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175:. The permafrost had preserved items normally subject to rapid decomposition, including wooden objects and grass-woven baskets and mats. Since excavation at Nunalleq began in 2009, the permafrost layer has receded 1.5 feet (0.46 m), and storm waves have torn away 35 feet (11 m) of the site. Throughout the northern latitudes, the warming climate is revealing previously unknown archaeology, while simultaneously threatening to destroy it. These sites must be prioritized for
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Recognized archaeological sites are generally legally protected against human disruption. In the US, removal of artifacts from federal and state lands without a permit is a crime, regardless of whether the artifacts are dug up or found on the surface. Collecting on private land requires written
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due to events which occurred after the site was laid down. Disturbances may be caused by natural events or human activity, and may result in loss of archaeological value. In some cases, it can be difficult to distinguish between features caused by human activity in the period of interest, and
138:
may sort artifacts by mass or density, as may flooding. Drying of clays may cause deep cracks that are subsequently filled with surface material. Wetting and drying of clay may cause rocks to migrate to the surface. The action of winds on soil is especially common in
270:, or structures; digging; and removing artifacts. In some cases, later civilizations have chosen to modify, deface, or destroy relics of older peoples, particularly when these objects honor political or religious figures that the later society has denounced. At
109:. Different sites are subject to different degrees, combinations, and interactions of these processes, and archaeologists working with a given site must be familiar with the processes in play at that site to avoid the risk of misinterpretation.
116:, in particular, can contribute to the burial, and thus preservation, of artifacts dropped on the ground – but it also frequently blurs boundaries between natural and culturally disturbed soils, and can erase vertical stratification used for
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In many cases, disturbance created by later human activity on a site will have its own archaeological value. Some sites have been used, abandoned, and re-used many times, often for different purposes, with
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may disturb or remove artifacts. Travel over the ground surface, whether by foot, animal, bicycle, or motorized vehicle, can cause artifacts to be broken, crushed, or moved.
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with powerful modern tractors had done as much damage in the last six decades of the twentieth century as traditional farming did in the previous six centuries.
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from more recent periods of use sometimes cutting through or obscuring those of older periods. Building materials may be scavenged and reused as well.
230:. Visitors may intentionally move artifacts, either to examine and share them with others, or in an attempt to protect them; this results in a loss of
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In some environments, animal activity can completely turn over the surface soil in as few as five to six years. The activity of
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Farming, construction, habitation, and resource extraction are leading causes of site disruption. In the UK, according to
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identified nine natural processes resulting in soil disturbance, including the movements of animals and plants (known as
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is altering, and in some cases accelerating, natural disturbance processes. At
Nunalleq on the southwest coast of
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permission of the landowner, and may be subject to additional state and federal laws governing
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have often removed valuable artifacts and otherwise disturbed sites in the process.
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Recreational activity on a site may damage archaeology in a number of ways. Amateur
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Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites § Agents of deterioration
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Improper archaeological practices can also damage artifacts and context.
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which could provide insight into when, where, and how items were used.
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365:"A Survey of Disturbance Processes in Archaeological Site Formation"
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101:; the actions of wind and water; the growth and dissolution of
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features caused by later human activity or natural processes.
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391:"Alaska's Thaw Reveals—and Threatens—a Culture's Artifacts"
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89:); freezing and thawing; movement under gravity (including
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may cause artifacts to rise or fall, depending on their
703:
Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites
447:"Ripping up History: Arcaheology Under the Plough"
519:
517:
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510:. California Department of Parks and Recreation.
222:can contaminate sites and cause smoke damage to
412:
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363:Wood, W. Raymond; Johnson, Donald Lee (1978).
307:Cultural heritage management § Mitigation
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369:Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory
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226:, and the heat of a fire can cause rock to
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525:"What can damage archeological resources?"
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418:"How does all that stuff get underground?"
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163:site is under threat from the thawing of
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195:horse uncovered during construction in
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274:sites, notably including the tombs of
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331:from natural and human disruption.
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66:Soil disturbed by an uprooted tree
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508:"Impacts to Archaeological Sites"
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105:crystals; and movement caused by
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482:Society for American Archaeology
241:Ancient graffiti in the tomb of
16:Change to an archaeological site
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266:may include defacing rock art,
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478:"Archaeology Law & Ethics"
1:
389:Williams, A.R. (April 2017).
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303:Archaeology § Protection
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97:); swelling and shrinking of
58:Transport of soil by a gopher
718:electrical resistance survey
7:
529:Archeology for Interpreters
456:. July 2003. Archived from
422:Archeology for Interpreters
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1172:Archaeological terminology
607:Johann Joachim Winckelmann
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256:Defaced cave sculpture in
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19:Not to be confused with
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232:archaeological context
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698:Archaeological ethics
693:Archaeological diving
683:Archaeological theory
533:National Park Service
426:National Park Service
314:historic preservation
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159:, a four-century-old
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21:Disturbance (geology)
637:Augustus Pitt Rivers
632:William Henry Holmes
597:Archaeological sites
329:physically protected
320:, including ancient
30:is any change to an
627:John Lloyd Stephens
617:Heinrich Schliemann
396:National Geographic
32:archaeological site
1151:History portal
713:geophysical survey
463:on March 11, 2005.
403:on April 14, 2021.
327:Sites may also be
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216:metal detectorists
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177:rescue archaeology
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951:Paleoethnobotany
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399:. Archived from
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322:skeletal remains
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205:English Heritage
81:, and including
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153:climate change
151:Anthropogenic
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316:. Disturbing
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280:grave robbers
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989:Archaeometry
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856:Near Eastern
851:Mesopotamian
805:Contemporary
622:Arthur Evans
536:. Retrieved
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485:. Retrieved
458:the original
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429:. Retrieved
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401:the original
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183:Human causes
169:storm surges
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79:bioturbation
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1069:Transgender
994:Battlefield
770:Prehistoric
730:Burnt layer
667:George Bass
581:Archaeology
167:and rising
107:earthquakes
28:disturbance
1166:Categories
1092:by country
1024:Industrial
1019:Indigenous
968:Underwater
914:Calceology
836:Australian
814:Geographic
800:Historical
735:Excavation
375:: 315–381.
335:References
301:See also:
297:Mitigation
173:Bering Sea
165:permafrost
114:earthworms
95:rockslides
43:See also:
1029:Landscape
902:Osteology
785:Classical
268:sculpture
264:Vandalism
258:Karnataka
220:Campfires
209:ploughing
91:earthflow
87:treefalls
83:burrowing
1139:Category
1121:Journals
1039:Mortuary
1034:Maritime
1009:Funerary
1004:Feminist
999:Conflict
977:Thematic
892:Medieval
846:Egyptian
841:Oceanian
826:American
790:Medieval
780:Biblical
657:Max Uhle
278:royals,
243:Ramses V
224:rock art
1099:Periods
934:Virtual
919:Digital
821:African
723:Sondage
589:History
538:8 March
487:8 March
431:8 March
171:of the
1177:Change
1088:Sites
1014:Gender
877:Aerial
861:Nubian
708:Survey
305:, and
291:layers
272:burial
197:London
161:Yup'ik
157:Alaska
141:desert
118:dating
39:Causes
1082:Lists
1064:Queer
1044:Music
831:Asian
461:(PDF)
450:(PDF)
228:spall
193:Roman
99:clays
1049:Nazi
540:2023
489:2023
433:2023
245:and
103:salt
93:and
70:The
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516:^
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343:^
247:VI
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191:A
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26:A
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373:1
199:.
23:.
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