315:, a trip which took about eighteen days and cost approximately two hundred dollars. The Society prepared students for inexpensive study (¥600 a year) in France and "by labor and a simple life to cultivate habits of diligence and hard work." In contrast to his own experience when he came in 1902 as an "embassy scholar," which involved only a handful of students from privileged families, Li hoped to welcome hundreds of working-class students into the program. Wu Zhihui, who came from a poor family himself, remarked that actually the program would be especially good for students from rich families: "even if they do not study anything, if at least they learn how to clean toilets it will be worth it."
270:
319:
warm relations with city officials made arrangements easier. The
Association established a workers' school near the factory, in which Li and Wu taught the Chinese and French languages, and general scientific knowledge. In addition to making workers more knowledgeable, work-study would eliminate their "decadent habits" and transform them into morally upright and hard-working citizens. A strict regimen was imposed — no smoking, gambling or alcohol — and the workers were expected to devote their spare time to study. In all, this program brought more than 120 students to France before it was closed down in 1913 by
1304:, and Cai Chang, all friends of Mao Zedong from Hunan province. Mao himself remained in China. Cai Hesen wrote to Mao in August and September 1920 to share his experiences and expound on the concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat which he learned in France. He urged Mao to prepare for an "October 1917 style" revolution in China. A centralized vanguard party which would usher in a proletarian dictatorship was essential, Cai insisted, in order to combat anarchism on the one hand and bourgeois dictatorship on the other. France would not be China's ally and model, he concluded, but the Soviet Union.
2234:
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281:, which manufactured soy products for the French market. The workers' study would be financed by working in his factory and their character would be uplifted by his regimen of moral instruction. This first Work-Study program eventually brought 120 workers to France. Li aimed to take these worker-students, who he called "ignorant" and "superstitious," and make them into knowledgeable and moral citizens who on their return home would become models for a new China. They received instruction in Chinese, French, and science and were required to abstain from tobacco, alcohol, and gambling.
474:
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428:, a southern city. Deng was surprised to see white people treat Chinese like slaves in Shanghai and other ports along the way. Although he and many of his Chinese colleagues had considered themselves economically well off in China, they now worked long hours in poor conditions while they saw French families living in luxury unknown in China. Deng learned how to use an industrial welder, a skill which proved useful when he was deposed from power during the
1407:
441:
about to be cut off, went to Lyons to protest. The protests escalated into riots which led to the expulsion of their leaders from France. The "Lyons
Incident" turned the younger generation of students into angry critics who dismissed anarchism as a revolutionary doctrine and rejected older leaders such as Wu, Li, and Cai Yuanpei. The Institute survived but did not play the hoped for central role in Sino-French relations.
2222:
404:. While Mao raised funds for the movement, he did not himself study abroad pursuant to it. Cai and Li told student leaders that the government had little money but would lend them transportation funds, in return, students would be expected to teach laborers in France. The first group of thirty students to go to France repaid the loan within five months, allowing two groups a year to follow.
181:), was a series of work-study programs which brought Chinese students to France and Belgium to work in factories as a way to pay for their study of French culture and Western science. The programs aimed to train Chinese radicals between the ages of 16 and 30 through first hand experience in a workers' movement. The programs were organized between 1912 and 1927 largely by a group of
192:, the Chinese organizers worked with the Chinese and French governments to establish the Diligent Work-Frugal Study program, which brought less educated Chinese workers, and continued to bring students after the 1919 end of the war. In all, several thousand Chinese came to France as student-workers, though not all as formal members of a program. They included future leaders of the
399:
By 1917, the
Society had established feeder schools in Beijing, Baoding, and Changxingdian, in North China. Students in Hunan wanted to found a preparatory school, but the provincial government at Changsha refused to help. A delegation went to Beijing in February 1918 to consult with Li and Cai. The
411:
In 1919 and 1920, even after the signing of the peace, the Sino-French
Education Association sponsored 17 groups of Chinese students, totaling nearly 1,600, who were placed in factories and schools, including increased numbers of students from the poorer inland provinces of Hunan and Sichuan. Among
407:
The new students came from a wide background. The Work-Study movement now offered overseas study to those whose education stopped at the middle-school level or below. The preparatory schools at
Baoding and Changxingdian required only that applicants have basic Chinese and that they not possess "bad
318:
The
Association opened a preparatory school in Beijing which offered aspiring students a six-month course in French. When the first group of 30 student-workers for his factory reached France in January 1913, Li arranged for them to be admitted to the College at Montargis, south of Paris, where his
440:
In 1921, word spread that Wu Zhihui was bringing one-hundred students from
Guangdong and Guangxi provinces who were to be given first preference in enrolling at the Institute in Lyons. Worker-students already in France, unhappy with their miserable conditions and fearful that their stipends were
339:
villages. In June 1915, Li and his Paris friends took this opportunity to provide schooling and training. The Work-Study program was renewed, though on a different basis, bringing less educated workers rather than students. By March 1916 their Paris group, the Société Franco-Chinoise d'Education
1465:
The museum occupies the three main floors of a house in which several
Chinese students resided in the era of the Work-Study Movement, on 15 rue Raymond Tellier in the historical center of Montargis. It chronicles the Chinese presence in Montargis in the 1910s and 1920s, starting from a seminal
257:
but urged him to add a social and cultural aspect to his program of political revolution. They argued that individuals could not liberate themselves, but that educated men had the responsibility as teachers to use moral education and personal rectitude to show others the way. At the time, most
1279:
Our laboring spirit convinced us and we felt that these clouds of black smoke were also important products of culture and that these rough and ready laborers were, after all, leading the true way of life and were the builders of civilization. Why should I reject such a way of life?
408:
habits" such as smoking or gambling. The low tuition fees charged by the preparatory schools and the specially reduced boat fares Li
Shizeng negotiated with French authorities also increased the numbers of students who could come on the program.
284:
In April 1912, excited by the success of the
Chinese revolution and the prospect of the new-born Republic of China, Li, Zhang Renjie, Wu Zhihui, and Cai Yuanpei, who had returned to Beijing, founded the Association for Frugal Study in France
1462:, which purchased the building in central Montargis in June 2015 and had the museum inaugurated on 27 August 2016. The museum mainly celebrates the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, of which more than 300 participants came to Montargis.
1292:
plant and complained that factory life had nothing to do with the ideals of equality, freedom and fraternity supposedly characteristic of French society. Rather, it had shown him the "evil nature" of European capitalism at first hand.
1470:(1881-1973) first persuaded the town's municipal council to promote visits by Chinese students. The museum describes the stays in Montargis of a number of major Chinese figures of the first revolutionary generation, including
423:
Deng arrived in France on October 19, 1920, but within three months the Sichuan Association which sponsored his trip ran out of money. Deng then worked at Schneider & Co., France's largest ordnance manufacturer, in
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sent students to the United States. The Paris anarchists were eager to establish interchange with France, which they regarded as a progressive and secular society.
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382:, mayor of Lyon. They pressed the French government to give the Chinese workers technical education as well as factory work. Li wrote extensive articles in the
1087:
1042:
621:
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366:) was directly involved in recruiting and training these workers. The Société had well-placed French backers, mostly on the political left, including
311:), also known as the Society for Rational French Education (Societé Rationelle des Etudiants Chinois en France). Students traveled from China via the
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Well before Marxist socialism entered China, Chinese anarchists took up the cause of labor and educating the working class. The leaders of the
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Program students were overwhelmingly male, though there were perhaps forty women. Those who went on to become prominent communists include
1125:
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558:
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2000:"Cultural Productions in a New Global Space: Li Shizeng and the New Chinese Francophile Project in The Early Twentieth Century"
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1635:
1582:
955:
453:
636:
2094:"Overseas Chinese in France and the New World Society: Culture, Business, State, and Transnational Connections, 1906–1949"
1390:(better known in France as Tcheng Yu-hiu or Soumé Tcheng), who took a degree in law at the Sorbonne, married the diplomat
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1363:. Participants in the program or those who worked with them who went on to prominent roles in other areas included
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The movement is commemorated in a small museum, the Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship, in the town of
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The student-workers did not all learn the lessons in French civilization that the organizers hoped. One student,
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In 1908 Li Shizeng planned the first Work-Study program as a way to bring young Chinese to France. He opened the
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financial support they obtained from the Beijing government attracted even more students from Hunan, including
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The outbreak of war in 1914 led France to recruit Chinese workers for factory work and heavy manual labor. The
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1979:
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2149:. Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of International Studies, University of California.
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226:
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386:(Huagong zazhi), which introduced readers to Western science, arts, fiction, and current events.
193:
2044:
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323:, the new president of China, who regarded its leaders as associates of his rival, Sun Yat-sen.
2004:
Print, Profit, and Perception: Ideas, Information and Knowledge in Chinese Societies, 1895–1949
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who had come to Paris and wanted to introduce French science and social idealism to China.
8:
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After organizing smaller-scale programs starting in 1908, in 1916, after the outbreak of
1966:
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Dulioust, Nicole; Barman, Geneviève (1988). "Les Années Françaises De Deng Xiaoping".
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378:, vice-president and a socialist member of the National Assembly from Lyon; and
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1962:
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420:, then in his early 40s, the future commissar of education at Yan'an in 1937.
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students who went abroad went on government scholarships to Japan, though the
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416:, then 16 years old, who had been recruited by Wu Yuzheng in Chongqing, and
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370:, the first president of the Société, a professor of French history at the
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1929:"Students look back on flaming youth of late Chinese leaders in France"
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The Found Generation: Chinese Communists in Europe During the Twenties
2022:"Un Groupe Oublié : Les Étudiantes ouvrières Chinoises En France"
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1275:, a future Chinese communist leader, sounded satisfied when he wrote
234:
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1328:
1289:
1949:
Bailey, Paul (1988). "The Chinese Work-Study Movement in France".
1401:
1352:
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Student-workers in France who went on to leadership roles in the
1288:, who later became a high ranking communist general, worked at a
417:
2176:
Strangers on the Western Front: Chinese Workers in the Great War
2158:. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
1534:
1360:
357:
302:
158:
1888:
1624:
Poetry, History, Memory: Wang Jingwei and China in Dark Times
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these were the future leader of the Chinese Communist Party,
204:, as well as others who went on to prominent roles in China.
1783:
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1779:
1296:
Among the radical students who came to France in 1919 were
1563:
Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise
335:
eventually brought more than 130,000 workers, mostly from
2205:
1840:
1776:
326:
2066:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 319–321.
1908:"Brochure: Musée historique de l'Amitié franco-chinoise"
1876:
1688:
1445:
Montargis Museum of China's Work-Study Program in France
1394:, and became an influential jurist and supporter of the
2204:," Présentation de l’Institut Franco-chinois de Lyon,
1987:
Journal of the British Association for Chinese Studies
1828:
1816:
2210:
2064:
Biographical Dictionary of Republican China Volume II
1864:
1852:
1736:
1724:
96:
82:
2096:. In Leutner, Mechthild; Goikhman, Izabella (eds.).
1712:
1700:
2098:State, Society and Governance in Republican China
2062:Boorman, Howard L., ed. (1968). "Li Shih-tseng".
1942:
627:Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International
436:The Lyons incident and the decline of the program
2246:
211:where many of the participant students resided.
2100:. Münster: LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 49–63.
2179:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
2019:
1980:"The Sino-French Connection and World War One"
1894:
1416:Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship
1402:Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship
477:Proclamation of the People's Republic of China
2156:Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China
1252:
52:
38:
2143:Scalapino, Robert A.; Yu, George T. (1961).
2020:Barman, Geneviève; Dulioust, Nicole (1987).
1773:, The “Diligent Work-Frugal Study” Movement.
1424:musée historique de l'Amitié franco-chinoise
119:
2142:
2128:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
1813:" (Society for Anglo-Chinese Understanding)
1798:
1796:
1770:
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1435:
168:
1466:meeting on 16 November 1912 when educator
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484:and leading revolutionaries proclaim the
173:'Work-study movement in France';
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1900:
1793:
1517:since the diplomatic recognition of the
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388:
268:
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1730:
1450:) was created by the government of the
273:Wu Zhihui, Zhang Renjie, and Li Shizeng
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2002:, in Lin, Peiyin; et al. (eds.),
1997:
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327:The Diligent Work-Frugal Study program
98:Liu Fa ch'in-kung Chien-hsüeh yün tung
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1126:Suppression of counterrevolutionaries
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642:Peasant Movement Training Institute
587:Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement
264:Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program
227:Chinese Anarchist movement in Paris
135:Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement
19:Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement
13:
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2073:Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'Histoire
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1121:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
1043:Revolutionary Committee of the KMT
472:
14:
2301:
2194:
2006:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 17–39,
1804:Chinese Revolutionaries in France
1685:, p. Frugal Study in France.
1546:
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1628:The University of Michigan Press
1227:
1214:
495:Outline of the Chinese Civil War
2206:Bibliothèque Municipale De Lyon
1921:
1513:A section is also dedicated to
622:Founding of the Communist Party
432:and sent to work in a factory.
2146:The Chinese Anarchist Movement
1943:References and further reading
394:Doufu Factory Nightschool 1916
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164:Liú Fǎ qíngōng jiǎnxué yùndòng
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84:Liú Fǎ qíngōng jiǎnxué yùndòng
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1:
2122:Levine, Marilyn Avra (1993).
1061:Forming the People's Republic
928:Yan'an Rectification Campaign
333:Chinese Labor Corps in France
2290:Chinese Communist Revolution
1895:Barman & Dulioust (1987)
1200:100th Anniversary of the CCP
1014:Urban support for Communists
1005:Retreat of the ROC to Taiwan
7:
2202:Le mouvement travail-études
1528:
1510:(1901-1927) among others.
1078:Central People's Government
895:Hundred Regiments Offensive
260:Chinese Educational Mission
137:, often referred to as the
10:
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1519:People's Republic of China
486:People's Republic of China
218:
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1963:10.1017/S030574100002751X
1771:Scalapino & Yu (1961)
1683:Scalapino & Yu (1961)
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1410:Street view of the museum
1396:Chinese Nationalist Party
279:Usine de la Caséo-Sojaïne
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1561:; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022).
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1083:Writing the Constitution
980:People's Liberation Army
923:Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region
900:New Fourth Army Incident
870:Second Sino-Japanese War
838:Anti-Japanese resistance
179:Mouvement Travail-Études
121:Mouvement Travail-Études
34:Traditional Chinese
2154:Vogel, Ezra F. (2011).
2041:10.3406/etchi.1987.1067
1998:—— (2014),
1978:—— (2011).
1309:Chinese Communist Party
1190:Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
1159:Intervention in Vietnam
1144:Sino-Soviet Cooperation
1023:China Democratic League
808:Chinese Soviet Republic
680:Canton–Hong Kong strike
194:Chinese Communist Party
48:Simplified Chinese
2280:China–France relations
1915:Amitié Chine-Montargis
1515:China–France relations
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675:May Thirtieth Movement
521:Century of Humiliation
478:
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120:
2285:Study abroad programs
2275:France in World War I
2085:10.3406/xxs.1988.2793
1567:Yale University Press
1478:(1898-1976) but also
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1154:Intervention in Korea
1033:Jiaochangkou incident
476:
445:Assessment and impact
392:
384:Chinese Labor Journal
272:
262:of 1872–1881 and the
2270:China in World War I
1622:Yang, Zhiyi (2023).
1575:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k
1559:Marquis, Christopher
1234:Communism portal
1116:First five-year plan
909:Communist base areas
670:1922 seamen's strike
577:New Culture Movement
1849:, pp. 121–134.
1745:, pp. 200–203.
1369:Chinese Youth Party
1149:Annexation of Tibet
985:Operation Beleaguer
861:Second United Front
690:Northern Expedition
632:Sun–Joffe Manifesto
582:May Fourth Movement
488:on October 1, 1949.
430:Cultural Revolution
342:traditional Chinese
287:traditional Chinese
151:traditional Chinese
139:Work-Study Movement
2265:Anarchism in China
2173:Xu, Guoqi (2011).
1809:2010-11-27 at the
1790:, p. 448-450.
1697:, p. 445-447.
1630:. pp. 47–48.
1412:
1185:Mao Zedong Thought
974:Millet plus rifles
793:AB League Incident
751:Aftermath of purge
725:Break with the KMT
612:First United Front
479:
397:
350:simplified Chinese
308:Liú Fǎ jiǎnxué huì
295:simplified Chinese
275:
221:Anarchism in China
183:Chinese anarchists
143:simplified Chinese
2107:978-3-643-90471-3
2092:Yan, He (2014) .
1885:, p. 455-56.
1637:978-0-472-05650-7
1626:. Ann Arbor, MI:
1584:978-0-300-26883-6
1523:Charles de Gaulle
1386:. Others include
1367:, founder of the
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1268:
1167:
1166:
1135:Foreign relations
1088:1954 Constitution
1051:
1050:
1038:Yu Zisan Incident
990:Liaoshen campaign
964:Military conflict
956:Resumed Civil War
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890:East River Column
885:Eighth Route Army
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2043:. Archived from
2029:Études Chinoises
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2016:
1994:
1984:
1974:
1957:(115): 441–461.
1937:
1936:
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2111:. Retrieved
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2052:. Retrieved
2045:the original
2032:
2028:
2003:
1990:
1986:
1954:
1950:
1932:
1923:
1914:
1902:
1890:
1878:
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1823:Vogel (2011)
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1738:
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1678:
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1593:j.ctv3006z6k
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1504:Xiang Jingyu
1500:Nie Rongzhen
1464:
1413:
1384:Xiang Jingyu
1373:
1345:Xiang Jingyu
1337:Nie Rongzhen
1306:
1295:
1283:
1270:
1211:
1195:National Day
933:Yan'an Forum
705:Hunan Report
586:
439:
422:
410:
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253:— supported
243:Wang Jingwei
239:Zhang Renjie
224:
206:
187:
178:
162:
138:
134:
132:
78:Hanyu Pinyin
28:Chinese name
2035:(2): 9–45.
1508:Zhao Shiyan
1392:Wei Daoming
1388:Zheng Yuxiu
1376:Zhang Yibao
1357:Zhao Shiyan
1341:Wang Ruofei
1323:, Chen Yi,
1300:, Chen Yi,
1273:Wang Ruofei
1106:Land Reform
647:Canton Coup
549:Nationalism
531:Warlord Era
337:North China
321:Yuan Shikai
255:Sun Yat-sen
251:Cai Yuanpei
109:French name
2249:Categories
2054:2014-08-01
1757:, p.
1669:, p.
1653:, p.
1601:1348572572
1476:Zhou Enlai
1468:Li Shizeng
1313:Zhou Enlai
1069:Government
828:Long March
482:Mao Zedong
465:Revolution
402:Mao Zedong
247:Wu Yuzhang
231:Li Shizeng
198:Zhou Enlai
92:Wade–Giles
2113:2 October
2079:: 17–34.
1971:154375449
1743:Xu (2011)
1609:253067190
1525:in 1964.
1496:Li Weihan
1492:Li Fuchun
1484:Cai Hesen
1480:Cai Chang
1380:Cai Chang
1349:Xu Deheng
1333:Li Weihan
1325:Li Fuchun
1321:Cai Hesen
1311:included
1302:Li Fuchun
1298:Cai Hesen
1284:However,
775:Guangzhou
743:Civil War
568:Movements
554:Anarchism
235:Wu Zhihui
209:Montargis
1807:Archived
1529:See also
1452:province
1365:Li Huang
1329:Li Lisan
1290:Michelin
760:Nanchang
454:a series
452:Part of
372:Sorbonne
196:such as
155:留法勤工儉學運動
147:留法勤工俭学运动
54:留法勤工俭学运动
40:留法勤工儉學運動
2213:Portals
1993:: 1–16.
1917:. 2019.
1488:Chen Yi
1439:
1428:Chinese
1353:Xu Teli
1286:Chen Yi
1097:Reforms
559:Marxism
512:Context
504:Origins
426:Creusot
418:Xu Teli
215:Origins
2227:France
2183:
2162:
2132:
2104:
2010:
1969:
1933:Xinhua
1634:
1607:
1599:
1591:
1581:
1535:Zhu De
1430::
1420:French
1382:, and
1361:Zhu De
1359:, and
1177:Legacy
456:on the
360::
358:pinyin
352::
344::
305::
303:pinyin
297::
289::
249:, and
175:French
161::
159:pinyin
153::
145::
115:French
2239:China
2048:(PDF)
2025:(PDF)
1983:(PDF)
1967:S2CID
1911:(PDF)
1759:25-29
1671:25-26
1655:30-32
1605:S2CID
1589:JSTOR
1541:Notes
1460:China
1456:Hunan
540:Ideas
354:华法教育会
346:華法敎育會
299:留法俭学会
291:留法儉學會
2181:ISBN
2160:ISBN
2130:ISBN
2115:2018
2102:ISBN
2008:ISBN
1632:ISBN
1597:OCLC
1579:ISBN
1436:lit.
1414:The
200:and
170:lit.
133:The
2081:doi
2037:doi
1959:doi
1955:115
1571:doi
1521:by
1458:in
1454:of
2251::
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2075:.
2031:.
2027:.
1989:.
1985:.
1965:.
1953:.
1931:.
1913:.
1795:^
1778:^
1603:.
1595:.
1587:.
1577:.
1569:.
1548:^
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1426:;
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2057:.
2039::
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1961::
1761:.
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1573::
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
