1069:...replace the traditional terminologies of 'Chalcolithic', Iron Age, Proto-Historic, Early Historic, and Mauryan with those of a 'Localisation Era' followed by an Era of 'Regionalisation' and an Era of 'Integration'. We argue that Kenoyer’s (1998) suggestion that the Era of Integration was only reached with the Mauryan period (c. 317 BC) was overcautious and that such a cultural and economic stage became evident in the archaeological record as early as 600 BC This task is likely to be controversial and we acknowledge that not all scholars will be receptive.
511:
ethnographic observations, Shaffer developed a series of important critiques of archaeological theory. Shaffer and
Liechtenstein argued that the colonial legacy of Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggot led to the projection of colonial stereotypes onto the ancient past. As a result of these critiques, Shaffer adapted the system developed by Willey and Phillips into one suitable for the Indus Valley Civilisation. In his original publication, this complex social formation was termed the
1065:
introduced in colonial times, with scholars who claimed that "a distinct cultural, linguistic, and social transformation lay between the Indus
Civilisation and the Early Historic," and perpetuated by "a number of post-Independence South Asian scholars." Coningham & Young adopt Shaffer's terminology "to better understand and explore the processes which led to the two main urban-focused developments in South Asia," and
527:
various phases. A phase is an archaeological unit possessing traits sufficiently characteristic to distinguish it from all other units similarly conceived. According to
Shaffer, there was considerable regional variation, as well as differences in cultural sequences, and these eras and phases are not evolutionary sequences, and cannot uniformly be applied to every site.
700:
in its oldest layers, dated at the 8th-7th millennium BCE. He proposes older datings for
Bhirrana compared to the conventional Harappan datings, yet sticks to the Harappan terminology. This proposal is supported by Sarkar et al. (2016), co-authored by Rao, who also refer to a proposal by Possehl, and
557:
Period I belongs to this era. The
Regionalisation Era corresponds to ca. 4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer) or ca. 5000-2600 BCE (Coningham & Young). The Early Harappan phase belongs to this Era. According to Manuel, "the most significant development of this period was the shift in population from the
665:
Possehl's mixture of older periodisation (Mature
Harappan), artefact-based descriptive classifications (Early Iron Age), and socio-economic processes (Developed Village Farming Communities) is not unique and others, such as Singh (2008), have presented similar categories which treat the Indus Valley
510:
During his archaeological research in
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Pakistan, and India, Shaffer observed the fluid and adaptive nature of local customs in rural South Asia and the many ways that cultural practices interfaced with material culture. Based on both his extensive work in the field and these
1364:
According to
Dikshit and Rami, the estimation for the antiquity of Bhirrana as pre-Harappan is based on two calculations of charcoal samples, giving two dates of respectively 7570-7180 BCE, and 6689-6201 BCE. Hakra Ware culture is a material culture which is contemporaneous with the early Harappan
465:
was coined by M. R. Mughal in his dissertation at the
University of Pennsylvania which provided a synthesis of his many surveys and studies throughout Pakistan. This classification is primarily based on Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, assuming an evolutionary sequence. According to Manuel, this division
543:...it remains questionable whether there is sufficient difference and distinction between Shaffer’s definitions of Regionalisation and Localisation. Shaffer’s own definition (quoted earlier) observes the similarities of the two eras, with some differentiation in the form of contact between groups.
494:
to divide past societies into a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. Although this system is very useful for its original purpose of organizing museum collections, it is unable to fully characterize the dynamic and fluid nature of human inter-settlement relationships. To address this issue,
1064:
Coningham & Young note that most works on urbanisation in early Indian history focus on either the Indus Valley
Civilisation or the Early Historic Period, "thus continuing the long-standing division between the Indus and Early Historic." According to Coningham & Young, this division was
534:
A critical feature of Shaffer's developmental framework was replacing the traditional Mesolithic/Neolithic, 'Chalcolithic'/Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan terminology with Eras which were intended to reflect the longer-term changes or processes which provided the platform for
526:
Shaffer divided the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era," and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases. Each era can be divided into
477:
and Young, it was "cemented in common use" due to "the highly influential British archaeologists Raymond and Bridget Allchin used similar subdivisions in their work." According to Coningham and Young, this approach is "limited" and "restricted," putting too much emphasis on the mature phase.
535:
eventual complexity and urbanisation Notably, Shaffer's categorisation also allowed scholars to frame sites such as Mehrgarh, accepted by all as partly ancestral to the Indus cities, within a distinctly pervasive Indus tradition rather than lying outside a Pre-Urban or incipient urban phase.
439:
The most commonly used nomenclature classifies the Indus Valley civilisation into early, mature, and late Harappan phases. The Indus Valley Civilisation was preceded by local agricultural villages, from where the river plains were populated when water management became available, creating an
456:
led to the discovery of numerous prehistoric sites of unknown association. Following excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, the prehistoric sites in Sindh and Baluchistan were thought to represent a culture that migrated from Baluchistan to the Indus Valley to establish the Indus Valley
2350:
Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus Valley Tradition and the Indo-Gangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp. 213–257. Berlin, W.
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They also note that the term "Integration Era" may not be applicable to the whole of South Asia for the period of the Mature Harappan Civilisation, because "large swathes of northern and southern South Asia were unaffected by what was, on a subcontinental scale, a regional feature."
581:". It is a period of integration of various smaller cultures. The Localisation Era (1900-1300 BCE) is the fourth and final period of the Indus Valley Tradition. It refers to the fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era. The Localisation Era comprises several phases:
1374:
Sarkar et al. (2016): "Conventionally the Harappan cultural levels have been classified into 1) an Early Ravi Phase (~5.7–4.8 ka BP), 2) Transitional Kot Diji phase (~4.8–4.6 ka BP), 3) Mature phase (~4.6–3.9 ka BP) and 4) Late declining (painted Grey Ware) phase (3.9–3.3 ka
1387:
According to Sarkar et al. (2016), the various cultural levels at Bhirrana, as deciphered from the archaeological artifacts, are pre-Harappan (~9.5–8 ka BP), Early Harappan (~8–6.5 ka BP), Early mature Harappan (~6.5–5 ka BP) and mature Harappan (~5–2.8 ka BP). Compare
1053:, and Coningham & Young, provide an overview of developmental phases of India in which the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Early Historic Period are combined. The post-Harappan phase shows renewed regionalisation, culminating in the integration of the
507:, or a heuristic concept for describing the distribution of "relatedness" across time and space. These concepts were later adapted by Jim G. Shaffer and Diane Liechtenstein as a potential solution to a similar problem in the Greater Indus Valley.
2354:
Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd Edition), edited by R. Ehrich, pp. 441–464. Chicago, University of Chicago
896:, taking into account new discoveries, periodised the Harappan Civilisation in a chronological framework that includes the Early, Mature, and Late Harappan Phase, and starts with the same date as the Regionalisation Era:
2340:
S.P. Gupta. The dawn of civilization, in G.C. Pande (ed.)(History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, ed., D.P. Chattophadhyaya, vol I Part 1) (New Delhi:Centre for Studies in Civilizations,
552:
The Early Food Producing Era corresponds to ca. 7000-5500 BCE. It is also called the Neolithic period. The economy of this era was based on food production, and agriculture developed in the Indus Valley.
2515:
679:, looking at the Indus "through a prism influenced by the archaeology of Mesopotamia," using the terms Early Food Producing Phase, Pre-Urban Phase, Urban Phase, and Post-Urban Phase.
466:"places the Indus Valley within a tripartite evolutionary framework, of the birth, fluorescence, and death of a society in a fashion familiar to the social evolutionary concepts of
2044:
558:
uplands of Baluchistan to the floodplains of the Indus Valley." This era was very productive in arts, and new crafts were invented. The Regionalisation Era includes the
2240:
Sarkar, Anindya (2016), "Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization",
890:
While the Early Harappan Phase was proposed to start at ca. 3300 BCE, the Regionalisation Era has been proposed to start earlier, at 4000 BCE to ca. 5000 BCE.
2114:(1997), "Early city-states in South Asia: comparing the Harappan phase and Early Historic period", in Charlton, Thomas Henry; Nichols, Deborah L. (eds.),
2397:
431:, newer periodisations include the Neolithic early farming settlements, and use a stage–phase model, often combining terminology from various systems.
2344:
Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press and American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Karachi.
2150:
1579:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2011). "Regional Cultures of the Greater Indus Valley: The Ravi and Kot Diji Phase Assemblages of Harappa, Pakistan".
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and the Early Historic Traditions in very different ways and thus reinforce established divisions which prevent easy comparative discussion.
592:, Late Harappan). The Punjab Phase includes the Cemetery H and other cultures. Punjab Phase sites are found in Harappa and in other places.
2126:
Inter-regional Interaction and Urbanism in the Ancient Indus Valley: A Geologic Provenience Study of Harappa's Rock and Mineral Assemblage
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or the "persistent configuration of basic technologies, as well as structure, in the context of geographical and temporal continuity".
2430:
599:
31:
2286:
Shaffer, J. G. (1992), "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age", in Ehrich, R. (ed.),
2390:
1318:
2055:
1042:
The consensus on the dating of the Integration Era, or Urban, or Mature Harappan Phase, is broadly accepted to be 2600-1900 BC.
1581:
Cultural Relations Between the Indus and the Iranian Plateau During the Third Millennium BCE, Edited by T. Osada and M. Witzel
2317:
2215:
1981:
1910:
1879:
1821:
1729:
707:
2347:
Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India. In Journal of World Prehistory 5(4): 331–385.
2159:
410:
1054:
2975:
2383:
2365:
2134:
619:
The Pirak Phase is a phase of the Localisation Era of both the Indus Valley Tradition and the Baluchistan Tradition.
2465:
2045:"Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates"
500:
701:
various radiocarbon dates from other sites, though giving 800 BCE as the enddate for the Mature Harappan phase:
2944:
1252:
427:. While the Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into Early, Mature, and Late Harappan by archaeologists like
342:
17:
491:
2985:
2859:
440:
integrated civilisation. This broader time range has also been called the Indus Age and the Indus Tradition.
2949:
1611:
Shafer, Jim G.; Liechtenstein, Diane. "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology".
1313:
2980:
2225:
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424:
334:
2510:
2481:
403:
287:
106:
2493:
458:
1613:
Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Edited by G. Erdosy
635:
for this broader timespan, Possehl arranged archaeological phases into a seven-stage sequence:
2990:
95:
2205:
2074:
Gupta, S.P. (1999), "The dawn of civilisation", in Pande, G.C.; Chattophadhyaya, D.P. (eds.),
2809:
2500:
2124:
2111:
1050:
368:
1595:
2864:
2799:
2249:
2083:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991), "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India",
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Coningham & Young raise theoretical concerns with Shaffer's periodisation, noting that
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143:
8:
2814:
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307:
263:
251:
243:
212:
83:
79:
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Report of Archaeological Survey Work in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan
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based on his discovery of earlier occupational phases in the Cholistan Desert. The term
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2270:
2144:
2100:
1563:
1168:
697:
364:
346:
311:
216:
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2531:
2313:
2275:
2211:
2130:
1341:
1286:
315:
299:
295:
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271:
235:
227:
208:
204:
91:
60:
2104:
2699:
2585:
2265:
2257:
2092:
1346:
487:
428:
372:
360:
338:
326:
283:
267:
259:
255:
247:
239:
200:
196:
139:
127:
2889:
2307:
2201:
2170:
628:
474:
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History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, vol I Part 1
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163:
99:
2370:
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609:
496:
467:
171:
147:
75:
2375:
30:"Integration Era" redirects here. For the 1947–present era of baseball, see
2854:
2779:
2719:
2625:
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2605:
2560:
2536:
2455:
2450:
2279:
2192:, in Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham Battaramulla, R.A.E. (eds.),
1291:
595:
585:
563:
179:
151:
50:
2224:
Rao, L.S.; Sahu, N.B.; Sahu, Prabash; Shastry, U.A.; Diwan, Samir (2005),
2910:
2769:
2420:
1855:
893:
716:, compares as follows with the conventional datings, and Shaffer (Eras).
453:
167:
1396:, late Harappan elements until 800 BCE, together with Painted Grey Ware.
2774:
2744:
2724:
2714:
2704:
2684:
2645:
2620:
2575:
2570:
2096:
1248:
1005:
984:
947:
589:
175:
42:
2261:
612:(Late Harappan and Lustrous Red Ware). The Rangpur Phase sites are in
2923:
2844:
2794:
2709:
2694:
2679:
2650:
2635:
2036:
Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE
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2834:
2749:
2729:
2660:
2600:
2580:
2565:
2547:
2440:
2435:
1336:
1111:
926:
693:
571:
554:
386:
131:
2189:
631:
includes the Neolithic stage in his periodisation, using the term
2939:
2839:
2829:
2824:
2804:
2789:
2640:
2590:
2555:
980:
613:
559:
423:
Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the
376:
2226:"New light on the excavation of Harappan settlement at Bhirrana"
1707:
1705:
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2784:
2764:
2734:
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1924:
1922:
1920:
1389:
103:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
2879:
2759:
2754:
2671:
2595:
1785:
1741:
1739:
1702:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1393:
1046:
Durée longue: Harappan Civilisation and Early Historic Period
606:) The Jhukar Phase refers to Mohenjo-daro and sites in Sindh.
603:
567:
1917:
1057:
of the Early Historic Period, starting ca. 600 BC, c.q. the
639:
Beginnings of Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps
486:
Scholarship in archaeology commonly uses a variation of the
1509:
1429:
87:
1756:
1754:
1736:
1658:
1646:
2116:
The Archaeology of City-states: Cross-cultural Approaches
1993:
1991:
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1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1692:
1690:
1688:
642:
Developed Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps
2160:"Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan : A Linkage"
1751:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1365:
Ravi phase culture (3300-2800 BCE) of the Indus Valley.
2003:
1988:
1957:
1840:
1624:
1622:
1969:
1934:
1898:
1766:
1685:
1551:. Peshawar: Government Press, N.W. Frontier Province.
1482:
1480:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
2190:"Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley"
1797:
1499:
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1495:
1450:
1383:
1381:
682:
675:
A "similar framework" as Shaffer's has been used by
515:, after the type site at Harappa, Punjab. This term
2288:
Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd Edition)
1619:
1526:
443:
2223:
2207:The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective
1867:
1828:
1717:
1477:
1408:
2309:The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society
1886:
1809:
1492:
1378:
648:Transition from Early Harappan to Mature Harappan
577:The Integration Era refers to the period of the "
27:Prehistoric eras of the Indus Valley Civilisation
2967:
2078:, New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations
1077:
1610:
2294:
2033:
1928:
1791:
1711:
1679:
1652:
1520:
1444:
481:
2405:
2391:
657:Early Iron Age of Northern India and Pakistan
404:
2028:Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History
1593:
1198:Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilisation)
2516:Inventions of the Indus Valley Civilisation
2506:Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation
687:
2398:
2384:
2149:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1980:sfn error: no target: CITEREFParpola2-15 (
1909:sfn error: no target: CITEREFKenoyer1007 (
1561:
411:
397:
2297:Method and Theory in American Archaeology
2269:
2194:Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume
1878:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSarkar2015 (
1728:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWright1999 (
1597:Method and Theory in American Archaeology
1594:Willey, Gordon; Philip, Phillips (1958).
706:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRao2005 (
457:Civilisation. This notion was refuted by
2122:
32:History of baseball in the United States
2285:
2200:
2110:
2082:
2042:
2009:
1997:
1975:
1963:
1951:
1904:
1861:
1849:
1745:
1640:
1628:
1578:
1532:
1486:
1423:
1301:c.1500-600 BCE (Coningham & Young)
1147:c.5000-3200 BCE (Coningham & Young)
713:
14:
2968:
2302:
2290:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
2239:
2187:
2065:
2034:Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015),
1873:
1834:
1820:sfn error: no target: CITEREFLaw2008 (
1779:
1723:
1696:
1503:
1471:
1358:
885:
766:Pre-Harappan Hakra Period (Neolithic)
2379:
2073:
2068:The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia
2025:
1892:
1803:
1544:
623:
2157:
1760:
696:, claims to have found pre-Harappan
661:According to Coningham & Young,
2052:Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology
1815:
702:
616:, Saurashtra, and mainland Gujarat.
24:
2334:
1600:. The University of Alabama Press.
1562:Fairservis, Walter Ashlin (1971).
1037:
803:Period IIA: Early Mature Harappan
530:According to Coningham and Young,
25:
3002:
2359:
2123:Law (II), William Randal (2008).
683:Datings and alternative proposals
434:
444:Early, Mature, and Late Harappan
1634:
1604:
1587:
1572:
1368:
763:Period IA: Hakra Wares Culture
2945:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
2371:Ancient Civilisations Timeline
2312:, Cambridge University Press,
1555:
1538:
1145:c.4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer)
670:
505:Culture-Historical Integration
13:
1:
2129:. Ann Arbor, MI. p. 83.
1568:. New York: The Macmillan Co.
1402:
1078:Concordance of periodisations
65:
2950:Northern Black Polished Ware
2167:Pragdhara 18, 229–247 (2008)
2066:Erdosy, George, ed. (1995),
2038:, Cambridge University Press
1314:Northern Black Polished Ware
1130:Pre-Harappan/Early Harappan
832:Period IIB: Mature Harappan
503:developed a system based on
7:
2466:Indus–Mesopotamia relations
2085:Journal of World Prehistory
1330:
492:Christian Jürgensen Thomsen
482:Shaffer: Harappan Tradition
10:
3007:
2018:
1929:Coningham & Young 2015
1792:Coningham & Young 2015
1712:Coningham & Young 2015
1680:Coningham & Young 2015
1653:Willey & Phillips 1958
1521:Coningham & Young 2015
1445:Coningham & Young 2015
1203:Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
1160:c.5000-2800 BCE (Kenoyer)
789:Period IB: Early Harappan
519:stems from his concept of
29:
2976:Indus Valley civilisation
2955:Painted Grey Ware culture
2932:
2908:
2669:
2545:
2524:
2474:
2413:
2407:Indus Valley Civilisation
2295:Willey; Phillips (1958),
2118:, Smithsonian Inst. Press
1864:, I:441–464, II:425–446..
1274:
1256:
1247:
1239:
1207:
1197:
1155:
1141:
1129:
1122:Early Food Producing Era
1121:
1107:
1016:
1013:
952:
934:
837:
834:
831:
828:
822:
819:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
781:Early Food Producing Era
780:
777:
774:
771:
579:Indus Valley civilisation
425:Indus Valley Civilisation
335:Indus Valley Civilisation
2511:Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
1643:, I:441–464, II:425–446.
1352:
1299:c.1200-300 BCE (Kenoyer)
752:Conventional date (Era)
688:Early Food Producing Era
288:Proto-Villanovan culture
107:Late Bronze Age collapse
2026:Ahmed, Mihktar (2014),
1316:(Iron Age)(700-200 BCE)
835:Mature Harappan Period
746:Conventional date (HP)
712:, and as summarized by
547:
2909:Indus Valley sites in
2670:Indus Valley sites in
2546:Indus Valley sites in
2112:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark
2043:Dikshit, K.N. (2013),
1565:Roots of Ancient India
1253:Ochre Coloured Pottery
1071:
809:Early Mature Harappan
806:Early Harappan Period
668:
545:
537:
343:Ochre Coloured Pottery
2501:Harappan architecture
2366:Article with Timeline
2188:Manuel, Mark (2010),
1545:Stein, Aurel (1905).
1115:(aceramic Neolithic)
1067:
961:Period of Transition
867:Late Harappan Period
864:Late Harappan Period
663:
541:
532:
2986:Prehistoric Pakistan
2475:Art and architecture
1135:(ceramic Neolithic)
1022:ca. 1500 - 1400 BCE
998:ca. 1900 - 1500 BCE
973:ca. 2600 - 1900 BCE
958:ca. 2800 - 2600 BCE
940:ca. 3500 - 2800 BCE
935:Regionalisation Era
919:ca. 4000 - 3500 BCE
815:Regionalisation Era
792:Transitional Period
190:Eurasia and Siberia
2525:Language and script
2414:History and culture
2254:2016NatSR...626555S
2210:, Rowman Altamira,
2202:Possehl, Gregory L.
2158:Mani, B.R. (2008),
2054:(9), archived from
1319:Second urbanisation
1142:Regionalisation Era
1055:Second Urbanisation
1051:Jonathan M. Kenoyer
886:Regionalisation Era
692:Rao, who excavated
327:Indian subcontinent
308:Atlantic Bronze Age
264:Bell Beaker culture
213:Mezhovskaya culture
2461:Cemetery H culture
2242:Scientific Reports
2176:on 18 January 2017
2097:10.1007/BF00978474
1976:Parpola & 2-15
1763:, p. 237-238.
1748:, p. 129-133.
778:c.7000-c.4500 BCE
654:Posturban Harappan
624:Possehl: Indus Age
521:Cultural Tradition
513:Harappan Tradition
312:Bronze Age Britain
217:Cherkaskul culture
2981:Prehistoric India
2963:
2962:
2885:Kotla Nihang Khan
2532:Harappan language
2319:978-0-521-57219-4
2262:10.1038/srep26555
2217:978-0-7591-1642-9
1342:Iron Age in India
1328:
1327:
1294:(c.1500-500 BCE)
1287:Painted Grey Ware
1257:Localisation Era
1148:
1035:
1034:
1017:Localisation Era
883:
882:
879:Localisation Era
861:
743:
736:
729:
448:Early surveys by
421:
420:
330:(c. 3300–1200 BC)
316:Nordic Bronze Age
300:Golasecca culture
296:Canegrate culture
292:Hallstatt culture
272:Terramare culture
209:Andronovo culture
205:Sintashta culture
16:(Redirected from
2998:
2586:Lakhueen-jo-daro
2441:Mehrgarh culture
2436:Bhirrana culture
2400:
2393:
2386:
2377:
2376:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2299:
2291:
2282:
2273:
2236:
2230:
2220:
2197:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2175:
2169:, archived from
2164:
2154:
2148:
2140:
2119:
2107:
2079:
2070:
2062:
2060:
2049:
2039:
2030:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1932:
1926:
1915:
1914:
1902:
1896:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1764:
1758:
1749:
1743:
1734:
1733:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1700:
1694:
1683:
1677:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1632:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1542:
1536:
1530:
1524:
1518:
1507:
1501:
1490:
1484:
1475:
1469:
1448:
1442:
1427:
1421:
1397:
1385:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1347:History of India
1321:(c.500-200 BCE)
1208:Integration Era
1186:(Kot Diji Phase,
1158:c.3300-2800 BCE
1144:
1094:Harappan phases
1091:Mehrgarh phases
1082:
1081:
993:Integration Era
990:Mature Harappan
922:Formative Phase
899:
898:
859:
852:Integration Era
846:Mature Harappan
838:Mature Harappan
812:c.4500-2600 BCE
741:
734:
727:
719:
718:
711:
488:Three-age system
429:Mortimer Wheeler
413:
406:
399:
361:Arsenical bronze
339:Bronze Age India
331:
284:Urnfield culture
268:Apennine culture
260:Srubnaya culture
256:Catacomb culture
232:
231:(c. 3200–900 BC)
201:Abashevo culture
197:Poltavka culture
193:
192:(c. 2700–700 BC)
120:
119:(c. 3100–300 BC)
72:
70:
67:
39:
38:
21:
3006:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2928:
2904:
2890:Kerala-no-dhoro
2665:
2541:
2520:
2470:
2409:
2404:
2362:
2337:
2335:Further reading
2332:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2304:Wright, Rita P.
2228:
2218:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2162:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2058:
2047:
2021:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1996:
1989:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1935:
1927:
1918:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1860:
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1833:
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1710:
1703:
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1519:
1510:
1502:
1493:
1485:
1478:
1470:
1451:
1443:
1430:
1422:
1409:
1405:
1400:
1386:
1379:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1333:
1317:
1300:
1298:
1297:Regionalisation
1290:
1276:
1251:
1187:
1185:
1166:
1159:
1157:
1146:
1143:
1134:
1114:
1080:
1048:
1040:
1038:Integration Era
953:Early Harappan
911:Harappan Phase
888:
858:
824:
795:Early Harappan
749:Harappan Phase
740:
733:
726:
705:
690:
685:
673:
651:Mature Harappan
629:Gregory Possehl
626:
550:
501:Philip Phillips
495:archaeologists
484:
450:Sir Aurel Stein
446:
437:
417:
380:
379:
358:
350:
349:
332:
329:
319:
318:
304:Argaric culture
280:Tumulus culture
276:Únětice culture
233:
230:
220:
219:
194:
191:
183:
182:
121:
118:
110:
109:
73:
68:
63:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3004:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2936:
2934:
2933:Related topics
2930:
2929:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2915:
2913:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2676:
2674:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2656:Judeir-jo-daro
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2631:Pir Shah Jurio
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2552:
2550:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2491:
2489:Pashupati seal
2486:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2403:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2361:
2360:External links
2358:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2318:
2300:
2292:
2283:
2237:
2221:
2216:
2198:
2185:
2155:
2135:
2120:
2108:
2080:
2071:
2063:
2040:
2031:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2012:, p. 336.
2002:
2000:, p. 333.
1987:
1968:
1966:, p. 335.
1956:
1933:
1916:
1897:
1885:
1866:
1854:
1852:, p. 132.
1839:
1827:
1808:
1806:, p. 107.
1796:
1794:, p. 158.
1784:
1782:, p. 2-3.
1765:
1750:
1735:
1716:
1714:, p. 145.
1701:
1699:, p. 149.
1684:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1618:
1603:
1586:
1571:
1554:
1537:
1525:
1508:
1491:
1476:
1474:, p. 148.
1449:
1428:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1377:
1367:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1295:
1289:(1200-600 BCE)
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:Iron Age India
1273:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1262:1700–1300 BCE
1259:
1258:
1255:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1240:Late Harappan
1238:
1237:1900–1700 BCE
1234:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1225:2200–1900 BCE
1222:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1213:2450–2200 BCE
1210:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1195:2600–2450 BCE
1192:
1191:
1189:
1182:
1179:
1178:2800–2600 BCE
1175:
1174:
1172:
1163:
1161:
1156:Early Harappan
1154:
1153:3300–2800 BCE
1150:
1149:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1133:Mehrgarh II-VI
1131:
1128:
1127:5500–3300 BCE
1124:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1105:7000–5500 BCE
1102:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1079:
1076:
1061:, ca. 300 BC.
1047:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1014:Late Harappan
1012:
1002:
999:
995:
994:
991:
988:
977:
974:
970:
969:
962:
959:
955:
954:
951:
944:
941:
937:
936:
933:
930:
923:
920:
916:
915:
912:
909:
906:
903:
887:
884:
881:
880:
877:
874:
873:Late Harappan
871:
870:1900-1300 BCE
868:
865:
862:
860:(1800-800 BCE)
854:
853:
850:
849:2600-1900 BCE
847:
844:
843:2600-1900 BCE
840:
839:
836:
833:
830:
829:3000-1800 BCE
826:
825:
823:Early Harappan
821:
820:3300-2600 BCE
817:
816:
813:
810:
807:
804:
801:
800:4500-3000 BCE
797:
796:
793:
790:
787:
786:6000-4500 BCE
783:
782:
779:
776:
773:
772:7000-3300 BCE
770:
767:
764:
761:
760:7500-6000 BCE
757:
756:
753:
750:
747:
744:
737:
735:(Dikshit 2013)
730:
723:
689:
686:
684:
681:
672:
669:
659:
658:
655:
652:
649:
646:
645:Early Harappan
643:
640:
625:
622:
621:
620:
617:
607:
593:
549:
546:
483:
480:
463:Early Harappan
445:
442:
436:
435:Periodisations
433:
419:
418:
416:
415:
408:
401:
393:
390:
389:
382:
381:
359:
356:
355:
352:
351:
333:
325:
324:
321:
320:
234:
226:
225:
222:
221:
195:
189:
188:
185:
184:
122:
116:
115:
112:
111:
74:
58:
57:
54:
53:
46:
45:
26:
18:Early Harappan
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3003:
2992:
2991:Periodization
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2907:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
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2756:
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2701:
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2696:
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2681:
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2675:
2673:
2668:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
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2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
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2480:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2446:Kulli culture
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2426:Periodisation
2424:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2339:
2338:
2321:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2222:
2219:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2138:
2136:9780549628798
2132:
2128:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2061:on 2017-01-18
2057:
2053:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2029:
2024:
2023:
2011:
2006:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1983:
1978:, p. 17.
1977:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1954:, p. 53.
1953:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1931:, p. 28.
1930:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1912:
1907:, p. 53.
1906:
1901:
1894:
1889:
1881:
1875:
1870:
1863:
1858:
1851:
1846:
1844:
1836:
1831:
1823:
1818:, p. 83.
1817:
1812:
1805:
1800:
1793:
1788:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1762:
1757:
1755:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1731:
1725:
1720:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1654:
1649:
1642:
1637:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1614:
1607:
1599:
1598:
1590:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1566:
1558:
1550:
1549:
1541:
1534:
1529:
1523:, p. 25.
1522:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1505:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1488:
1483:
1481:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1447:, p. 27.
1446:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1425:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1407:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1375:BP13,19,20)."
1371:
1361:
1357:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1296:
1293:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1275:Post-Harappan
1272:1300–600 BCE
1271:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1183:
1181:Mehrgarh VII
1180:
1177:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:(Ravi Phase;
1164:
1162:
1152:
1151:
1139:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1108:Pre-Harappan
1104:
1103:
1099:
1097:Other phases
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1059:Maurya Empire
1056:
1052:
1043:
1031:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1011:
1007:
1003:
1000:
997:
996:
992:
989:
986:
982:
978:
976:Mature Phase
975:
972:
971:
967:
963:
960:
957:
956:
949:
945:
942:
939:
938:
932:Pre-Harappan
931:
928:
924:
921:
918:
917:
913:
910:
907:
904:
901:
900:
897:
895:
891:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
857:1800-1600 BCE
856:
855:
851:
848:
845:
842:
841:
827:
818:
798:
794:
791:
788:
785:
784:
775:Pre-Harappan
769:Pre-Harappan
768:
765:
762:
759:
758:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:(Sarkar 2016)
738:
731:
724:
721:
720:
717:
715:
709:
704:
699:
695:
680:
678:
667:
662:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
637:
636:
634:
630:
618:
615:
611:
610:Rangpur Phase
608:
605:
601:
597:
594:
591:
587:
584:
583:
582:
580:
575:
573:
569:
565:
561:
556:
544:
540:
536:
531:
528:
524:
522:
518:
514:
508:
506:
502:
498:
497:Gordon Willey
493:
490:developed by
489:
479:
476:
473:According to
471:
469:
468:Elman Service
464:
460:
455:
451:
441:
432:
430:
426:
414:
409:
407:
402:
400:
395:
394:
392:
391:
388:
384:
383:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
354:
353:
348:
344:
340:
336:
328:
323:
322:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
229:
224:
223:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
187:
186:
181:
177:
173:
172:Shang dynasty
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
114:
113:
108:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
62:
56:
55:
52:
48:
47:
44:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
2780:Lohari Ragho
2626:Tharro Hills
2616:Sutkagan Dor
2606:Rehman Dheri
2561:Mohenjo-daro
2537:Indus script
2494:
2483:Dancing Girl
2482:
2456:Bara culture
2451:Amri culture
2425:
2325:29 September
2323:, retrieved
2308:
2296:
2287:
2245:
2241:
2232:
2206:
2193:
2178:, retrieved
2171:the original
2166:
2125:
2115:
2088:
2084:
2075:
2067:
2056:the original
2051:
2035:
2027:
2010:Kenoyer 1991
2005:
1998:Kenoyer 1991
1971:
1964:Kenoyer 1991
1959:
1952:Kenoyer 1997
1905:Kenoyer 1007
1900:
1888:
1869:
1862:Shaffer 1992
1857:
1850:Dikshit 2013
1830:
1811:
1799:
1787:
1746:Dikshit 2013
1719:
1648:
1641:Shaffer 1992
1636:
1629:Shaffer 1992
1612:
1606:
1596:
1589:
1580:
1574:
1564:
1557:
1547:
1540:
1535:, p. 3.
1533:Possehl 2002
1528:
1487:Possehl 2002
1424:Kenoyer 1991
1370:
1360:
1324:Integration
1306:600-300 BCE
1292:Vedic period
1230:Harappan 3C
1218:Harappan 3B
1188:Nausharo I)
1072:
1068:
1063:
1049:
1041:
1025:Final Phase
943:Early Phase
892:
889:
714:Dikshit 2013
691:
674:
664:
660:
632:
627:
596:Jhukar Phase
586:Punjab Phase
576:
551:
542:
538:
533:
529:
525:
520:
516:
512:
509:
504:
485:
472:
447:
438:
422:
180:Zhou dynasty
51:Chalcolithic
36:
2911:Afghanistan
2865:Bhagwanpura
2770:Oriyo timbo
2495:Priest-king
2421:Indus River
2091:(4): 1–64,
1874:Sarkar 2015
1835:Sarkar 2016
1780:Sarkar 2016
1724:Wright 1999
1697:Manuel 2010
1504:Manuel 2010
1472:Manuel 2010
1267:Harappan 5
1245:Harappan 4
1088:Main phase
1001:Late Phase
905:Main phase
894:S. P. Gupta
677:Rita Wright
671:Rita Wright
459:M.R. Mughal
454:Balochistan
168:Xia dynasty
96:Mesopotamia
69: 3300
2970:Categories
2775:Dher Majra
2745:Rakhigarhi
2725:Alamgirpur
2715:Kalibangan
2705:Jognakhera
2685:Gola Dhoro
2646:Ganeriwala
2621:Sokhta Koh
2576:Ganweriwal
2571:Chanhudaro
2351:DeGruyter.
2233:Purātattva
2180:17 January
1893:Gupta 1999
1804:Ahmed 2014
1403:References
1249:Cemetery H
1184:Harappan 2
1169:Hakra Ware
1165:Harappan 1
1112:Mehrgarh I
1006:Cemetery H
985:Kalibangan
948:Kalibangan
876:1900-1300
728:(Rao 2005)
698:Hakra Ware
590:Cemetery H
369:literature
347:Cemetery H
176:Sanxingdui
117:East Asia
43:Bronze Age
2924:Shortugai
2845:Babar Kot
2810:Ganeshwar
2795:Loteshwar
2710:Surkotada
2695:Bhagatrav
2680:Dholavira
2651:Nindowari
2636:Allahdino
2248:: 26555,
2196:, Neptune
2145:cite book
1761:Mani 2008
1030:Dholavira
966:Dholavira
908:Subphase
633:Indus Age
517:Tradition
475:Coningham
470:(1971)."
248:Mycenaean
71:–1200 BC)
61:Near East
2919:Mundigak
2900:Desalpur
2895:Mitathal
2875:Banawali
2870:Bhirrana
2835:Pabumath
2750:Rupnagar
2730:Daimabad
2661:Dabarkot
2601:Kot Diji
2581:Mehrgarh
2566:Nausharo
2548:Pakistan
2431:Religion
2306:(2009),
2280:27222033
2204:(2002),
2105:41175522
1816:Law 2008
1337:Bhirrana
1331:See also
927:Mehrgarh
703:Rao 2005
694:Bhirrana
574:Phases.
572:Kot Diji
555:Mehrgarh
387:Iron Age
252:Caucasus
240:Cycladic
140:Majiayao
132:Gojoseon
128:Erligang
84:Caucasus
80:Anatolia
59:Africa,
2940:Meluhha
2860:Bargaon
2840:Nagwada
2830:Sanghol
2825:Sanauli
2805:Farmana
2790:Kuntasi
2700:Rangpur
2641:Balakot
2591:Larkana
2556:Harappa
2271:4879637
2250:Bibcode
2019:Sources
981:Harappa
725:Culture
614:Kachchh
560:Balakot
377:Chariot
365:writing
160:Xindian
156:Wucheng
124:Erlitou
2820:Siswal
2785:Dwarka
2765:Kanmer
2735:Malwan
2690:Lothal
2355:Press.
2316:
2278:
2268:
2214:
2133:
2103:
1390:Madina
1085:Dates
1028:e.g.,
1010:Jhukar
1004:e.g.,
983:-III,
979:e.g.,
964:e.g.,
946:e.g.,
929:-IV-V
925:e.g.,
732:Period
600:Jhukar
570:, and
357:Topics
244:Minoan
236:Aegean
228:Europe
164:Yueshi
104:Canaan
100:Sistan
92:Levant
2880:Rojdi
2815:Sothi
2800:Mandi
2760:Hulas
2755:Rupar
2740:Kunal
2720:Manda
2672:India
2596:Pirak
2341:1999)
2229:(PDF)
2174:(PDF)
2163:(PDF)
2101:S2CID
2059:(PDF)
2048:(PDF)
1394:Pirak
1353:Notes
968:-III
902:Date
739:Phase
722:Date
604:Pirak
568:Hakra
373:Sword
148:Qijia
144:Mumun
136:Jomon
76:Egypt
2855:Bara
2850:Balu
2611:Amri
2327:2013
2314:ISBN
2276:PMID
2235:(35)
2212:ISBN
2182:2017
2151:link
2131:ISBN
1982:help
1911:help
1880:help
1822:help
1730:help
1392:and
1100:Era
987:-II
914:Era
755:Era
708:help
602:and
564:Amri
548:Eras
499:and
152:Siwa
88:Elam
2266:PMC
2258:doi
2093:doi
950:-I
452:in
250:),
2972::
2274:,
2264:,
2256:,
2244:,
2231:,
2165:,
2147:}}
2143:{{
2099:,
2087:,
2050:,
1990:^
1936:^
1919:^
1842:^
1768:^
1753:^
1738:^
1704:^
1687:^
1660:^
1621:^
1511:^
1494:^
1479:^
1452:^
1431:^
1410:^
1380:^
1171:)
1008:,
566:,
562:,
385:↓
375:,
371:,
367:,
363:,
345:,
341:,
337:,
314:,
310:,
306:,
302:,
298:,
294:,
290:,
286:,
282:,
278:,
274:,
270:,
266:,
262:,
258:,
254:,
246:,
242:,
215:,
211:,
207:,
203:,
199:,
178:,
174:,
170:,
166:,
162:,
158:,
154:,
150:,
146:,
142:,
138:,
134:,
130:,
126:,
102:,
98:,
94:,
90:,
86:,
82:,
78:,
66:c.
49:↑
2399:e
2392:t
2385:v
2260::
2252::
2246:6
2153:)
2139:.
2095::
2089:5
1984:)
1913:)
1895:.
1882:)
1876:.
1837:.
1824:)
1732:)
1726:.
1682:.
1655:.
1631:.
1615:.
1583:.
1506:.
1489:.
1426:.
710:)
598:(
588:(
412:e
405:t
398:v
238:(
64:(
34:.
20:)
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