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options in their area. Platform economies can reproduce inequalities that are present in offline work such as lower earnings and occupational segregation. Women tend to be centered around digital roles that conform to patterns in the traditional labor market and economy such as freelancing and on-location services provided by care work platforms. The participation of women in digital work platforms tends to be more concentered on traditionally female gender rolled tasks. A technical report by the
European Commission found that females are less likely to perform creative tasks, micro-tasking, transportation, and software development when compared to men when performing digital labor.
121:, where digital labor has taken away the job of the mediator in employee-employer supply chains. The value of the labor produced by marginalized digital workers in the digital or gig economy has yet to be recognized formally through labor laws. In many cases, individuals who work in digital labor are considered to be self-employed and are not protected by their employer from fluctuations in the economy. Based on Marxian economic theory, digital labor can be considered labor as it produces use-value, produces capital, and is based upon collective labor in a workforce.
343:
which creates disparity in the ICT access and usage. It further widens the digital gender divide between men's and women's representation in the digital labor market. Women in Africa were hopeful that new digital technologies or digitized work would bring equal pay and working opportunities, but in reality, they are facing new gender-based inequalities like economic insecurities, high work intensity, and adverse psychological impacts among women workers on such platforms.
307:
occurs as typical social media users do not receive any monetary compensation for their digital content, while companies are able to take advantage of this freely accessible information to generate revenues. Studies of social media sites such as YouTube have analyzed their business models and found that user-generated digital labor is being monetized through ads and other methods to create company profit. Criticism against exploitation centers around people as
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employment but rather bought new sets of challenges. The hiring process used in digital labor platforms are executed by machine learning algorithms which learn from past data patterns and are showing discriminatory outcomes based around gender. An interview conducted with 49 women was carried out to figure out the gender dimensions of these digital platforms and multiple complaints based around gender bias were reported as customer feedback.
22:
330:
Female platform work is more prevalent in countries that have lower female participation rates or in areas in which women tend to be more prevalent in non-standard types of employment and lower-wage jobs. The platform economy provides employment opportunities for disadvantaged groups who lack better
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has developed as a means for people to create and share information and ideas over the
Internet. Because social media are typically associated with leisure and entertainment, the monetization of digital labor has blurred the line separating work from entertainment. Proponents argue that exploitation
168:
approach contributed to the social stratification and widening of the gaps between rich and the poor, the rich being the major stakeholders in digital companies, who own the content of the content creators. A critique of the open source software movement is that peer production economies rely on an
196:
In
December of 2020, Saile Inc. filed a United States trademark for Digital Labor™, based on their patent-pending Artificial Intelligence that performs the entire sales prospecting lifecycle by performing digital tasks on behalf of human sales executives. Digital Labor™ tasks are tracked, counted
235:
would describe this as the, "social factory." Studies of the digital labor of social media were some of the first critiques of digital labor. This included scholarship like, "What the MySpace generation should know about working for free" (Trebor Scholz), and "From Mobile
Playgrounds to Sweatshop
342:
The
African Union has a vision to empower women through Information and communication technologies (ICTs). They also declared 2010 to 2020 as the African Women's Decade. It is found that there are several gender inequalities due to education, socioeconomic status, domesticity, and traditionalism
207:
The notion of digital labor on social media arise from the fact that most of the value of any social media platforms is created by the users. Therefore they can be considered as digital workers on the platform. On most platforms however this work remains unpaid. Some exceptions include video and
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In the UK and most of Europe, many women find digital labor employment through remote crowd-work platforms (also known as part of the "Gig-economy") like Upwork, TaskRabbit, etc. The switch from the traditional labor market to platform labor has not extinguished the gender bias in traditional
334:
Over the last two decades, there has been a steady decline in the gender-based wage gap in the United
Kingdom largely caused by strict national labor relation anti-discrimination legislation. However, there still exist many challenges such as low labor force participation, gender wage gaps,
282:, denotes the creation of data by social media and networking platforms users, which contributes to the financial gains and profits of those platforms, but not to the users. It is based on the production and exchange of cultural content, and the collection of users' metadata.
192:
All of these platforms can be seen as data producers : both customers and workers produce data while using the service. This data can then be used for improving the service or can be sold on the market. Business model of such companies is often centered around data.
124:
Digital labor markets are websites or economies that facilitate the production, trade, and selling of digital content, code, digital products, or other ideas or goods emerging from digital and technological environments. A widely used example of a digital labor market is
81:
represents an emergent form of labor characterized by the production of value through interaction with information and communication technologies such as digital platforms or artificial intelligence. Examples of digital labor include on-demand platforms,
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On-demand work has been rising since the years 2008-2010. It follows the development of
Internet access and the spread of mobile devices, which allow almost everyone to be in touch with this kind of platform, including children and teenagers.
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music sharing platforms. This is linked with the notion of participatory culture, "a term often used for designating the involvement of users, audiences, consumers and fans in the creation of culture and content".
106:
As production-based industries declined, the rise of a digital and information-based economy fostered the development of the digital labor market. The rise of digital labor can be attributed to the shift from the
186:, Booking.com), travel (trivago, tripadvisor), food delivery (Uber Eats, Grub Hub, and Postmates), transportation (Uber, Taxify, Lyft), home services (Task Rabbit, Helpling), education (Udemy, Coursera), etc.
1395:
Siegel, B., Hoffman, R., & Skigen, R. (2020). Evolution of
Automation in the Department of Defense: Leveraging Digital Labor to Transform Finance and Business Operations.
133:, and gamers utilize digital labor as organizing tools. The platforms can be potential generators of cultural goods and are incorporated into global economies and networks.
311:. Scholars argue that exploitation cannot occur if people are both producing and consuming their own digital labor, thereby deriving value from their own created content.
189:'Workers on such platforms are often not considered as employees, and aren't well paid. For example, an Uber driver earns between $ 8.80 and $ 11 per hour after expenses.
302:
The current debate over digital labor examines whether or not society's capitalistic economy has prompted corporate exploitation of digital labor in social media.
32:
483:
1350:
Value-Creation in the Late
Twentieth Century: The Rise of the Knowledge Worker. Institute of Governmental Affairs, University of California, Davis. 1995.
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Surie, A., & Sharma, L. V. (2019). Climate change, Agrarian distress, and the role of digital labour markets: evidence from
Bengaluru, Karnataka.
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446:
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1005:
702:
717:"The Economics of the Online Gig Economy: Algorithmic Hiring Practices, Digital Labor-Market Intermediation, and Rights for Platform Workers"
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523:"What is Digital Labour? What is Digital Work? What's their Difference? And why do these Questions Matter for Understanding Social Media?"
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in 1972. The idea of the "digital economy" is defined as the moment, where work has shifted from the factory to the social realm. Italian
1117:"'Gender inequality- now available on digital platform': an interplay between gender equality and the gig economy in the European Union"
1272:
Paolo Virno and Michael Hardt, Radical Thought in Italy: A Potential Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
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Gong, J., Hong, Y., & Zentner, A. (2018). Role of Monetary Incentives in the Digital and Physical Inter-Border Labor Flows.
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Anwar, M. A., & Graham, M. (2020). Digital labour at economic margins: African workers and the global information economy.
981:
240:), Tiziana Terranova and others developed a working definition of digital labor, drawing from the idea of free labor, and
94:. Digital labor describes work that encompasses a variety of online tasks. If a country has the structure to maintain a
686:
805:"Digital labour and development: impacts of global digital labour platforms and the gig economy on worker livelihoods"
362:
61:
1361:
Political Economy of Information, ed. Vincent Mosco and Janet Wasko (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
427:
Malin, Chandler, Brenton, Curry. "Free to Work Anxiously: Splintering Precarity Among Drivers for Uber and Lyft".
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has been raised by some activists and scholars. Some scholars have criticized the current situation as a form of
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Antonio Negri, The Politics of Subversion: A Manifesto for the Twenty-first Century (Cambridge: Polity, 1989).
1238:
976:. Annarosa Pesole, Enrique Fernández-Macías, Europäische Kommission Gemeinsame Forschungsstelle. Luxembourg.
141:
1371:
Schmiede, R. (2017). Reconsidering value and labour in the digital age (dynamics of virtual work series).
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179:
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Digital labour platforms in Europe : numbers, profiles, and employment status of platform workers
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256:
237:
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Kaplan, M. (2020). The Self-consuming Commodity: Audiences, Users, and the Riddle of Digital Labor.
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507:
98:, digital labor can generate income for individuals without the limitations of physical barriers.
36:
that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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Mosakova, E. A.; Александровна, Мосакова Елизавета; Kizilova, K.; Ксения, Кизилова (2021-09-17).
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Gong, Jing. "Role of Monetary Incentives in the Digital and Physical Inter-Border Labor Flows".
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1314:" In: Digital Geographies Ash, J., Kitchin, R. and Leszczynski, A. (eds.). Sage. London.
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and purchased from Saile by companies ranging from the Fortune 500 to small businesses.
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The popularity of the digital economy can be applied to the onset of economies based on
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Rodríguez-Modroño, Paula; Pesole, Annarosa; López-Igual, Purificación (2022-03-22).
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1167:"The Digital Gender Divide: Confronting Obstacles to Women's Development in Africa"
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Sergio Bellucci, E-Work. Lavoro, rete, innovazione, Roma, Derive e Approdi, 2005.
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862:"Neocolonialism of the Tech Industry: How Does it Affect the Emerging Markets?"
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Verma, T. (2018). Feminism, Labour and Digital Media: The Digital Housewife.
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Kvasny, L. (2013). Digital labour: the Internet as playground and factory.
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Harmon, Silberman. "Rating Working Conditions on Digital Labor Platforms".
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The Internet as Playground and Factory conference, at the New School, 2009
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129:. Other forms of emergent digital subcultures including community forums,
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576:"Digital Labor Studies Go Global : Toward a Digital Decolonial Turn"
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increasingly alienated labor force, forced into unpaid, knowledge labor.
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Rey, P. J. (2012-04-01). "Alienation, Exploitation, and Social Media".
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1214:"Platforms of inequality: Gender dynamics of digital labour in Africa"
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Fischer, Fuchs. "Reconsidering value and labour in the digital age".
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913:"Assessing gender inequality in digital labour platforms in Europe"
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tasks can be completed before using the platform, which indirectly
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worker's rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, as well as the
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638:"Monetizing a Meme: YouTube, Content ID, and the Harlem Shake"
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Fuchs, Christian. 2013. 'Social media:a critical introduction'
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occupational segregation, and a postgraduate educational gap.
1024:"Labor market in the UK in digital era: The gender dimension"
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Other scholars who have written about Digital Labor include:
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1307:(163), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/03056244.2020.1728243
115:. Digital labor can be connected to the economic process of
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1325:(3), 866–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2018.1481661
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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Due to the lack of regulation, the issue of digital labor
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Alozie, Nicholas O.; Akpan-Obong, Patience (2016-12-21).
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1425:(96), 277. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164649.2018.1517252
1414:(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40622-019-00213-w
1076:"Women in the gig economy: feminising 'digital labour'"
802:
803:
Graham, Mark; Hjorth, Isis; Lehdonvirta, Vili (2017).
758:"Rating Working Conditions on Digital Labor Platforms"
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Psychosociological Issues in Human Resource Management
1336:(3), 240–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/152747641881900
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Digital Labor: Sweatshops, picket lines, barricades
636:Soha, Michael; McDowell, Zachary J. (2016-01-01).
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1347:(3), 254–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12019
520:
756:Harmon, Ellie; Silberman, M. Six (2019-09-01).
755:
521:Fuchs, Sevignani, Christian, Sebastian (2013).
1379:(1), 59–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12083
508:"The Internet Creates a New Kind of Sweatshop"
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411:
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553:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
445:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
484:"Trademark Status & Document Retrieval"
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182:cover a large field of domains: rental (
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506:Zittrain, Jonathan (December 7, 2009).
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809:European Review of Labour and Research
679:Routledge companion to labor and media
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271:. Their work has been tied to other
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1301:Review of African Political Economy
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462:New Technology, Work and Employment
429:Communication, Culture and Critique
414:Computer Supported Cooperative Work
211:Digital labor is rooted in Italian
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1382:Scholz, T. (2012). Digital Labor.
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595:American Behavioral Scientist
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142:free and open-source software
681:. New York. pp. 51–62.
278:Social networking labor, or
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1419:Australian Feminist Studies
1121:European Labour Law Journal
860:Surana, Avni (2020-12-19).
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294:when creating an account).
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1330:Television & New Media
1080:Work in the Global Economy
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101:
1171:Development Policy Review
1028:RUDN Journal of Sociology
774:10.1007/s10606-018-9313-5
677:Fuchs, Christian (2015).
1397:Armed Forces Comptroller
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1074:James, Al (2022-07-01).
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655:10.1177/2056305115623801
607:10.1177/0002764211429367
648:(1): 2056305115623801.
1218:Gender and Development
917:Internet Policy Review
885:Cite journal requires
642:Social Media + Society
358:Amazon Mechanical Turk
265:Postcolonial feminists
127:Amazon Mechanical Turk
42:by rewriting it in an
1388:10.4324/9780203145791
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109:Industrial Revolution
86:, and user-generated
1408:Decision (0304-0941)
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727:(1): 160–165. 2018.
298:Digital labor rights
227:movement founded by
158:You are Not a Gadget
1115:Vyas, Neha (2021).
378:Online volunteering
373:Wages for housework
273:Alter-globalization
255:, Christian Fuchs,
225:wages for housework
173:On-demand platforms
162:Who Owns the Future
1465:Political theories
164:, argues that the
44:encyclopedic style
31:is written like a
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864:. Rochester, NY.
326:Gender Inequality
292:image recognition
290:(such as text or
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166:open source
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