:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–144
2712:
1966:
1914:
1889:
1853:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 913–970
1640:
1538:
1257:
1214:
1169:
1076:
926:
741:
730:
722:
705:(CBA) can be extremely divergent depending on the assumptions employed. Hassler
691:
654:
328:
7887:(2007), Metz, B.; Davidson, O. R.; Bosch, P. R.; Dave, R.; Meyer, L. A. (eds.),
7538:
6403:
5714:
4757:
3771:"The United States has caused the most global warming. When will China pass it?"
2417:
1380:
Food prices could rise by as much as 3% per year due to climate change impacts.
1147:
1020:
331:, technology or other external factors. CGE models are also referred to as AGE (
10578:
10563:
10528:
10513:
10493:
10463:
10283:
9934:
9643:
9611:
9382:
9238:
9180:
9175:
9017:
8906:
8638:
8633:
8628:
8481:
8418:
8156:
8136:
8095:
8016:
7487:
7370:
6753:
Lifelines: The Resilient Infrastructure Opportunity. Sustainable Infrastructure
6303:
5688:
5461:
5436:
5383:
4854:
4817:
2525:
2094:"Now is the time to prepare for the economic shocks of battling climate change"
1718:
1623:
1383:
Energy prices are another of the most common examples cited of climateflation.
1369:
1300:
1209:
to decline by 30 to 50%, as the number of days when outdoor workers experience
1206:
1063:
A number of economic sectors will be affected by climate change, including the
956:
862:
671:
589:
One of the economic aspects of climate change is producing scenarios of future
380:
320:
279:. Notable modelling frameworks include IMAGE, MESSAGEix, AIM/GCE, GCAM, REMIND-
104:
10313:
7954:
7900:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
7842:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
7706:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
7653:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
6752:
6371:
6100:
5996:
5971:
5908:
5771:
5754:
5503:
5229:
4790:
3929:"2.3.3 Costs, benefits and uncertainties. In (book chapter) 2. Framing issues"
3792:
3790:
3788:
3685:
3475:
3393:
3391:
3254:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
3234:
3104:
3077:
2996:
2548:"Explainer: How 'Shared Socioeconomic Pathways' explore future climate change"
2484:
2460:
2302:
2194:
2106:
2058:
1759:
1228:
is also expected to be highly affected, in part due to the region's extensive
10946:
10543:
10533:
10508:
10448:
10443:
10438:
10418:
10408:
10378:
10368:
10273:
10173:
10146:
9910:
9455:
9387:
9112:
8934:
8919:
8854:
8749:
7971:
7562:
7495:
7134:
7060:
7001:
6605:
6059:
5799:
5638:
5337:
5248:
5126:
4563:
4128:
3724:
3276:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
3162:
3113:
3054:
3004:
2950:
2898:
2860:
2851:
2802:
2770:
2647:
2614:
2533:
2437:
2189:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33,
2168:
1528:
1218:
1127:
1014:
879:
657:
572:
438:
324:
192:
7967:
7309:
6992:
4432:
2761:
2736:
10573:
10518:
10413:
10403:
10398:
10323:
10168:
9693:
9621:
9340:
9137:
8781:
8771:
8423:
8307:
8220:
7513:
7388:
7019:
6907:
6321:
6229:
5900:
5875:
5707:
5401:
5276:
5195:
4872:
4806:
The global costs of extreme weather that are attributable to climate change
4623:"Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Overview / 2020 in Progress"
4419:
3785:
3388:
2965:
2605:
2405:
2384:
2369:
2335:
2320:
2260:
2075:
1933:
1736:
1635:
1489:
A 2019 modelling study found climate change had contributed towards global
1401:
Climateflation is expected to hit warmer parts of the globe more severely.
1232:
networks resulting in unusually moist air. In scenarios without aggressive
963:
906:
636:
468:
80:
6696:"California's 'climate migrants' and the difficulty of finding a new home"
6255:"Can cost benefit analysis grasp the climate change nettle? And can we..."
5842:
5013:"Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5 °C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems"
5011:
Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jacob, D.; Taylor, M.; Bindi, M.; et al. (2018).
1980:"Can cost benefit analysis grasp the climate change nettle? And can we..."
1839:"19. Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis"
40:
with no climate impacts (red colour indicates a loss, blue colour a gain).
10548:
10538:
10328:
10207:
10151:
9626:
9367:
8884:
8876:
8131:
7975:
7590:
7428:"1.5 °C degrowth scenarios suggest need for new mitigation pathways"
6469:
5107:
5082:
4749:
Loss and Damage from Climate Change: Concepts, Methods and Policy Options
4119:
4102:
3954:
Goldemberg, J.; et al., "1. Introduction: scope of the Assessment",
3127:
Lamperti, F.; Dosi, G.; Napoletano, M.; Roventini, A.; Sapio, A. (2018).
2794:
1470:
1296:
1210:
1178:
1174:
1152:
1002:
910:
666:
560:
422:
The CBA framework requires (1) the valuation of costs and benefits using
7464:"1.5 °C degrowth scenarios suggest the need for new mitigation pathways"
7125:
7108:
7051:
7034:
6177:
5876:"The role for scientists in tackling food insecurity and climate change"
4721:
4717:
4705:
income will still grow, just not as much because of warmer temperatures.
4338:
4336:
4334:
4215:
3922:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3153:
2890:
2477:
Scenarios towards limiting global mean temperature increase below 1.5 °C
2159:
1626:
over 1.5 °C or 2 °C, even under optimistic policy conditions.
616:(IPCC). These project a wide range of possible future emissions levels.
285:
Non-equilibrium models include those based on econometric equations and
10458:
10258:
10035:
9399:
8776:
7296:
7216:. Columbia University, Columbia Climate School, Climate, Earth, Society
6911:
6761:
6249:
6247:
6220:
5117:
4634:
4629:. National Centers for Environmental Information (NCDC, part of NOAA).
4554:
3715:
3698:
2941:
2360:
2276:
1924:
1508:
1304:
1244:
1229:
1160:
1088:
201:
7318:
6480:
6455:
6092:
5957:
5851:
5495:
4622:
4524:
4210:. Sveriges Riksbank Working Paper Series, No. 369. Sveriges Riksbank.
3677:
3273:
3251:
3200:
What do we learn from the weather? The new climate-economy literature.
2050:
1141:
Effects of climate change on agriculture § Labour and economic effects
130:. The costs of planning, preparing for, facilitating and implementing
10308:
10238:
9595:
8349:
7780:
Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change
6353:
5418:"Nearly $ 2tn of damage inflicted on other countries by US emissions"
4331:
4205:
3911:
3800:
Report 95: Uncertainty Analysis of Climate Change and Policy Response
3656:
Cost-effectiveness analysis:: Decision Support Methods for Adaptation
3024:
3022:
2333:
2229:
2227:
1785:
1365:
1080:
1064:
898:
675:
88:
6278:
Kotz, Mazimilian.; Levermann, Anders; Wenz, Leonie (17 April 2024).
6244:
5543:"International Labour Organization Warns of Heat-Related Job Losses"
3542:
2418:
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Staff. (26 January 2015).
1693:
Kotz, Mazimilian.; Levermann, Anders; Wenz, Leonie (17 April 2024).
399:
Integrated assessment modelling § Aggregate cost-benefit models
353:
Integrated assessment modelling § Aggregate cost-benefit models
10087:
7107:
Herweijer, Celine; Ranger, Nicola; Ward, Robert E T (1 July 2009).
6271:
6163:
6161:
5873:
5358:
Kotz, Maximilian; Levermann, Anders; Wenz, Leonie (17 April 2024).
5200:
The missing economic risks in assessments of climate change impacts
3094:
1611:
1591:
1566:
1524:
1068:
1006:
886:. The same set of scenarios are used in all of the climate models.
437:. Values over time are then discounted to produce their equivalent
197:
4366:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
3892:
3120:
3028:
3019:
2968:; Kriegler, Elmar; Krey, Volker; Riahi, Keywan (15 October 2018).
2224:
1075:
industries. Other sectors sensitive to climate change include the
10738:
8327:
7985:
6768:
6336:"Below 1.5°C: a breakthrough roadmap to solve the climate crisis"
5969:
4249:, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press,
3859:. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.
1418:
Climate finance § Adaptation costs and adaptation financing needs
1190:
1084:
1072:
6666:"How to fight the affordable housing and climate crises at once"
6521:"Carmignac Sees Energy Transition Fueling Inflation This Decade"
6183:
6158:
4396:"Government publishes UK's Third Climate Change Risk Assessment"
3970:
Grippa, Pierpaolo; Schmittmann, Jochen; Suntheim, Felix (2019).
3889:"Chapter Four: A Framework for Making America's Climate Choices"
1887:
1462:
A second approach has been suggested based on economics and the
674:(people and organizations) can diversify their own risk through
265:
climate scenarios 2022, based on the REMIND-MAgPIE model by the
10697:
9335:
7342:
6751:
Hallegatte, Stephane; Rentschler, Jun; Rozenberg, Julie. 2019.
5752:
4594:
4082:. Arlington, Virginia, USA: Pew Center on Global Climate Change
3536:
3534:
3449:"Limitations of integrated assessment models of climate change"
3126:
3031:"Emergence of New Economics Energy Transition Models: A Review"
2247:, Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 38, p. 837,
1479:
1268:
713:
to examine a range of estimates and what happens at extremes.
490:
Economics of climate change mitigation § Decision analysis
280:
6477:
Chapter 3: Mitigation pathways compatible with long-term goals
5300:
Global Development and Environment Institute, Tufts University
2873:
2572:
1539:
Effects of economic growth and degrowth scenarios on emissions
1410:
1283:
9249:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
8337:
7979:
7519:
7113:
The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance - Issues and Practice
5723:
Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: A Canadian Perspective
5492:
Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities.
5291:
Harris, Jonathan M.; Roach, Brian; Codur, Anne-Marie (2015).
4420:
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (November 2012),
4038:
4008:, in Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K; Reisinger, A. (eds.),
3658:, MEDIATION Project, Briefing Note 2. Funded by the EC's 7FWP
3446:
1548:
of the poorest 50% could increase by a factor of about three.
1260:
with a potential ripple affect throughout the world economy.
1182:
563:
associated with global warming have led analysts to develop "
9564:
5435:
Callahan, Christopher W.; Mankin, Justin S. (12 July 2022).
5326:"Climate Change's Giant Impact on the Economy: 4 Key Issues"
5272:"Climate emergency: world "may have crossed tipping points""
5194:
4957:"How is climate change affecting food prices and inflation?"
4274:
4272:
3531:
2783:
2393:
NGFS Climate Scenario Database: Technical Documentation V3.1
2133:"Stranded Assets in the Transition to a Carbon-Free Economy"
593:. Future economic developments can, for example, affect how
7940:
7884:
7829:(2001), Metz, B.; Davidson, O.; Swart, R.; Pan, J. (eds.),
7826:
7773:
7693:
7638:
7620:
7455:
7263:
Cozzi, Laura; Chen, Olivia; Kim, Hyeji (22 February 2023).
6566:"Climate change driving up inflation in food prices: Study"
3346:
1786:
1750:
Wang, Zheng; Wu, Jing; Liu, Changxin; Gu, Gaoxiang (2017).
695:
650:
528:
Scaling the effect of wealth to the national level: richer
7699:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
7645:
Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
4051:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
3830:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
3752:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
3373:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3365:
2963:
2823:
2215:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
1527:. The Swiss Re assessment found that annual output by the
9425:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
6968:"Global warming has increased global economic inequality"
6892:"Climate-change policy: why has so little been achieved?"
4269:
4003:"Table SPM.1. In (book chapter) Summary for Policymakers"
3969:
3886:
3552:
2451:
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, issuing body.
2131:
van der Ploeg, Frederick; Rezai, Armon (6 October 2020).
1622:
is highly unlikely to be achieved fast enough to prevent
1599:
1240:
7589:
IPCC AR5 WG2 A (2014), Field, C.B.; et al. (eds.),
7286:
3642:. J. Glob. Econ. Anal., 1(2), doi:10.21642/JGEA.010202AF
2970:"A new scenario resource for integrated 1.5 °C research"
2660:
1752:
Integrated Assessment Models of Climate Change Economics
1028:, with no statistical difference for Central Asia/Russia
815:
601:
might be, as well as the level of future GHG emissions.
302:
200:
away from other socially and environmentally beneficial
103:. Economic analysis of climate change is challenging as
6730:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6722:
6720:
6718:
6716:
6039:"The Social Cost of Carbon and its Policy Implications"
3440:
3362:
3284:
3282:
3075:
2876:"WITCH - A World Induced Technical Change Hybrid Model"
2204:
2202:
857:" with which they can explore different possibilities.
698:= probability of an impact × magnitude of the impact).
7228:
6081:
6010:
4431:, Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, pp. 28–29, archived from
4429:
The Emissions Gap Report 2012: A UNEP Synthesis Report
4203:
4014:, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the
2734:
2277:
Shindell D; Faluvegi G; Seltzer K; Shindell C (2018).
1221:. This could then increase crop prices by around 5%.
932:
597:
society is to future climate change, what the future
247:
Integrated assessment modelling § Process-based models
52:. It can also give guidance for the best policies for
10674:
9266:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
7776:(1996), Bruce, J. P.; Lee, H.; Haites, E. F. (eds.),
6404:"The crucial intersection between gender and climate"
5662:
Kang, Suchul; Eltahir, Elfatih A. B. (31 July 2018).
4204:
Hassler, John; Krusell, Per; Olovsson, Conny (2019).
3674:
Chapter 17: Decision-Making Options for Managing Risk
2702:
810:
327:
to estimate how an economy might react to changes in
6713:
5954:
Chapter 5: Food, Fibre, and Other Ecosystem Products
5437:"National attribution of historical climate damages"
5216:
Krogstrup, Signe; Oman, William (4 September 2019).
5209:
3506:"The economics of avoiding action on climate change"
3279:
2919:
2199:
878:
compared the latest estimates of many modelling and
733:
as part of their policy response to global warming.
367:
289:(such as E3ME), and agent-based models (such as the
7241:. United Nations Environment Programme. p. xxv
7106:
5155:
3198:Dell, M., Jones, B. F., & Olken, B. A. (2014).
2632:. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.
2627:
2511:
2270:
1334:estimated this at more than $ 5 trillion per year.
1263:
7777:
7642:
7462:Keyßer, Lorenz T.; Lenzen, Manfred (11 May 2021).
7292:"World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency"
6547:"The era of "climateflation" is here, study shows"
5408:
5188:
5081:Kompas, Tom; Pham, Van Ha; Che, Tuong Nhu (2018).
2130:
27:Using economic tools to investigate climate change
7890:Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change
6693:
6277:
5357:
4463:
3762:
3270:Social, Economic and Ethical Concepts and Methods
2241:Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change
1692:
1503:Climate change and insurance in the United States
1159:, which is particularly vulnerable as widespread
801:
540:countries. Emissions are roughly proportional to
10944:
9466:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
7258:
7256:
6965:
5572:London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
5290:
5133:
4236:Fisher, B. S.; et al. (10 September 2007),
2047:Chapter 16: Key Risks Across Sectors and Regions
346:
6972:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6694:Rodriguez-Delgado, Cresencio (24 August 2022).
6173:http://hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm
5595:COP24 special report: health and climate change
4614:
4364:, in Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (eds.),
1877:http://hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm
7941:Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy
7752:
7588:
7537:Hickel, Jason; Kallis, Giorgos (6 June 2020).
6966:Diffenbaugh, Noah S.; Burke, Marshall (2019).
6931:
6929:
6739:
5434:
5306:
5142:"Will Climate Change End The Winter Olympics?"
4472:
3897:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
3540:
1798:
483:
10739:Economic impacts of climate change by country
10724:
9580:
8206:History of climate change policy and politics
8001:
7253:
6734:United Nations Environment Programme (2023).
5215:
5080:
5010:
4297:Barker, T.; et al. (10 September 2007).
3949:
3947:
3945:
3943:
2002:United Nations Environment Programme (2023).
1515:could provide insurance against these risks.
1313:Climate change mitigation § Costs and funding
548:
267:Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research
224:. Several sets of tools or approaches exist.
7883:
7825:
7772:
7692:
7637:
7633:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
7536:
7461:
7262:
5914:
5720:
4828:
4345:
4285:
4094:
4055:
3956:
3933:
3834:
3756:
3561:
3433:
3417:
3400:
3380:
3355:
3339:
3304:
3302:
3291:
2497:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2327:
2265:
2219:
1881:
1456:
1368:of added costs brought about as a result of
716:
8323:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
7919:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7896:, Contribution of Working Group III to the
7868:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7838:, Contribution of Working Group III to the
7810:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7787:, Contribution of Working Group III to the
7737:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7679:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7610:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6926:
6855:
6280:"The economic commitment of climate change"
5819:
5661:
5360:"The economic commitment of climate change"
4716:World Meteorological Society (WMO) (2021).
1749:
1695:"The economic commitment of climate change"
1602:, have been neglected in considerations of
1411:Costs of climate change adaptation measures
1284:Costs of climate change mitigation measures
1272:Projected economic impacts of 2 degrees of
916:
211:
10731:
10717:
9587:
9573:
9547:
9535:
8992:
8008:
7994:
7702:, Contribution of Working Group II to the
7649:, Contribution of Working Group II to the
6935:
6587:
6111:
6036:
5917:Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics
5822:"Climate Change, Agriculture, and Poverty"
5269:
4981:
4689:
4368:, Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 13917–13922,
4107:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
3940:
3797:Webster, M.; et al. (December 2002),
3583:. In McCarthy, J. J.; et al. (eds.).
1844:. In McCarthy, J. J.; et al. (eds.).
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1173:permanently leave drought-affected areas.
1094:
894:150–792 trillion dollars until 2100.
649:In a cost–benefit analysis, an acceptable
471:in 2006 (damage costs measured as percent
433:equivalents, and risk accounted for using
9287:
9093:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
8231:United Nations Climate Change conferences
7619:
7503:
7378:
7317:
7149:
7124:
7050:
7009:
6991:
6311:
6219:
6209:
5995:
5899:
5850:
5785:
5770:
5697:
5687:
5523:. International Labour Organization. 2019
5460:
5391:
5228:
5116:
5106:
5020:
4862:
4756:
4553:
4543:
4359:
4118:
3714:
3308:
3299:
3152:
3103:
3093:
2940:
2850:
2760:
2604:
2594:
2359:
2310:
2158:
2148:
2126:
2124:
2105:
1923:
1913:
1726:
1608:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1440:
1185:makes up 52% of their employment and the
1151:Climate change is expected to exacerbate
1101:Effects of climate change on human health
665:a policy's benefits and costs have known
614:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
273:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
93:impacts of climate change on human health
8797:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
7968:"From Climate Crisis to Real Prosperity"
7210:"How Climate Change Impacts the Economy"
7155:
7035:"The Economic Effects of Climate Change"
6889:
6544:
6492:
5830:Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy
5486:
5484:
5293:"The Economics of Global Climate Change"
5139:
5049:
4100:
2707:, Springer Singapore, pp. 201–303,
2514:Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control
2087:
2085:
2041:
2039:
1972:
1551:
1542:
1496:
1445:
1393:when those events make homes unlivable.
1267:
1146:
1054:
1019:
978:
936:
830:
819:
523:
462:
392:
387:
252:
183:may contribute positively towards other
31:
9153:National Adaptation Programme of Action
8942:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
7156:Flavelle, Christopher (22 April 2021).
6811:
6583:
6581:
6579:
6518:
5270:Carrington, Damian (27 November 2019).
5140:Buchholz, Katharina (4 February 2022).
4197:
4068:
4066:
4064:
3796:
3768:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3620:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3575:
3318:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
2233:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1673:
1429:will be significantly higher by 2050.
444:For (2), the standard criterion is the
239:
14:
10945:
8802:Economics of climate change mitigation
8765:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
8283:
8111:Scientific consensus on climate change
6774:
6637:
6563:
5415:
5006:
5004:
4929:
4885:
4745:
4583:
4581:
4503:Hunt, A., & Fraschini, F. (2020).
4499:
4497:
4342:
4296:
4235:
4149:
4143:
3963:
3953:
3845:
3558:
3377:
3217:
3215:
2670:Environmental Modelling & Software
2150:10.1146/annurev-resource-110519-040938
2121:
417:aggregate integrated assessment models
159:economics of climate change mitigation
120:economics of climate change mitigation
10712:
9568:
9461:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
9286:
8991:
8727:
8282:
8194:
8075:
8027:
7989:
7961:, Sterling Professor of Economics at
7271:. International Energy Agency (IEA).
6663:
6631:
6359:
5481:
5323:
5152:from the original on 12 January 2023.
5031:from the original on 15 November 2019
4800:
4798:
4722:https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/57564
4679:from the original on 11 January 2022.
4641:from the original on 10 December 2020
4609:from the original on 13 January 2024.
4483:
4481:
4044:
4011:Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report
3745:
3696:
3650:
3648:
3503:
3497:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3174:
3172:
2091:
2082:
2069:
1836:
1809:from the original on 19 December 2019
816:At the global level (aggregate costs)
772:
303:Computable general equilibrium models
9483:Representative Concentration Pathway
8429:Tipping points in the climate system
8105:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
7395:
7234:
7201:
6576:
6493:Horowitz, Julia (13 December 2022).
6453:
5786:Gale J, Olmos S (4 September 2021).
4726:
4702:from the original on 17 April 2024.
4664:from the original on 8 January 2021.
4072:
4061:
4000:
3823:
3661:
3610:
3604:
3576:Downing, T. E.; et al. (2001).
2016:
1865:
1821:
1781:
1779:
297:
118:Economic analysis also looks at the
70:global surface temperature increases
9664:Agent-based computational economics
9254:Nationally determined contributions
8964:Individual action on climate change
8174:World energy supply and consumption
7759:, London, UK: The Stationery Office
7207:
7032:
6819:. In Metz, B.; et al. (eds.).
6638:Becker, William S. (22 July 2024).
6427:
6366:. Springer Science+Business Media.
5721:Lemmen DS, Warren FJ, eds. (2004).
5475:Graphic's caption is from Callahan
5001:
4930:Becker, William S. (22 July 2024).
4923:
4886:Becker, William S. (22 July 2024).
4879:
4578:
4494:
4301:. In Metz, B.; et al. (eds.).
4240:, in Metz, B.; et al. (eds.),
3926:
3850:. In Metz, B.; et al. (eds.).
3846:Fisher, B. S.; et al. (2007).
3212:
2137:Annual Review of Resource Economics
2063:
1291:consist of human actions to reduce
1243:and 4% of the GDP in India and the
933:Underestimation of economic impacts
458:
46:economic analysis of climate change
24:
9393:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
8015:
7600:from the original on 16 April 2014
7345:"Scientists' warning on affluence"
7275:from the original on 3 March 2023.
7033:Tol, Richard S. J (1 April 2009).
6664:Cohen, Rachel M. (17 April 2022).
6588:Borenstein, Seth (21 March 2024).
6545:Freedman, Andrew (25 March 2024).
6360:Teske, Sven, ed. (2 August 2019).
5428:from the original on 12 July 2022.
5062:from the original on 29 March 2020
4982:Borenstein, Seth (21 March 2024).
4795:
4690:Borenstein, Seth (17 April 2024).
4478:
4464:Defra/HM Treasury (21 June 2005),
3887:National Research Council (2011).
3781:from the original on 1 March 2023.
3645:
3541:DeCanio, S. J. (17 October 2007),
3288:
3257:
3187:
3181:Assessing Transformation Pathways.
3169:
2175:
1837:Smith, J. B.; et al. (2001).
811:Costs of impacts of climate change
630:
25:
18:Economic effects of global warming
10974:
9320:Satellite temperature measurement
8925:forestry for carbon sequestration
8211:History of climate change science
7955:"The economics of climate change"
7934:
7183:"The economics of climate change"
6812:Halsnæs, K.; et al. (2007).
6742:. org/10.59117/20.500.11822/43796
5820:Hertel TW, Rosch SD (June 2010).
4587:Hunt, A. and Watkiss, P. (2011).
4101:Nordhaus, William (August 2018).
3699:"The Economics of Climate Change"
3654:Watkiss, P. and Hunt, A. (2012).
3430:
3414:
3397:
3352:
3336:
3248:Assessing Transformation Pathways
2577:; Dellink, Rob (1 January 2017).
2234:Sathaye, J.; et al. (2009),
2208:
2092:Brown, Eryn (30 September 2021).
1776:
1754:. Singapore: Springer Singapore.
1115:International Labour Organization
368:Statistical (econometric) methods
10696:
10684:
10122:neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis
9546:
9534:
9523:
9522:
9510:
9171:Climate Change Performance Index
8550:Destruction of cultural heritage
7761:. High-resolution PDF versions:
7530:
7518:
7420:
7336:
7280:
7175:
7100:
7083:"Linking Climate and Inequality"
7075:
7039:Journal of Economic Perspectives
7026:
6959:
6896:Oxford Review of Economic Policy
6883:
6849:
6805:
6755:;. Washington, DC: World Bank.
6745:
6687:
6657:
6613:
6557:
6538:
6512:
6486:
6447:
6421:
6396:
6328:
6134:
6105:
6047:Oxford Review of Economic Policy
6030:
6004:
5937:10.1111/j.1744-7976.2010.01211.x
5779:
5619:
5586:
5560:
5535:
5508:
5351:
5317:
5284:
5263:
5074:
5043:
4975:
4949:
4487:Hunt, A, and Watkiss, P (2013).
4360:Diederich, A. (1 January 2001),
4278:
3638:Roson, R. and M. Sartori, 2016:
1416:This section is an excerpt from
1311:This section is an excerpt from
1264:Utility of aggregated assessment
1139:This section is an excerpt from
308:This section is an excerpt from
245:This section is an excerpt from
9310:Instrumental temperature record
9261:Sustainable Development Goal 13
7832:Climate Change 2001: Mitigation
7753:House of Lords (21 June 2005),
6859:The Economics of Climate Change
5880:Agriculture & Food Security
5788:"When Hard Jobs Turn Hazardous"
5416:Milman, Oliver (12 July 2022).
5324:Irwin, Neil (17 January 2019).
4905:
4822:
4774:
4739:
4710:
4683:
4518:
4457:
4413:
4388:
4353:
4290:
4281:Climate Change 2001: Mitigation
4229:
4150:Ekholm, Tommi (December 2018).
4045:Schneider, S. H.; et al.,
3994:
3880:
3839:
3817:
3769:Stevens, Harry (1 March 2023).
3739:
3690:
3632:
3569:
3424:
3408:
3330:
3239:
3069:
2957:
2913:
2867:
2831:Geoscientific Model Development
2817:
2777:
2741:Geoscientific Model Development
2728:
2696:
2654:
2621:
2596:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.05.009
2566:
2540:
2505:
2467:
2444:
2411:
2398:NGFS Climate Scenarios Data Set
1523:and a study by insurance giant
512:Some authors have focused on a
187:objectives, such as abolishing
9378:Climate variability and change
8728:
8414:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
7596:, Cambridge University Press,
6564:Budryk, Zack (25 March 2024).
5223:(Report). IMF working papers.
4545:10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105383
4176:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.07.024
3824:Wilbanks, T. J.; et al.,
3746:Schneider, S.H.; et al.,
3203:Journal of Economic literature
3145:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.03.023
3047:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106779
2422:. Cambridge University Press.
1996:
1948:
1743:
1133:
1047:Climate change in the Americas
897:Economic impacts also include
802:Investment and financial flows
711:integrated assessment modeling
413:Computable General Equilibrium
317:Computable general equilibrium
310:Computable general equilibrium
13:
1:
10058:Critique of political economy
9594:
9488:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
9023:Climate emergency declaration
7555:10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964
6519:Ritchie, Greg (1 July 2024).
6392:– via www.springer.com.
5547:United Nations Climate Change
5174:10.1080/13683500.2021.2023480
4736:. UNDRR: Geneva, Switzerland.
2682:10.1016/j.envsoft.2018.11.012
2352:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6
1666:
1375:
1348:Policymakers can compare the
1234:action to stop climate change
610:shared socioeconomic pathways
347:Aggregate cost-benefit models
277:Shared socioeconomic pathways
10963:Economics and climate change
9471:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
8697:Middle East and North Africa
8028:
7627:efforts to eradicate poverty
6890:Helm, D. (1 November 2008).
6211:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105513
6037:Pearce, D. (November 2003).
4467:Minutes of Evidence, Annex 3
4362:"Sequential Decision Making"
3697:Stern, Nicholas (May 2008).
2713:10.1007/978-981-10-3869-3_12
2628:Stehfest, E. (Elke) (2014).
1915:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105513
1396:
1356:
1032:
974:
504:CEA, like CBA, is a type of
358:Integrated assessment models
319:(CGE) models are a class of
66:integrated assessment models
58:adaptation to climate change
7:
8195:
7539:"Is Green Growth Possible?"
7208:Cho, Renee (20 June 2019).
4758:10.1007/978-3-319-72026-5_3
2583:Global Environmental Change
2479:. Nature Publishing Group.
2209:Parry, M. L.; et al.,
2012:10.59117/20.500.11822/43796
1629:
1535:prices a variety of risks.
1332:International Monetary Fund
1251:
1239:take up 0.4% of the global
625:cost-effectiveness analysis
495:Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
484:Cost-effectiveness analysis
333:applied general equilibrium
208:of climate change policy).
138:
10:
10979:
10196:Real business-cycle theory
9305:Global surface temperature
9196:Popular culture depictions
9108:Ecosystem-based adaptation
8838:Carbon capture and storage
8760:Carbon offsets and credits
8076:
7949:London School of Economics
7581:
7488:10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9
7371:10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y
6462:Cambridge University Press
6304:10.1038/s41586-024-07219-0
5689:10.1038/s41467-023-38906-7
5462:10.1007/s10584-022-03387-y
5384:10.1038/s41586-024-07219-0
4855:10.1038/s41467-020-15453-z
4818:10.1038/s41467-023-41888-1
3927:Halsnæs, K.; et al.,
2526:10.1016/j.jedc.2008.12.007
1791:"Summary for Policymakers"
1719:10.1038/s41586-024-07219-0
1564:
1500:
1415:
1310:
1138:
1098:
1036:
634:
552:
549:Scenario-based assessments
487:
396:
371:
350:
307:
244:
230:Structural economic models
124:cost of climate adaptation
10744:
10636:
10594:
10236:
9970:
9719:
9684:
9602:
9517:Climate change portal
9504:
9443:
9410:Extreme event attribution
9328:
9297:
9293:
9282:
9226:
9161:
9083:
9033:School Strike for Climate
9005:
9001:
8987:
8956:
8912:Climate-smart agriculture
8873:
8830:
8740:
8736:
8723:
8647:
8505:
8452:
8295:
8291:
8278:
8201:
8190:
8119:
8088:
8084:
8071:
8054:Climate change adaptation
8049:Climate change mitigation
8044:Effects of climate change
8034:
8023:
7238:Emissions Gap Report 2020
6372:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2
6190:Environment International
6101:10.1017/9781009157896.022
5997:10.1007/s10584-016-1606-4
5772:10.1007/s12571-012-0194-z
5603:World Health Organization
5504:10.1017/9781009325844.009
5230:10.5089/9781513511955.001
5162:Current Issues in Tourism
4791:10.1017/9781009157896.013
3976:Finance & Development
3894:America's climate choices
3686:10.1017/9781009325844.026
3476:10.1007/s10584-009-9570-x
3235:10.1017/9781009325844.029
3105:10.1016/j.esr.2018.03.003
2997:10.1038/s41558-018-0317-4
2883:SSRN Working Paper Series
2787:SSRN Working Paper Series
2303:10.1038/s41558-018-0108-y
2195:10.1017/9781009325844.001
2107:10.1146/knowable-093021-1
2059:10.1017/9781009325844.025
1894:Environment International
1760:10.1007/978-981-10-3945-4
1521:Carbon Disclosure Project
1289:Climate change mitigation
1274:global warming on Senegal
868:Extreme Event Attribution
787:climate change adaptation
783:climate change mitigation
717:Iterative risk management
599:impacts of climate change
559:The long time scales and
218:climate change mitigation
145:effects of climate change
113:socioeconomic development
9420:Global warming potential
9227:International agreements
8874:Preserving and enhancing
8313:Arctic methane emissions
8235:Years in climate change
8142:Greenhouse gas emissions
8039:Causes of climate change
7898:Fourth Assessment Report
7789:Second Assessment Report
7704:Fourth Assessment Report
6408:European Investment Bank
5730:Natural Resources Canada
4348:, p. 26 (32 of PDF)
4016:Fourth Assessment Report
3703:American Economic Review
2852:10.5194/gmd-14-6571-2021
2705:Post-2020 Climate Action
2390:Oliver Richters et al.:
2183:Summary for Policymakers
1590:Some studies found that
1350:marginal abatement costs
1293:greenhouse gas emissions
1247:region by the year 2100.
1051:Climate change in Europe
1039:Climate change in Africa
1026:statistical significance
1001:According to a study by
917:High emissions scenarios
826:statistical significance
795:climate change scenarios
259:greenhouse gas emissions
212:Types of economic models
74:climate change scenarios
50:caused by climate change
9836:Industrial organization
9659:Computational economics
9451:Climate change scenario
9103:Disaster risk reduction
8755:Carbon emission trading
8565:U.S. insurance industry
8540:Civilizational collapse
8387:sea surface temperature
7840:Third Assessment Report
7651:Third Assessment Report
6993:10.1073/pnas.1816020116
6765:License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
6430:"Finance & Justice"
5627:"Letters to the editor"
4491:Funded by the EC's 7FWP
3082:Energy Strategy Reviews
2762:10.5194/gmd-12-677-2019
2453:Global warming of 1.5°C
1656:Environmental economics
1571:Eco-economic decoupling
1464:social welfare function
1364:is the contribution to
1120:affected is agriculture
1095:Health and productivity
884:socioeconomic scenarios
555:Climate change scenario
536:per person than poorer
364:economic implications.
185:sustainable development
181:mitigate climate change
10041:Modern monetary theory
9706:Experimental economics
9676:Pluralism in economics
9649:Mathematical economics
9444:Research and modelling
9128:Nature-based solutions
8948:Nature-based solutions
8890:Carbon dioxide removal
8807:Fossil fuel divestment
8792:Climate risk insurance
8702:Small island countries
8318:Arctic sea ice decline
6060:10.1093/oxrep/19.3.362
5901:10.1186/2048-7010-1-10
5050:Koning Beals, Rachel.
4660:. NOAA. January 2021.
3578:"2. Methods and Tools"
2406:10.5281/zenodo.5782903
2261:10.2134/jeq2008.0024br
1562:
1549:
1441:Challenges and debates
1276:
1170:extreme weather events
1165:
1060:
1043:Climate change in Asia
1029:
985:
942:
836:
828:
545:
532:countries emit more CO
514:disaggregated analysis
476:
449:compensation principle
287:evolutionary economics
269:
41:
10958:Climate change policy
9405:Earth's energy budget
9288:Background and theory
9176:Climate crisis (term)
8848:Fossil fuel phase-out
8742:Economics and finance
8707:by individual country
8649:By country and region
8624:Security and conflict
8619:Psychological impacts
8303:Abrupt climate change
8226:Charles David Keeling
8059:By country and region
7543:New Political Economy
7468:Nature Communications
7449:10 April 2023 at the
7350:Nature Communications
7310:10.1093/biosci/biz088
6171:HM Treasury, London:
5668:Nature Communications
4696:Associated Press News
4475:, HL 12-II (evidence)
3504:Spash, C. L. (2008).
2977:Nature Climate Change
1875:HM Treasury, London:
1661:Social cost of carbon
1555:
1546:
1497:Insurance and markets
1446:Efficiency and equity
1345:Cost–benefit analysis
1271:
1150:
1058:
1023:
982:
940:
847:International dollars
834:
823:
767:biomes and ecosystems
703:cost-benefit analysis
627:of climate policies.
621:cost–benefit analysis
527:
466:
435:certainty equivalents
405:cost–benefit analysis
393:Cost–benefit analysis
388:Analytical frameworks
256:
189:fossil fuel subsidies
166:social cost of carbon
62:cost–benefit analysis
35:
9915:Social choice theory
9671:Behavioral economics
9654:Complexity economics
9234:Glasgow Climate Pact
8895:Carbon sequestration
8465:Mass mortality event
6908:10.1093/oxrep/grn014
6258:Oxford Martin School
5605:. 2018. p. 52.
5108:10.1029/2018EF000922
4804:Newman, R., Noy, I.
4611:Click "Access data".
4156:Ecological Economics
4120:10.1257/pol.20170046
3133:Ecological Economics
3035:Ecological Economics
2795:10.2139/ssrn.2697070
2346:(10211): 1836–1878.
1983:Oxford Martin School
1646:Ecological economics
1575:Ecological economics
1484:developing countries
991:developing countries
969:loss of biodiversity
644:uncertainty analysis
591:economic development
240:Process-based models
115:are also uncertain.
9999:American (National)
9699:Economic statistics
9373:Climate sensitivity
9148:The Adaptation Fund
8604:Infectious diseases
8506:Social and economic
7945:University of Leeds
7767:HL 12-II (evidence)
7720:on 10 November 2018
7480:2021NatCo..12.2676K
7363:2020NatCo..11.3107W
7214:State of the Planet
7126:10.1057/gpp.2009.13
7052:10.1257/jep.23.2.29
6984:2019PNAS..116.9808D
6296:2024Natur.628..551K
6202:2020EnInt.13605513S
6089:Annex VII: Glossary
6069:on 19 February 2009
5988:2016ClCh..136..189H
5929:2011CaJAE..59...19K
5892:2012AgFS....1...10B
5843:10.1093/aepp/ppq016
5680:2023NatCo..14.3528K
5453:2022ClCh..172...40C
5376:2024Natur.628..551K
5099:2018EaFut...6.1153K
4847:2020NatCo..11.1624W
4473:House of Lords 2005
4168:2018EcoEc.154...99E
3775:The Washington Post
3468:2009ClCh...95..297A
2989:2018NatCC...8.1027H
2891:10.2139/ssrn.948382
2843:2021GMD....14.6571B
2753:2019GMD....12..677C
2295:2018NatCC...8..291S
2253:2009JEnvQ..38..837V
1906:2020EnInt.13605513S
1799:IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014
1711:2024Natur.628..551K
1513:developed countries
1491:economic inequality
842:confidence interval
690:. However, from a
688:climate sensitivity
584:climate sensitivity
191:which would reduce
8944:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
8916:Forest management
8900:Direct air capture
8865:Sustainable energy
8822:Net zero emissions
8817:Low-carbon economy
8812:Green Climate Fund
8599:Indigenous peoples
8497:Plant biodiversity
8285:Effects and issues
7957:. 2020 lecture by
7187:Swiss Re Institute
7162:The New York Times
6167:Stern, N. (2006).
6151:2009-12-11 at the
5792:The New York Times
5330:The New York Times
4675:. 6 October 2017.
4635:10.25921/stkw-7w73
3716:10.1257/aer.98.2.1
3403:, pp. 130–131
3294:, pp. 184–185
3223:Annex II: Glossary
2964:Huppmann, Daniel;
2942:10.3390/en12091747
1965:2009-12-11 at the
1871:Stern, N. (2006).
1563:
1550:
1533:insurance industry
1277:
1203:Sub-Saharan Africa
1166:
1061:
1030:
986:
943:
903:insurance premiums
837:
829:
773:Portfolio analysis
678:and other markets.
546:
477:
424:willingness to pay
270:
226:Econometric models
101:ecosystem services
42:
10940:
10939:
10672:
10671:
10203:New institutional
9562:
9561:
9500:
9499:
9496:
9495:
9435:Radiative forcing
9278:
9277:
9274:
9273:
9098:Adaptive capacity
8983:
8982:
8979:
8978:
8843:Energy transition
8719:
8718:
8715:
8714:
8434:Tropical cyclones
8360:Urban heat island
8274:
8273:
8186:
8185:
8182:
8181:
8147:Carbon accounting
8101:Greenhouse effect
8067:
8066:
7927:978-0-521-70598-1
7907:978-0-521-88011-4
7849:978-0-521-80769-2
7798:978-0-521-56051-1
7745:978-0-521-70597-4
7713:978-0-521-88010-7
7660:978-0-521-80768-5
7288:Ripple, William J
6978:(20): 9808–9813.
6952:978-0-521-56854-8
6869:978-0-19-957328-8
6835:978-0-521-88011-4
6791:978-0-521-56854-8
6428:Nations, United.
6290:(8008): 551–557.
6142:Technical Summary
5612:978-92-4-151497-2
5370:(8008): 551–557.
5240:978-1-5135-1195-5
5154:— Bucholz cites
4812:14, 6103 (2023).
4768:978-3-319-72026-5
4532:World Development
4375:978-0-08-043076-8
4346:IPCC SAR WG3 1996
4317:978-0-521-88011-4
4286:IPCC TAR WG3 2001
4256:978-0-521-88011-4
4056:IPCC AR4 WG2 2007
4025:978-92-9169-122-7
3957:IPCC SAR WG3 1996
3934:IPCC AR4 WG3 2007
3904:978-0-309-14585-5
3866:978-0-521-88011-4
3835:IPCC AR4 WG2 2007
3757:IPCC AR4 WG2 2007
3562:IPCC SAR WG3 1996
3434:IPCC TAR WG2 2001
3418:IPCC TAR WG2 2001
3401:IPCC SAR WG3 1996
3381:IPCC SAR WG3 1996
3356:IPCC TAR WG2 2001
3340:IPCC TAR WG2 2001
3292:IPCC SAR WG3 1996
2983:(12): 1027–1030.
2837:(10): 6571–6603.
2575:Calvin, Katherine
2266:IPCC AR4 WG3 2007
2220:IPCC AR4 WG2 2007
2098:Knowable Magazine
1956:Technical Summary
1705:(8008): 551–557.
1651:Energy transition
1405:Climate migration
1391:housing shortages
1387:Natural disasters
1226:North China Plain
1187:Canadian Prairies
1157:North China Plain
751:parts per million
506:decision analysis
374:Econometric model
298:Structural models
206:opportunity costs
16:(Redirected from
10970:
10733:
10726:
10719:
10710:
10709:
10701:
10700:
10689:
10688:
10687:
10680:
9876:Natural resource
9711:Economic history
9637:Mechanism design
9589:
9582:
9575:
9566:
9565:
9550:
9549:
9538:
9537:
9526:
9525:
9515:
9514:
9513:
9478:Paleoclimatology
9295:
9294:
9284:
9283:
9045:Ecological grief
9028:Climate movement
9003:
9002:
8989:
8988:
8969:Plant-based diet
8860:Renewable energy
8738:
8737:
8725:
8724:
8560:Economic impacts
8487:Invasive species
8343:Coastal flooding
8293:
8292:
8280:
8279:
8216:Svante Arrhenius
8192:
8191:
8162:from agriculture
8152:Carbon footprint
8137:Greenhouse gases
8086:
8085:
8073:
8072:
8025:
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8010:
8003:
7996:
7987:
7986:
7959:William Nordhaus
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7786:
7783:
7763:HL 12-I (report)
7760:
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7725:
7716:, archived from
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7523:Available under
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5414:Chart based on:
5412:
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5207:
5206:
5204:
5192:
5186:
5185:
5153:
5137:
5131:
5130:
5120:
5110:
5093:(8): 1153–1173.
5078:
5072:
5071:
5069:
5067:
5047:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5030:
5017:
5008:
4999:
4998:
4996:
4994:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4953:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4927:
4921:
4920:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4883:
4877:
4876:
4866:
4826:
4820:
4802:
4793:
4778:
4772:
4771:
4760:
4743:
4737:
4730:
4724:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4665:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4598:
4592:
4585:
4576:
4575:
4557:
4547:
4522:
4516:
4501:
4492:
4485:
4476:
4470:
4461:
4455:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4437:
4426:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4340:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4309:
4294:
4288:
4283:
4276:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4248:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4222:
4201:
4195:
4194:
4192:
4190:
4147:
4141:
4140:
4122:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4087:
4081:
4070:
4059:
4053:
4042:
4036:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4007:
3998:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3967:
3961:
3960:
3951:
3938:
3937:
3924:
3909:
3908:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3858:
3843:
3837:
3832:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3805:
3794:
3783:
3782:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3718:
3694:
3688:
3670:
3659:
3652:
3643:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3619:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3591:
3582:
3573:
3567:
3566:
3564:, pp. 31–32
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:www.academia.edu
3538:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3510:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3462:(3–4): 297–315.
3453:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3395:
3386:
3385:
3375:
3360:
3359:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3317:
3306:
3297:
3296:
3286:
3277:
3266:
3255:
3243:
3237:
3219:
3210:
3196:
3185:
3176:
3167:
3166:
3156:
3124:
3118:
3117:
3107:
3097:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3026:
3017:
3016:
2974:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2926:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2880:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2854:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2667:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2608:
2598:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2520:(9): 1648–1661.
2509:
2503:
2502:
2496:
2488:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2415:
2409:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2363:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2314:
2274:
2268:
2263:
2246:
2231:
2222:
2217:
2206:
2197:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2162:
2152:
2128:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2109:
2089:
2080:
2079:
2067:
2061:
2043:
2014:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1976:
1970:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1927:
1917:
1885:
1879:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1852:
1843:
1834:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1808:
1795:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1730:
1690:
1606:reported by the
1604:1.5 °C scenarios
1598:such as current
1596:economic metrics
1301:greenhouse gases
947:tail-risk events
876:2022 IPCC report
779:portfolio theory
612:produced by the
459:Damage functions
323:that use actual
109:policy responses
21:
10978:
10977:
10973:
10972:
10971:
10969:
10968:
10967:
10943:
10942:
10941:
10936:
10740:
10737:
10707:
10695:
10685:
10683:
10675:
10673:
10668:
10665:Business portal
10632:
10631:
10630:
10590:
10354:von Böhm-Bawerk
10242:
10241:
10232:
10004:Ancient thought
9982:
9981:
9975:
9966:
9965:
9964:
9715:
9680:
9632:Contract theory
9617:Decision theory
9598:
9593:
9563:
9558:
9511:
9509:
9492:
9439:
9430:Orbital forcing
9324:
9289:
9270:
9244:Paris Agreement
9222:
9218:Warming stripes
9157:
9123:Managed retreat
9118:Loss and damage
9079:
9013:Business action
8997:
8975:
8952:
8875:
8869:
8826:
8787:Climate finance
8732:
8711:
8643:
8501:
8477:Extinction risk
8453:Flora and fauna
8448:
8409:Permafrost thaw
8404:Ozone depletion
8333:Extreme weather
8287:
8270:
8197:
8178:
8115:
8080:
8063:
8030:
8019:
8014:
7982:finance advisor
7963:Yale University
7937:
7932:
7912:
7911:
7908:
7893:
7861:
7860:
7854:
7852:
7850:
7835:
7803:
7802:
7799:
7784:
7730:
7729:
7723:
7721:
7714:
7672:
7671:
7665:
7663:
7661:
7630:
7603:
7602:
7584:
7579:
7578:
7535:
7531:
7460:
7456:
7451:Wayback Machine
7436:
7434:
7426:
7425:
7421:
7411:
7409:
7401:
7400:
7396:
7341:
7337:
7324:
7322:
7285:
7281:
7261:
7254:
7244:
7242:
7233:
7229:
7219:
7217:
7206:
7202:
7192:
7190:
7189:. 22 April 2021
7181:
7180:
7176:
7166:
7164:
7154:
7150:
7105:
7101:
7091:
7089:
7081:
7080:
7076:
7031:
7027:
6964:
6960:
6953:
6942:
6934:
6927:
6917:
6915:
6888:
6884:
6874:
6872:
6870:
6854:
6850:
6840:
6838:
6836:
6825:
6816:
6810:
6806:
6796:
6794:
6792:
6781:
6773:
6769:
6760:
6750:
6746:
6733:
6714:
6704:
6702:
6692:
6688:
6674:
6672:
6662:
6658:
6648:
6646:
6636:
6632:
6627:. 23 July 2024.
6619:
6618:
6614:
6598:
6596:
6586:
6577:
6562:
6558:
6543:
6539:
6529:
6527:
6517:
6513:
6503:
6501:
6491:
6487:
6474:
6470:
6452:
6448:
6438:
6436:
6426:
6422:
6412:
6410:
6402:
6401:
6397:
6382:
6358:
6354:
6344:
6342:
6334:
6333:
6329:
6276:
6272:
6262:
6260:
6253:
6252:
6245:
6182:
6178:
6166:
6159:
6153:Wayback Machine
6139:
6135:
6125:
6123:
6110:
6106:
6086:
6082:
6072:
6070:
6066:
6041:
6035:
6031:
6021:
6019:
6009:
6005:
5976:Climatic Change
5968:
5964:
5951:
5944:
5913:
5909:
5872:
5868:
5824:
5818:
5814:
5804:
5802:
5784:
5780:
5751:
5747:
5740:
5725:
5719:
5715:
5660:
5653:
5643:
5641:
5625:
5624:
5620:
5613:
5598:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5577:
5575:
5566:
5565:
5561:
5551:
5549:
5541:
5540:
5536:
5526:
5524:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5509:
5489:
5482:
5441:Climatic Change
5413:
5409:
5356:
5352:
5342:
5340:
5322:
5318:
5311:
5307:
5295:
5289:
5285:
5268:
5264:
5241:
5220:
5214:
5210:
5202:
5193:
5189:
5138:
5134:
5079:
5075:
5065:
5063:
5048:
5044:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5024:. p. 256.
5015:
5009:
5002:
4992:
4990:
4980:
4976:
4966:
4964:
4955:
4954:
4950:
4940:
4938:
4928:
4924:
4919:. 23 July 2024.
4911:
4910:
4906:
4896:
4894:
4884:
4880:
4827:
4823:
4803:
4796:
4779:
4775:
4769:
4744:
4740:
4731:
4727:
4715:
4711:
4688:
4684:
4667:
4666:For 2021 data:
4652:
4644:
4642:
4619:
4615:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4586:
4579:
4523:
4519:
4502:
4495:
4486:
4479:
4462:
4458:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4424:
4418:
4414:
4404:
4402:
4394:
4393:
4389:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4358:
4354:
4341:
4332:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4307:
4295:
4291:
4277:
4270:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4246:
4234:
4230:
4220:
4218:
4202:
4198:
4188:
4186:
4148:
4144:
4099:
4095:
4085:
4083:
4079:
4071:
4062:
4043:
4039:
4030:
4028:
4026:
4005:
3999:
3995:
3985:
3983:
3968:
3964:
3952:
3941:
3925:
3912:
3905:
3885:
3881:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3856:
3844:
3840:
3822:
3818:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3795:
3786:
3767:
3763:
3744:
3740:
3695:
3691:
3671:
3662:
3653:
3646:
3637:
3633:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3609:
3605:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3580:
3574:
3570:
3557:
3553:
3539:
3532:
3522:
3520:
3508:
3502:
3498:
3488:
3486:
3456:Climatic Change
3451:
3445:
3441:
3429:
3425:
3413:
3409:
3396:
3389:
3376:
3363:
3351:
3347:
3335:
3331:
3321:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3300:
3287:
3280:
3267:
3258:
3244:
3240:
3220:
3213:
3197:
3188:
3177:
3170:
3125:
3121:
3074:
3070:
3027:
3020:
2972:
2962:
2958:
2924:
2918:
2914:
2878:
2872:
2868:
2822:
2818:
2782:
2778:
2733:
2729:
2723:
2701:
2697:
2665:
2659:
2655:
2640:
2626:
2622:
2571:
2567:
2557:
2555:
2554:. 19 April 2018
2546:
2545:
2541:
2510:
2506:
2490:
2489:
2472:
2468:
2449:
2445:
2430:
2416:
2412:
2389:
2385:
2332:
2328:
2283:Nat Clim Change
2275:
2271:
2244:
2232:
2225:
2207:
2200:
2180:
2176:
2129:
2122:
2112:
2110:
2090:
2083:
2068:
2064:
2044:
2017:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1985:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1967:Wayback Machine
1953:
1949:
1886:
1882:
1870:
1866:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1835:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1793:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1748:
1744:
1691:
1674:
1669:
1641:Climate finance
1632:
1585:
1580:Economic growth
1577:
1559:
1556:Though total CO
1541:
1505:
1499:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1437:
1421:
1413:
1399:
1378:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1316:
1286:
1266:
1258:stranded assets
1254:
1249:
1248:
1199:labour capacity
1144:
1136:
1103:
1097:
1053:
1037:Main articles:
1035:
977:
935:
927:Paris Agreement
919:
818:
813:
804:
775:
756:
748:
731:risk management
723:decision making
719:
692:risk management
672:economic agents
639:
633:
631:Risk management
557:
551:
535:
492:
486:
461:
401:
395:
390:
376:
370:
355:
349:
344:
343:
321:economic models
313:
305:
300:
295:
294:
261:in the various
250:
242:
214:
141:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10976:
10966:
10965:
10960:
10955:
10953:Climate change
10938:
10937:
10935:
10930:
10925:
10923:United Kingdom
10920:
10915:
10910:
10905:
10900:
10895:
10890:
10885:
10880:
10875:
10870:
10865:
10860:
10855:
10850:
10845:
10840:
10835:
10830:
10825:
10820:
10815:
10810:
10805:
10800:
10795:
10790:
10785:
10780:
10775:
10770:
10765:
10760:
10755:
10750:
10745:
10742:
10741:
10736:
10735:
10728:
10721:
10713:
10706:
10705:
10693:
10691:Climate change
10670:
10669:
10667:
10662:
10657:
10652:
10647:
10642:
10637:
10634:
10633:
10629:
10628:
10623:
10613:
10608:
10602:
10601:
10600:
10598:
10592:
10591:
10589:
10588:
10581:
10576:
10571:
10566:
10561:
10556:
10551:
10546:
10541:
10536:
10531:
10526:
10521:
10516:
10511:
10506:
10501:
10496:
10491:
10486:
10481:
10476:
10471:
10466:
10461:
10456:
10451:
10446:
10441:
10436:
10431:
10426:
10421:
10416:
10411:
10406:
10401:
10396:
10391:
10386:
10381:
10376:
10371:
10366:
10361:
10356:
10351:
10346:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10326:
10321:
10316:
10311:
10306:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10286:
10281:
10276:
10271:
10266:
10261:
10256:
10251:
10245:
10243:
10237:
10234:
10233:
10231:
10230:
10225:
10220:
10215:
10210:
10205:
10200:
10199:
10198:
10188:
10187:
10186:
10176:
10171:
10166:
10165:
10164:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10143:
10142:
10141:
10140:
10130:
10125:
10110:
10105:
10100:
10095:
10090:
10085:
10080:
10075:
10070:
10068:Disequilibrium
10065:
10060:
10055:
10050:
10045:
10044:
10043:
10033:
10028:
10023:
10018:
10017:
10016:
10006:
10001:
9996:
9991:
9985:
9983:
9971:
9968:
9967:
9963:
9962:
9957:
9952:
9947:
9942:
9937:
9932:
9927:
9922:
9917:
9908:
9903:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9881:Organizational
9878:
9873:
9868:
9863:
9858:
9853:
9848:
9843:
9838:
9833:
9828:
9823:
9818:
9813:
9808:
9803:
9798:
9793:
9788:
9783:
9778:
9773:
9768:
9763:
9758:
9753:
9748:
9743:
9738:
9733:
9727:
9726:
9725:
9723:
9717:
9716:
9714:
9713:
9708:
9703:
9702:
9701:
9690:
9688:
9682:
9681:
9679:
9678:
9673:
9668:
9667:
9666:
9656:
9651:
9646:
9644:Macroeconomics
9641:
9640:
9639:
9634:
9629:
9624:
9619:
9612:Microeconomics
9608:
9606:
9600:
9599:
9592:
9591:
9584:
9577:
9569:
9560:
9559:
9557:
9556:
9544:
9532:
9520:
9505:
9502:
9501:
9498:
9497:
9494:
9493:
9491:
9490:
9485:
9480:
9475:
9474:
9473:
9463:
9458:
9453:
9447:
9445:
9441:
9440:
9438:
9437:
9432:
9427:
9422:
9417:
9412:
9407:
9402:
9397:
9396:
9395:
9385:
9383:Cloud feedback
9380:
9375:
9370:
9365:
9364:
9363:
9358:
9353:
9348:
9338:
9332:
9330:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9322:
9317:
9312:
9307:
9301:
9299:
9291:
9290:
9280:
9279:
9276:
9275:
9272:
9271:
9269:
9268:
9263:
9258:
9257:
9256:
9251:
9241:
9239:Kyoto Protocol
9236:
9230:
9228:
9224:
9223:
9221:
9220:
9215:
9214:
9213:
9208:
9203:
9193:
9191:Media coverage
9188:
9183:
9181:Climate spiral
9178:
9173:
9167:
9165:
9159:
9158:
9156:
9155:
9150:
9145:
9140:
9135:
9130:
9125:
9120:
9115:
9110:
9105:
9100:
9095:
9089:
9087:
9081:
9080:
9078:
9077:
9072:
9070:Public opinion
9067:
9062:
9057:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9037:
9036:
9035:
9025:
9020:
9018:Climate action
9015:
9009:
9007:
8999:
8998:
8985:
8984:
8981:
8980:
8977:
8976:
8974:
8973:
8972:
8971:
8960:
8958:
8954:
8953:
8951:
8950:
8945:
8939:
8938:
8937:
8932:
8930:REDD and REDD+
8927:
8922:
8914:
8909:
8907:Carbon farming
8904:
8903:
8902:
8897:
8887:
8881:
8879:
8871:
8870:
8868:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8852:
8851:
8850:
8840:
8834:
8832:
8828:
8827:
8825:
8824:
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8774:
8769:
8768:
8767:
8757:
8752:
8746:
8744:
8734:
8733:
8721:
8720:
8717:
8716:
8713:
8712:
8710:
8709:
8704:
8699:
8694:
8689:
8684:
8679:
8674:
8669:
8664:
8659:
8653:
8651:
8645:
8644:
8642:
8641:
8639:Water security
8636:
8634:Water scarcity
8631:
8629:Urban flooding
8626:
8621:
8616:
8611:
8606:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8590:
8589:
8579:
8574:
8569:
8568:
8567:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8537:
8532:
8527:
8526:
8525:
8520:
8509:
8507:
8503:
8502:
8500:
8499:
8494:
8489:
8484:
8482:Forest dieback
8479:
8474:
8469:
8468:
8467:
8456:
8454:
8450:
8449:
8447:
8446:
8441:
8436:
8431:
8426:
8421:
8419:Sea level rise
8416:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8400:
8399:
8394:
8392:stratification
8389:
8384:
8379:
8374:
8364:
8363:
8362:
8357:
8347:
8346:
8345:
8335:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8310:
8305:
8299:
8297:
8289:
8288:
8276:
8275:
8272:
8271:
8269:
8268:
8267:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8233:
8228:
8223:
8218:
8213:
8208:
8202:
8199:
8198:
8188:
8187:
8184:
8183:
8180:
8179:
8177:
8176:
8171:
8170:
8169:
8164:
8159:
8157:Carbon leakage
8154:
8149:
8139:
8134:
8129:
8123:
8121:
8117:
8116:
8114:
8113:
8108:
8098:
8096:Climate system
8092:
8090:
8082:
8081:
8069:
8068:
8065:
8064:
8062:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8041:
8035:
8032:
8031:
8021:
8020:
8017:Climate change
8013:
8012:
8005:
7998:
7990:
7984:
7983:
7965:
7952:
7936:
7935:External links
7933:
7931:
7930:
7906:
7880:
7879:
7848:
7822:
7821:
7797:
7770:
7749:
7748:
7712:
7690:
7659:
7635:
7617:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7577:
7576:
7549:(4): 469–486.
7529:
7454:
7419:
7394:
7357:(3107): 3107.
7335:
7279:
7252:
7227:
7200:
7174:
7148:
7119:(3): 360–380.
7099:
7074:
7025:
6958:
6951:
6925:
6902:(2): 211–238.
6882:
6868:
6848:
6834:
6804:
6790:
6767:
6744:
6712:
6686:
6656:
6630:
6612:
6575:
6556:
6537:
6511:
6485:
6468:
6464:. p. 300.
6446:
6434:United Nations
6420:
6395:
6381:978-3030058425
6380:
6352:
6327:
6270:
6243:
6176:
6157:
6133:
6122:on 8 June 2011
6104:
6080:
6054:(3): 362–384.
6029:
6003:
5982:(2): 189–202.
5962:
5942:
5907:
5866:
5837:(3): 355–385.
5812:
5778:
5765:(3): 381–397.
5745:
5738:
5713:
5651:
5633:. 9 May 2019.
5618:
5611:
5585:
5574:. 1 April 2019
5559:
5534:
5507:
5480:
5407:
5350:
5316:
5305:
5283:
5262:
5239:
5208:
5187:
5168:(3): 480–495.
5132:
5087:Earth's Future
5073:
5042:
5021:IPCC SR15 2018
5000:
4974:
4963:. 11 July 2024
4948:
4922:
4904:
4878:
4821:
4794:
4773:
4767:
4738:
4732:UNDRR (2023).
4725:
4709:
4682:
4613:
4593:
4577:
4517:
4493:
4477:
4456:
4438:on 13 May 2016
4412:
4387:
4374:
4352:
4330:
4316:
4289:
4268:
4255:
4228:
4196:
4142:
4113:(3): 333–360.
4093:
4060:
4037:
4024:
3993:
3962:
3939:
3910:
3903:
3879:
3865:
3838:
3816:
3784:
3761:
3738:
3689:
3660:
3644:
3631:
3603:
3568:
3551:
3530:
3496:
3439:
3423:
3407:
3387:
3361:
3345:
3329:
3298:
3278:
3256:
3238:
3211:
3186:
3168:
3119:
3068:
3018:
2956:
2912:
2866:
2816:
2776:
2747:(2): 677–698.
2727:
2721:
2695:
2653:
2638:
2620:
2565:
2539:
2504:
2466:
2443:
2429:978-1107654815
2428:
2410:
2383:
2326:
2289:(4): 291–295.
2269:
2223:
2198:
2174:
2143:(1): 281–298.
2120:
2081:
2062:
2015:
1995:
1971:
1947:
1880:
1864:
1820:
1802:. p. 12.
1775:
1768:
1742:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1624:global warming
1583:
1557:
1540:
1537:
1498:
1495:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1422:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1398:
1395:
1377:
1374:
1370:climate change
1362:Climateflation
1358:
1355:
1317:
1309:
1295:or to enhance
1285:
1282:
1265:
1262:
1253:
1250:
1207:Southeast Asia
1145:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1107:health impacts
1096:
1093:
1034:
1031:
976:
973:
957:climate system
953:Tipping points
934:
931:
918:
915:
863:Socio-economic
817:
814:
812:
809:
803:
800:
774:
771:
754:
746:
718:
715:
680:
679:
669:
635:Main article:
632:
629:
553:Main article:
550:
547:
533:
519:social welfare
485:
482:
460:
457:
439:present values
409:process models
394:
391:
389:
386:
369:
366:
348:
345:
314:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
251:
243:
241:
238:
234:Process models
213:
210:
173:
172:
169:
162:
155:
152:
140:
137:
105:climate change
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10975:
10964:
10961:
10959:
10956:
10954:
10951:
10950:
10948:
10934:
10931:
10929:
10928:United States
10926:
10924:
10921:
10919:
10916:
10914:
10911:
10909:
10906:
10904:
10901:
10899:
10896:
10894:
10891:
10889:
10886:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10864:
10861:
10859:
10856:
10854:
10851:
10849:
10846:
10844:
10841:
10839:
10836:
10834:
10831:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10814:
10811:
10809:
10806:
10804:
10801:
10799:
10796:
10794:
10791:
10789:
10786:
10784:
10781:
10779:
10776:
10774:
10771:
10769:
10766:
10764:
10761:
10759:
10756:
10754:
10751:
10749:
10746:
10743:
10734:
10729:
10727:
10722:
10720:
10715:
10714:
10711:
10704:
10699:
10694:
10692:
10682:
10681:
10678:
10666:
10663:
10661:
10658:
10656:
10653:
10651:
10648:
10646:
10643:
10641:
10638:
10635:
10627:
10624:
10621:
10617:
10614:
10612:
10609:
10607:
10604:
10603:
10599:
10597:
10593:
10587:
10586:
10582:
10580:
10577:
10575:
10572:
10570:
10567:
10565:
10562:
10560:
10557:
10555:
10552:
10550:
10547:
10545:
10542:
10540:
10537:
10535:
10532:
10530:
10527:
10525:
10522:
10520:
10517:
10515:
10512:
10510:
10507:
10505:
10502:
10500:
10497:
10495:
10492:
10490:
10487:
10485:
10482:
10480:
10477:
10475:
10472:
10470:
10467:
10465:
10462:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10445:
10442:
10440:
10437:
10435:
10432:
10430:
10427:
10425:
10422:
10420:
10417:
10415:
10412:
10410:
10407:
10405:
10402:
10400:
10397:
10395:
10392:
10390:
10387:
10385:
10382:
10380:
10377:
10375:
10372:
10370:
10367:
10365:
10362:
10360:
10357:
10355:
10352:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10320:
10317:
10315:
10312:
10310:
10307:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10295:
10292:
10290:
10287:
10285:
10282:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10257:
10255:
10252:
10250:
10249:de Mandeville
10247:
10246:
10244:
10240:
10235:
10229:
10226:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10211:
10209:
10206:
10204:
10201:
10197:
10194:
10193:
10192:
10191:New classical
10189:
10185:
10182:
10181:
10180:
10177:
10175:
10172:
10170:
10167:
10163:
10160:
10159:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10147:Malthusianism
10145:
10139:
10136:
10135:
10134:
10131:
10129:
10126:
10123:
10119:
10116:
10115:
10114:
10111:
10109:
10108:Institutional
10106:
10104:
10101:
10099:
10096:
10094:
10091:
10089:
10086:
10084:
10081:
10079:
10076:
10074:
10071:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10054:
10051:
10049:
10046:
10042:
10039:
10038:
10037:
10034:
10032:
10029:
10027:
10024:
10022:
10019:
10015:
10012:
10011:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9986:
9984:
9979:
9974:
9969:
9961:
9958:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9946:
9943:
9941:
9938:
9936:
9933:
9931:
9928:
9926:
9923:
9921:
9918:
9916:
9912:
9911:Public choice
9909:
9907:
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9886:Participation
9884:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9847:
9846:Institutional
9844:
9842:
9839:
9837:
9834:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9804:
9802:
9799:
9797:
9796:Expeditionary
9794:
9792:
9789:
9787:
9786:Environmental
9784:
9782:
9779:
9777:
9774:
9772:
9769:
9767:
9764:
9762:
9759:
9757:
9754:
9752:
9749:
9747:
9744:
9742:
9739:
9737:
9734:
9732:
9729:
9728:
9724:
9722:
9718:
9712:
9709:
9707:
9704:
9700:
9697:
9696:
9695:
9692:
9691:
9689:
9687:
9683:
9677:
9674:
9672:
9669:
9665:
9662:
9661:
9660:
9657:
9655:
9652:
9650:
9647:
9645:
9642:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9614:
9613:
9610:
9609:
9607:
9605:
9601:
9597:
9590:
9585:
9583:
9578:
9576:
9571:
9570:
9567:
9555:
9554:
9545:
9543:
9542:
9533:
9531:
9530:
9521:
9519:
9518:
9507:
9506:
9503:
9489:
9486:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9472:
9469:
9468:
9467:
9464:
9462:
9459:
9457:
9456:Climate model
9454:
9452:
9449:
9448:
9446:
9442:
9436:
9433:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9421:
9418:
9416:
9413:
9411:
9408:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9394:
9391:
9390:
9389:
9388:Cloud forcing
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9374:
9371:
9369:
9366:
9362:
9359:
9357:
9354:
9352:
9349:
9347:
9344:
9343:
9342:
9339:
9337:
9334:
9333:
9331:
9327:
9321:
9318:
9316:
9313:
9311:
9308:
9306:
9303:
9302:
9300:
9296:
9292:
9285:
9281:
9267:
9264:
9262:
9259:
9255:
9252:
9250:
9247:
9246:
9245:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9232:
9231:
9229:
9225:
9219:
9216:
9212:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9198:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9168:
9166:
9164:
9163:Communication
9160:
9154:
9151:
9149:
9146:
9144:
9143:Vulnerability
9141:
9139:
9136:
9134:
9131:
9129:
9126:
9124:
9121:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9113:Flood control
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9090:
9088:
9086:
9082:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9034:
9031:
9030:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9010:
9008:
9004:
9000:
8996:
8990:
8986:
8970:
8967:
8966:
8965:
8962:
8961:
8959:
8955:
8949:
8946:
8943:
8940:
8936:
8935:reforestation
8933:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8920:afforestation
8918:
8917:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8901:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8892:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8882:
8880:
8878:
8872:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8855:Nuclear power
8853:
8849:
8846:
8845:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8835:
8833:
8829:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8778:
8775:
8773:
8770:
8766:
8763:
8762:
8761:
8758:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8750:Carbon budget
8748:
8747:
8745:
8743:
8739:
8735:
8731:
8726:
8722:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8698:
8695:
8693:
8690:
8688:
8685:
8683:
8680:
8678:
8675:
8673:
8670:
8668:
8665:
8663:
8660:
8658:
8655:
8654:
8652:
8650:
8646:
8640:
8637:
8635:
8632:
8630:
8627:
8625:
8622:
8620:
8617:
8615:
8612:
8610:
8607:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8588:
8587:Mental health
8585:
8584:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8573:
8570:
8566:
8563:
8562:
8561:
8558:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8543:
8541:
8538:
8536:
8533:
8531:
8528:
8524:
8523:United States
8521:
8519:
8516:
8515:
8514:
8511:
8510:
8508:
8504:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8490:
8488:
8485:
8483:
8480:
8478:
8475:
8473:
8470:
8466:
8463:
8462:
8461:
8458:
8457:
8455:
8451:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8377:deoxygenation
8375:
8373:
8372:acidification
8370:
8369:
8368:
8365:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8352:
8351:
8348:
8344:
8341:
8340:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8300:
8298:
8294:
8290:
8286:
8281:
8277:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8237:
8236:
8234:
8232:
8229:
8227:
8224:
8222:
8219:
8217:
8214:
8212:
8209:
8207:
8204:
8203:
8200:
8193:
8189:
8175:
8172:
8168:
8167:from wetlands
8165:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8150:
8148:
8145:
8144:
8143:
8140:
8138:
8135:
8133:
8130:
8128:
8127:Deforestation
8125:
8124:
8122:
8118:
8112:
8109:
8106:
8102:
8099:
8097:
8094:
8093:
8091:
8087:
8083:
8079:
8074:
8070:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8036:
8033:
8026:
8022:
8018:
8011:
8006:
8004:
7999:
7997:
7992:
7991:
7988:
7981:
7977:
7973:
7972:Reith lecture
7969:
7966:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7953:
7950:
7946:
7942:
7939:
7938:
7928:
7922:
7916:
7909:
7903:
7899:
7892:
7891:
7886:
7882:
7881:
7877:
7876:0-521-01502-2
7871:
7865:
7851:
7845:
7841:
7834:
7833:
7828:
7824:
7823:
7819:
7818:0-521-56854-4
7813:
7807:
7800:
7794:
7790:
7782:
7781:
7775:
7771:
7768:
7764:
7758:
7757:
7751:
7750:
7746:
7740:
7734:
7719:
7715:
7709:
7705:
7701:
7700:
7695:
7691:
7688:
7687:0-521-01500-6
7682:
7676:
7662:
7656:
7652:
7647:
7646:
7640:
7636:
7629:
7628:
7622:
7618:
7613:
7607:
7599:
7595:
7594:
7587:
7586:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7533:
7526:
7521:
7515:
7511:
7506:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7458:
7452:
7448:
7445:
7433:
7429:
7423:
7408:
7404:
7398:
7390:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7351:
7346:
7339:
7332:
7320:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7298:
7293:
7289:
7283:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7259:
7257:
7240:
7239:
7231:
7215:
7211:
7204:
7188:
7184:
7178:
7163:
7159:
7152:
7144:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7127:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7103:
7088:
7084:
7078:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7044:
7040:
7036:
7029:
7021:
7017:
7012:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6994:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6962:
6954:
6948:
6941:
6940:
6932:
6930:
6914:on 1 May 2011
6913:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6886:
6871:
6865:
6861:
6860:
6852:
6837:
6831:
6824:
6823:
6815:
6808:
6793:
6787:
6780:
6779:
6771:
6763:
6758:
6754:
6748:
6741:
6737:
6731:
6729:
6727:
6725:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6717:
6701:
6697:
6690:
6683:
6671:
6667:
6660:
6645:
6641:
6634:
6626:
6622:
6616:
6609:
6607:
6606:Gernot Wagner
6595:
6591:
6584:
6582:
6580:
6571:
6567:
6560:
6552:
6548:
6541:
6526:
6522:
6515:
6500:
6496:
6489:
6482:
6478:
6472:
6463:
6459:
6458:
6450:
6435:
6431:
6424:
6409:
6405:
6399:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6364:
6356:
6341:
6337:
6331:
6323:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6274:
6259:
6256:
6250:
6248:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6180:
6174:
6170:
6164:
6162:
6154:
6150:
6147:
6143:
6137:
6121:
6117:
6116:
6108:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6084:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6048:
6040:
6033:
6018:
6014:
6007:
5998:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5966:
5959:
5955:
5949:
5947:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5911:
5902:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5870:
5862:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5831:
5823:
5816:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5782:
5773:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5759:Food Security
5756:
5749:
5741:
5739:0-662-33123-0
5735:
5731:
5724:
5717:
5709:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5658:
5656:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5631:The Economist
5628:
5622:
5614:
5608:
5604:
5597:
5596:
5589:
5573:
5569:
5563:
5548:
5544:
5538:
5519:
5518:
5511:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5487:
5485:
5478:
5472:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5432:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5411:
5403:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5354:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5320:
5314:
5309:
5301:
5294:
5287:
5279:
5278:
5273:
5266:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5219:
5212:
5201:
5197:
5196:DeFries, Ruth
5191:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5136:
5128:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5077:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5046:
5027:
5023:
5022:
5014:
5007:
5005:
4989:
4985:
4978:
4962:
4958:
4952:
4937:
4933:
4926:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4893:
4889:
4882:
4874:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4825:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4799:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4777:
4770:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4750:
4742:
4735:
4729:
4723:
4719:
4713:
4706:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4678:
4674:
4673:ncei.noaa.gov
4670:
4663:
4659:
4658:NCEI.NOAA.gov
4655:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4617:
4608:
4604:
4600:Annual data:
4597:
4590:
4584:
4582:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4521:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4500:
4498:
4490:
4484:
4482:
4474:
4469:
4468:
4460:
4453:
4450:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4416:
4401:
4397:
4391:
4377:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4356:
4349:
4347:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4319:
4313:
4306:
4305:
4300:
4293:
4287:
4282:
4275:
4273:
4258:
4252:
4245:
4244:
4239:
4232:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4208:
4200:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4146:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4097:
4078:
4077:
4069:
4067:
4065:
4058:, p. 801
4057:
4052:
4048:
4041:
4027:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4012:
4004:
4001:IPCC (2007),
3997:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3966:
3959:
3958:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3936:
3935:
3930:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3915:
3906:
3900:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3883:
3868:
3862:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3842:
3836:
3831:
3827:
3820:
3802:
3801:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3759:, p. 782
3758:
3753:
3749:
3742:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3641:
3635:
3616:
3615:
3607:
3588:
3587:
3579:
3572:
3565:
3563:
3555:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3535:
3518:
3514:
3513:Adbusters #75
3507:
3500:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3443:
3436:
3435:
3427:
3420:
3419:
3411:
3404:
3402:
3394:
3392:
3384:
3382:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3358:
3357:
3349:
3342:
3341:
3333:
3314:
3313:
3305:
3303:
3295:
3293:
3285:
3283:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3253:
3249:
3242:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3216:
3209:(3), 740-798.
3208:
3204:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3182:
3175:
3173:
3164:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3025:
3023:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2967:
2966:Rogelj, Joeri
2960:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2877:
2870:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2722:9789811038686
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2639:9789491506710
2635:
2631:
2624:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2606:10044/1/78069
2602:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2500:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2470:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2394:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2230:
2228:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2203:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2125:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2088:
2086:
2077:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1984:
1981:
1975:
1968:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1849:
1848:
1840:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1771:
1769:9789811039430
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1554:
1545:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1529:world economy
1526:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1494:
1492:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1452:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1351:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1314:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1281:
1275:
1270:
1261:
1259:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1220:
1219:South America
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1142:
1131:
1129:
1128:value of life
1123:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1016:
1015:United States
1011:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
992:
981:
972:
970:
965:
960:
958:
954:
950:
948:
939:
930:
928:
923:
914:
912:
908:
904:
900:
895:
891:
887:
885:
881:
880:meta-analysis
877:
872:
869:
864:
858:
856:
850:
848:
843:
833:
827:
822:
808:
799:
796:
791:
788:
784:
780:
770:
768:
762:
760:
752:
743:
739:
734:
732:
728:
724:
714:
712:
708:
704:
699:
697:
693:
689:
684:
677:
673:
670:
668:
667:probabilities
664:
663:
662:
659:
658:present value
656:
652:
647:
645:
638:
628:
626:
622:
617:
615:
611:
606:
602:
600:
596:
592:
587:
585:
580:
578:
574:
570:
569:environmental
566:
562:
556:
543:
539:
531:
526:
522:
520:
515:
510:
507:
502:
498:
496:
491:
481:
474:
470:
465:
456:
452:
450:
447:
442:
440:
436:
432:
427:
425:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
400:
385:
382:
375:
365:
361:
359:
354:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
325:economic data
322:
318:
311:
292:
288:
284:
282:
278:
274:
268:
264:
260:
255:
248:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
209:
207:
203:
199:
194:
193:air pollution
190:
186:
182:
177:
170:
167:
163:
160:
156:
153:
150:
149:
148:
146:
136:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
39:
34:
30:
19:
10883:South Africa
10660:Publications
10616:Publications
10583:
10179:Neoclassical
10169:Mercantilism
10078:Evolutionary
9940:Sociological
9913: /
9811:Geographical
9791:Evolutionary
9766:Digitization
9731:Agricultural
9694:Econometrics
9622:Price theory
9551:
9539:
9527:
9508:
9341:Carbon cycle
9298:Measurements
8993:Society and
8877:carbon sinks
8782:Climate debt
8772:Carbon price
8741:
8594:Human rights
8559:
8424:Season creep
8382:heat content
8308:Anoxic event
8221:James Hansen
7889:
7885:IPCC AR4 WG3
7853:, retrieved
7831:
7827:IPCC TAR WG3
7779:
7774:IPCC SAR WG3
7755:
7722:, retrieved
7718:the original
7698:
7694:IPCC AR4 WG2
7664:, retrieved
7644:
7639:IPCC TAR WG2
7625:
7591:
7546:
7542:
7532:
7471:
7467:
7457:
7435:. Retrieved
7431:
7422:
7410:. Retrieved
7406:
7397:
7354:
7348:
7338:
7330:
7323:. Retrieved
7301:
7295:
7282:
7268:
7243:. Retrieved
7237:
7230:
7218:. Retrieved
7213:
7203:
7191:. Retrieved
7186:
7177:
7165:. Retrieved
7161:
7151:
7116:
7112:
7102:
7090:. Retrieved
7086:
7077:
7045:(2): 29–51.
7042:
7038:
7028:
6975:
6971:
6961:
6938:
6916:. Retrieved
6912:the original
6899:
6895:
6885:
6873:. Retrieved
6858:
6851:
6839:. Retrieved
6821:
6807:
6795:. Retrieved
6777:
6770:
6747:
6703:. Retrieved
6699:
6689:
6680:
6673:. Retrieved
6669:
6659:
6647:. Retrieved
6643:
6633:
6624:
6615:
6604:
6597:. Retrieved
6593:
6569:
6559:
6550:
6540:
6528:. Retrieved
6524:
6514:
6502:. Retrieved
6498:
6488:
6475:IPCC (2022)
6471:
6456:
6449:
6437:. Retrieved
6433:
6423:
6411:. Retrieved
6407:
6398:
6362:
6355:
6343:. Retrieved
6339:
6330:
6287:
6283:
6273:
6261:. Retrieved
6257:
6193:
6189:
6179:
6168:
6140:IPCC, 2007:
6136:
6124:. Retrieved
6120:the original
6114:
6107:
6087:IPCC, 2021:
6083:
6071:. Retrieved
6064:the original
6051:
6045:
6032:
6020:. Retrieved
6017:the Guardian
6016:
6006:
5979:
5975:
5965:
5923:(1): 19–44.
5920:
5916:
5910:
5883:
5879:
5869:
5834:
5828:
5815:
5803:. Retrieved
5791:
5781:
5762:
5758:
5748:
5716:
5671:
5667:
5642:. Retrieved
5630:
5621:
5594:
5588:
5576:. Retrieved
5571:
5562:
5550:. Retrieved
5546:
5537:
5525:. Retrieved
5516:
5510:
5476:
5444:
5440:
5430:
5422:The Guardian
5421:
5410:
5367:
5363:
5353:
5341:. Retrieved
5329:
5319:
5308:
5299:
5286:
5277:the Guardian
5275:
5265:
5211:
5190:
5165:
5161:
5145:
5135:
5090:
5086:
5076:
5064:. Retrieved
5055:
5045:
5033:. Retrieved
5019:
4991:. Retrieved
4987:
4977:
4965:. Retrieved
4960:
4951:
4939:. Retrieved
4935:
4925:
4916:
4907:
4895:. Retrieved
4891:
4881:
4838:
4834:
4824:
4809:
4776:
4748:
4741:
4728:
4712:
4703:
4695:
4685:
4672:
4657:
4643:. Retrieved
4626:
4616:
4596:
4535:
4531:
4520:
4512:
4508:
4466:
4459:
4440:, retrieved
4433:the original
4428:
4415:
4403:. Retrieved
4399:
4390:
4379:, retrieved
4365:
4355:
4344:
4321:. Retrieved
4303:
4292:
4280:
4260:, retrieved
4242:
4231:
4219:. Retrieved
4216:10419/215447
4206:
4199:
4187:. Retrieved
4159:
4155:
4145:
4110:
4106:
4096:
4084:. Retrieved
4075:
4050:
4040:
4029:, retrieved
4010:
3996:
3984:. Retrieved
3979:
3975:
3965:
3955:
3932:
3893:
3882:
3870:. Retrieved
3852:
3841:
3829:
3819:
3808:, retrieved
3799:
3774:
3764:
3751:
3741:
3706:
3702:
3692:
3634:
3622:. Retrieved
3613:
3606:
3594:. Retrieved
3585:
3571:
3560:
3554:
3546:
3521:. Retrieved
3516:
3512:
3499:
3487:. Retrieved
3459:
3455:
3442:
3432:
3426:
3416:
3410:
3399:
3383:, p. 24
3379:
3354:
3348:
3338:
3332:
3320:. Retrieved
3311:
3290:
3241:
3221:IPCC, 2022:
3206:
3202:
3154:11382/517765
3136:
3132:
3122:
3085:
3081:
3071:
3038:
3034:
2980:
2976:
2959:
2932:
2928:
2915:
2882:
2869:
2834:
2830:
2819:
2786:
2779:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2704:
2698:
2673:
2669:
2656:
2629:
2623:
2586:
2582:
2568:
2556:. Retrieved
2552:Carbon Brief
2551:
2542:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2476:
2469:
2452:
2446:
2419:
2413:
2397:
2392:
2386:
2343:
2339:
2329:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2240:
2214:
2181:IPCC, 2022:
2177:
2160:10419/215027
2140:
2136:
2111:. Retrieved
2097:
2065:
1998:
1986:. Retrieved
1982:
1974:
1954:IPCC, 2007:
1950:
1897:
1893:
1883:
1872:
1867:
1855:. Retrieved
1846:
1811:. Retrieved
1797:
1751:
1745:
1702:
1698:
1636:Carbon price
1589:
1578:
1517:
1506:
1488:
1476:
1468:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1403:
1400:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1361:
1360:
1340:
1336:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1299:that absorb
1297:carbon sinks
1287:
1278:
1255:
1223:
1195:
1167:
1155:over at the
1124:
1113:In 2019 the
1112:
1104:
1091:industries.
1062:
1012:
1000:
996:
987:
964:Stern Review
961:
951:
944:
924:
920:
907:energy costs
901:from rising
896:
892:
888:
873:
859:
851:
838:
805:
792:
776:
763:
759:option value
735:
720:
706:
700:
685:
681:
648:
640:
637:Climate risk
618:
607:
603:
588:
581:
567:" of future
558:
538:(developing)
513:
511:
503:
499:
493:
478:
469:Stern Review
453:
446:Kaldor–Hicks
443:
428:
421:
402:
377:
362:
356:
337:neoclassical
315:
271:
215:
178:
174:
142:
117:
78:
45:
43:
29:
10888:South Korea
10868:Philippines
10853:North Korea
10843:New Zealand
10454:von Neumann
10223:Supply-side
10208:Physiocracy
10152:Marginalism
9841:Information
9781:Engineering
9761:Development
9756:Demographic
9627:Game theory
9604:Theoretical
9368:Carbon sink
9346:atmospheric
9211:video games
8885:Blue carbon
8513:Agriculture
8492:Marine life
8439:Water cycle
8397:temperature
8132:Fossil fuel
7976:Mark Carney
7474:(1): 2676.
7325:25 November
6762:10986/31805
6740:https://doi
6738:. Nairobi.
6439:29 December
6413:29 December
6345:21 November
6263:11 November
6221:10810/44202
5805:4 September
5674:(1): 3528.
5118:1885/265534
5056:MarketWatch
5035:15 December
4841:(1): 1624.
4645:11 December
4591:, DEFRA, UK
4555:10852/85670
4515:(1), 63-81.
3709:(2): 1–37.
3139:: 315–339.
3088:: 195–208.
2935:(9): 1747.
2676:: 143–156.
2589:: 153–168.
2361:10871/40583
2076:resrep29269
2006:. Nairobi.
1988:11 November
1925:10810/44202
1813:15 February
1471:utilitarian
1245:South Asian
1224:Similarly,
1211:heat stress
1179:food prices
1175:Agriculture
1153:heat stress
1134:Agriculture
1003:reinsurance
911:food prices
765:damages to
738:information
727:information
561:uncertainty
530:(developed)
431:consumption
291:agent-based
202:investments
10947:Categories
10763:Bangladesh
10611:Economists
10484:Schumacher
10389:Schumpeter
10359:von Wieser
10279:von Thünen
10239:Economists
10138:Circuitism
10103:Humanistic
10098:Historical
10073:Ecological
10063:Democratic
10036:Chartalism
10026:Behavioral
9989:Mainstream
9950:Statistics
9945:Solidarity
9866:Managerial
9831:Humanistic
9826:Historical
9771:Ecological
9736:Behavioral
9400:Cryosphere
9361:permafrost
9133:Resilience
9085:Adaptation
9060:Litigation
9050:Governance
8995:adaptation
8777:Carbon tax
8730:Mitigation
8667:Antarctica
8555:Disability
7855:17 January
7724:22 January
7616:. Archived
7319:1808/30278
7297:BioScience
7245:21 January
7220:20 January
7193:20 January
7167:20 January
6841:19 January
6797:19 January
6196:: 105513.
6073:10 January
6022:2 February
5886:(10): 10.
5852:10986/3949
5728:(Report).
5447:(40): 40.
5343:22 January
4961:Al Jazeera
4835:Nat Commun
4810:Nat Commun
4538:: 105383.
4442:21 January
4405:22 January
4323:19 January
4262:19 January
4221:21 January
4189:21 January
4162:: 99–106.
4086:18 January
4031:20 January
3986:21 January
3872:19 January
3810:20 January
3624:20 January
3596:19 January
3523:21 January
3489:21 January
3322:10 January
3095:1707.04870
3041:: 106779.
2485:1039547304
2461:1056192590
2400:, Zenodo,
2113:21 January
1900:: 105513.
1857:19 January
1667:References
1620:decoupling
1616:globalized
1565:See also:
1509:correlated
1501:See also:
1376:Mechanisms
1305:atmosphere
1230:irrigation
1161:irrigation
1105:Among the
1099:See also:
1089:recreation
595:vulnerable
488:See also:
397:See also:
381:Panel data
379:activity.
372:See also:
351:See also:
342:emissions.
222:adaptation
132:adaptation
54:mitigation
10893:Sri Lanka
10818:Indonesia
10803:Guatemala
10753:Australia
10748:Argentina
10703:Economics
10529:Greenspan
10494:Samuelson
10474:Galbraith
10444:Tinbergen
10384:von Mises
10379:Heckscher
10339:Edgeworth
10218:Stockholm
10213:Socialist
10113:Keynesian
10093:Happiness
10053:Classical
10014:Mutualism
10009:Anarchist
9994:Heterodox
9891:Personnel
9851:Knowledge
9816:Happiness
9806:Financial
9776:Education
9751:Democracy
9686:Empirical
9596:Economics
9415:Feedbacks
9186:Education
8687:Caribbean
8682:Australia
8609:Migration
8572:Fisheries
8518:Livestock
8444:Wildfires
8350:Heat wave
7571:159148524
7563:1356-3467
7525:CC BY 4.0
7496:2041-1723
7143:154387945
7135:1468-0440
7061:0895-3309
7002:0027-8424
6705:18 August
6675:18 August
6599:18 August
6530:18 August
6525:Bloomberg
6504:18 August
6390:198078901
6340:One Earth
6238:211004787
5800:0362-4331
5639:0013-0613
5471:250430339
5338:0362-4331
5257:203245445
5249:1018-5941
5182:245865532
5127:2328-4277
4627:NCDC.NOAA
4572:233539315
4564:0305-750X
4509:Ekonomiaz
4447:. Report
4184:158212518
4137:158112579
4129:1945-7731
3725:0002-8282
3163:0921-8009
3114:2211-467X
3063:224854628
3055:0921-8009
3005:1758-678X
2951:1996-1073
2907:155558316
2899:1556-5068
2861:1991-959X
2803:1556-5068
2771:1991-9603
2648:884831253
2615:0959-3780
2534:0165-1889
2493:cite book
2438:994399607
2378:207976337
2169:1941-1340
1942:211004787
1457:see above
1397:Locations
1366:inflation
1357:Inflation
1303:from the
1081:insurance
1073:fisheries
1065:livestock
1033:By sector
984:happening
975:By region
899:inflation
855:scenarios
798:changes.
676:insurance
565:scenarios
403:Standard
198:resources
89:inflation
10908:Tanzania
10898:Suriname
10863:Pakistan
10808:Honduras
10640:Category
10620:journals
10606:Glossary
10559:Stiglitz
10524:Rothbard
10504:Buchanan
10489:Friedman
10479:Koopmans
10469:Leontief
10449:Robinson
10334:Marshall
10184:Lausanne
10088:Georgism
10083:Feminist
10031:Buddhist
10021:Austrian
9920:Regional
9896:Planning
9871:Monetary
9801:Feminist
9746:Cultural
9741:Business
9541:Glossary
9529:Category
9351:biologic
9065:Politics
8957:Personal
8662:Americas
8530:Children
8296:Physical
8089:Overview
8029:Overview
7915:citation
7864:citation
7806:citation
7733:citation
7675:citation
7666:2 August
7606:citation
7598:archived
7514:33976156
7447:Archived
7432:phys.org
7389:32561753
7304:: 8–12.
7273:Archived
7092:27 April
7069:15530729
7020:31010922
6700:PBS News
6644:The Hill
6570:The Hill
6322:38632481
6313:11023931
6230:32006762
6149:Archived
5861:55848822
5708:37402712
5699:10319847
5431:Guardian
5426:Archived
5402:38632481
5393:11023931
5150:Archived
5066:29 March
5060:Archived
5026:Archived
4936:The Hill
4892:The Hill
4873:32286257
4700:Archived
4677:Archived
4662:Archived
4639:Archived
4607:Archived
4452:Archived
4381:27 April
3779:Archived
3733:59019533
3519:(1): 4–5
3484:14011838
3013:92398486
2929:Energies
2811:11719708
2690:57375075
2396:, 2022.
2370:31733928
2321:29623109
1963:Archived
1934:32006762
1804:Archived
1789:(2014).
1737:38632481
1728:11023931
1630:See also
1612:politics
1592:degrowth
1567:Degrowth
1525:Swiss Re
1252:Industry
1164:warming.
1069:forestry
1007:Swiss Re
1005:company
753:(ppm) CO
577:economic
139:Purposes
122:and the
38:scenario
10933:Vietnam
10878:Senegal
10848:Nigeria
10793:Germany
10778:Finland
10758:Austria
10677:Portals
10655:Outline
10626:Schools
10618: (
10579:Piketty
10574:Krugman
10439:Kuznets
10429:Kalecki
10404:Polanyi
10294:Cournot
10289:Bastiat
10274:Ricardo
10264:Malthus
10254:Quesnay
10157:Marxian
10048:Chicago
9978:history
9973:Schools
9960:Welfare
9930:Service
9721:Applied
9356:oceanic
9206:fiction
9055:Justice
9006:Society
8614:Poverty
8328:Drought
8196:History
8120:Sources
7970:. 2020
7582:Sources
7505:8113441
7476:Bibcode
7437:14 June
7412:4 April
7407:EIB.org
7380:7305220
7359:Bibcode
7269:iea.org
7011:6525504
6980:Bibcode
6918:6 April
6875:6 April
6649:24 July
6594:AP News
6292:Bibcode
6198:Bibcode
5984:Bibcode
5925:Bibcode
5888:Bibcode
5676:Bibcode
5449:Bibcode
5372:Bibcode
5095:Bibcode
4993:24 July
4988:AP News
4967:24 July
4941:24 July
4897:24 July
4864:7156390
4843:Bibcode
4449:website
4164:Bibcode
3464:Bibcode
2985:Bibcode
2839:Bibcode
2749:Bibcode
2312:5880221
2291:Bibcode
2249:Bibcode
1902:Bibcode
1707:Bibcode
1215:Central
1191:economy
1085:tourism
742:hedging
257:Annual
81:metrics
10918:Uganda
10913:Turkey
10903:Sweden
10873:Russia
10858:Norway
10833:Mexico
10788:Gambia
10783:France
10768:Brazil
10564:Thaler
10544:Ostrom
10539:Becker
10534:Sowell
10514:Baumol
10419:Myrdal
10414:Sraffa
10409:Frisch
10399:Knight
10394:Keynes
10369:Fisher
10364:Veblen
10349:Pareto
10329:Menger
10324:George
10319:Jevons
10314:Walras
10304:Gossen
10228:Thermo
9906:Public
9901:Policy
9856:Labour
9821:Health
9336:Albedo
9329:Theory
9040:Denial
8831:Energy
8692:Europe
8672:Arctic
8657:Africa
8582:Health
8577:Gender
8535:Cities
8460:Biomes
8367:Oceans
8355:Marine
8078:Causes
7904:
7846:
7795:
7710:
7657:
7593:(IPCC)
7569:
7561:
7512:
7502:
7494:
7387:
7377:
7141:
7133:
7067:
7059:
7018:
7008:
7000:
6949:
6866:
6832:
6788:
6388:
6378:
6320:
6310:
6284:Nature
6236:
6228:
6126:20 May
5956:. In:
5859:
5798:
5736:
5706:
5696:
5644:2 June
5637:
5609:
5578:2 June
5552:7 July
5527:7 July
5477:et al.
5469:
5433:cites
5400:
5390:
5364:Nature
5336:
5255:
5247:
5237:
5180:
5146:Forbes
5125:
4871:
4861:
4783:Change
4765:
4570:
4562:
4400:GOV.UK
4372:
4314:
4253:
4182:
4135:
4127:
4022:
3901:
3863:
3731:
3723:
3676:. In:
3482:
3272:. In:
3250:. In:
3225:. In:
3161:
3112:
3061:
3053:
3011:
3003:
2949:
2905:
2897:
2859:
2809:
2801:
2769:
2719:
2688:
2646:
2636:
2613:
2558:2 June
2532:
2483:
2459:
2436:
2426:
2376:
2368:
2340:Lancet
2319:
2309:
2185:. In:
2167:
2074:
2049:. In:
1940:
1932:
1766:
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