227:
20:
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36:
170:, the availability of abundant loose sediment, soil, or weathered rock, and sufficient water to bring this loose material to a state of almost complete saturation (with all the pore space filled). Debris flows can be more frequent following forest and brush fires, as experience in southern California demonstrates. They pose a significant hazard in many steep, mountainous areas, and have received particular attention in Japan, China, Taiwan, USA, Canada, New Zealand, the Philippines, the European Alps, Russia, and Kazakhstan. In Japan a large debris flow or
195:
102:, they can flow almost as fluidly as water. Debris flows descending steep channels commonly attain speeds that surpass 10 m/s (36 km/h), although some large flows can reach speeds that are much greater. Debris flows with volumes ranging up to about 100,000 cubic meters occur frequently in mountainous regions worldwide. The largest prehistoric flows have had volumes exceeding 1 billion cubic meters (i.e., 1 cubic kilometer). As a result of their high sediment concentrations and mobility, debris flows can be very destructive.
613:
247:). Lateral levees can confine the paths of ensuing debris flows, and the presence of older levees provides some idea of the magnitudes of previous debris flows in a particular area. Through dating of trees growing on such deposits, the approximate frequency of destructive debris flows can be estimated. This is important information for land development in areas where debris flows are common. Ancient debris-flow deposits that are exposed only in
60:
38:
43:
41:
37:
42:
570:) and moves very economically, promoting long travel distances. Compared to buoyant flow, the neutrally buoyant flow shows completely different behaviour. For the latter case, the solid and fluid phases move together, the debris bulk mass is fluidized, the front moves substantially farther, the tail lags behind, and the overall flow height is also reduced. When
40:
627:
To prevent debris flows reaching property and people, a debris basin may be constructed. Debris basins are designed to protect soil and water resources or to prevent downstream damage. Such constructions are considered to be a last resort because they are expensive to construct and require commitment
165:
Debris flows can be triggered by intense rainfall or snowmelt, by dam-break or glacial outburst floods, or by landsliding that may or may not be associated with intense rain or earthquakes. In all cases the chief conditions required for debris flow initiation include the presence of slopes steeper
222:
and clay. These fine sediments help retain high pore-fluid pressures that enhance debris-flow mobility. In some cases the flow body is followed by a more watery tail that transitions into a hyperconcentrated stream flow. Debris flows tend to move in a series of pulses, or discrete surges, wherein
297:
material, or the outburst of a lake that was previously dammed by pyroclastic or glacial sediments. The word lahar is of
Indonesian origin, but is now routinely used by geologists worldwide to describe volcanogenic debris flows. Nearly all of Earth's largest, most destructive debris flows are
631:
Before a storm that can potentially nucleate debris flows, forecasting frameworks can often quantify the likelihood that a debris flow might occur in a watershed; however, it remains challenging to predict the amount of sediment mobilized and therefore, the total size of debris flows that may
320:
is a glacial outburst flood. Jökulhlaup is an
Icelandic word, and in Iceland many glacial outburst floods are triggered by sub-glacial volcanic eruptions. (Iceland sits atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is formed by a chain of mostly submarine volcanoes). Elsewhere, a more common cause of
243:. These natural levees form when relatively mobile, liquefied, fine-grained debris in the body of debris flows shoulders aside coarse, high-friction debris that collects in debris-flow heads as a consequence of grain-size segregation (a familiar phenomenon in
325:-dammed lakes. Such breaching events are often caused by the sudden calving of glacier ice into a lake, which then causes a displacement wave to breach a moraine or ice dam. Downvalley of the breach point, a jökulhlaup may increase greatly in size through
638:
1274:
Staley, D.M., Negri, J.A., Kean, J.W., Laber, J.L., Tillery, A.C. and
Youberg, A.M., 2017. Prediction of spatially explicit rainfall intensity–duration thresholds for post-fire debris-flow generation in the western United States. Geomorphology, 278,
39:
238:
along steep mountain fronts. Fully exposed deposits commonly have lobate forms with boulder-rich snouts, and the lateral margins of debris-flow deposits and paths are commonly marked by the presence of boulder-rich lateral
129:
concentrations exceeding about 40 to 50%, and the remainder of a flow's volume consists of water. By definition, “debris” includes sediment grains with diverse shapes and sizes, commonly ranging from microscopic
632:
nucleate for a given storm, and whether or not debris basins will have the capacity to protect downstream communities. These challenges make debris flows particularly dangerous to mountain front communities.
289:, either directly as a result of an eruption, or indirectly by the collapse of loose material on the flanks of a volcano. A variety of phenomena may trigger a lahar, including melting of glacial ice,
749:
600:
flow. In this case the force due to the pressure gradient is altered, the drag is high and the effect of the virtual mass disappears in the solid momentum. All this leads to slowing down the
431:
on the solid component. Buoyancy is an important aspect of two-phase debris flow, because it enhances flow mobility (longer travel distances) by reducing the frictional resistance in the
158:
such as logs and tree stumps. Sediment-rich water floods with solid concentrations ranging from about 10 to 40% behave somewhat differently from debris flows and are known as
329:
of loose sediment from the valley through which it travels. Ample entrainment can enable the flood to transform to a debris flow. Travel distances may exceed 100 km.
1291:"Inundation, flow dynamics, and damage in the 9 January 2018 Montecito debris-flow event, California, USA: Opportunities and challenges for post-wildfire risk assessment"
594:
536:
463:
507:
483:
63:
Scars formed by debris flow in
Ventura, greater Los Angeles during the winter of 1983. The photograph was taken within several months of the debris flows occurring.
645:
1031:
Baselt, Ivo; Oliveira, Gustavo Q. de; Fischer, Jan-Thomas & Pudasaini, Shiva P. (2022). "Deposition morphology in large-scale laboratory stony debris flows".
1890:
960:
988:
Baselt, Ivo; Oliveira, Gustavo Q. de; Fischer, Jan-Thomas & Pudasaini, Shiva P. (2021). "Evolution of stony debris flows in laboratory experiments".
756:
1368:
210:. The front, or 'head' of a debris-flow surge often contains an abundance of coarse material such as boulders and logs that impart a great deal of
435:. Buoyancy is present as long as there is fluid in the mixture. It reduces the solid normal stress, solid lateral normal stresses, and the basal
1356:
1249:
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251:
are more difficult to recognize, but are commonly typified by juxtaposition of grains with greatly differing shapes and sizes. This poor
688:, read by Norma Fire, in a dance titled "Debris Flow", a "harrowing taped narrative of a family's ordeal in a massive L.A. mudslide..."
385:
Calibrating and validating such sophisticated models require well-documented data from field surveys or minute laboratory experiments.
230:
A debris flow in Ladakh, triggered by storms in 2010. It has poor sorting and levees. Steep source catchment is visible in background.
1883:
978:
Coleman, P. F., 1993. A new explanation for debris flow surge phenomena (abstract), Eos Trans. AGU, 74(16), Spring Meet. Suppl., 154.
628:
to annual maintenance. Also, debris basins may only retain debris flows from a fraction of streams that drain mountainous terrain.
146:. On Earth's land surface, mudflows are far less common than debris flows. However, underwater mudflows are prevalent on submarine
2121:
596:, the flow does not experience any buoyancy effect. Then the effective frictional shear stress for the solid phase is that of pure
214:. Trailing behind the high-friction flow head is a lower-friction, mostly liquefied flow body that contains a higher percentage of
397:, originally proposed by Iverson and later adopted and modified by others, treats debris flows as two-phase solid-fluid mixtures.
2489:
1478:
839:
Hunt,B. (1982). "Asymptotic
Solution for Dam-Break Problems." Jl of Hyd. Div., Proceedings, ASCE, Vol. 108, No. HY1, pp. 115–126.
793:
Trujillo-Vela, Mario Germán; Ramos-Cañón, Alfonso
Mariano; Escobar-Vargas, Jorge Alberto; Galindo-Torres, Sergio Andrés (2022).
349:
Rheologically based models that apply to mud flows treat debris flows as single-phase homogeneous materials (Examples include:
965:
1428:
234:
Debris-flow deposits are readily recognizable in the field. They make up significant percentages of many alluvial fans and
1876:
1130:
538:, (see, e.g., Bagnold, 1954) the debris mass is fluidized and moves longer travel distances. This can happen in highly
1405:
1233:
3115:
1285:
Kean, J.W.; Staley, D.M.; Lancaster, J.T.; Rengers, F.K.; Swanson, B.J.; Coe, J.A.; Hernandez, J.L.; Sigman, A.J.;
326:
884:
780:
31:, NW Indian Himalaya. Coarse bouldery levees form the channel sides. Poorly sorted rocks lie on the channel floor.
2646:
1458:
1336:
3110:
202:
Debris flows are accelerated downhill by gravity and tend to follow steep mountain channels that debouche onto
82:
channels, entrain objects in their paths, and form thick, muddy deposits on valley floors. They generally have
2671:
1365:
1128:(1954). "Experiments on a gravity-free dispersion of large solid spheres in a Newtonian fluid under shear".
2812:
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1827:
671:
869:
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1030:
987:
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226:
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267:
flows that can be described as debris flows are typically given more specific names. These include:
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91:
19:
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362:
48:
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619:, Kazakhstan, after the catastrophic debris flow of 1921. A number of facilities, including the
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573:
515:
442:
159:
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2722:
2684:
2133:
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1396:
1174:
684:
492:
468:
961:
Hungr,O. 2000. Analysis of debris flow surges using the theory of uniformly progressive flow
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2012:
1533:
1302:
1221:
1186:
1139:
1083:
1040:
997:
896:
806:
342:
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between the fluid and the solid phases. The effect is substantial when the density ratio (
8:
3001:
2996:
2797:
2641:
2263:
2116:
2037:
1944:
1443:
1360:
750:"Iverson, R.M., 1997, The physics of debris flows, Reviews of Geophysics, 35(3): 245–296"
1306:
1225:
1190:
1143:
1087:
1044:
1001:
908:
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810:
3027:
2940:
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1974:
1907:
1328:
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lahars that originate on volcanoes. An example is the lahar that inundated the city of
252:
181:
155:
147:
142:
to describe debris flows, but true mudflows are composed mostly of grains smaller than
2747:
848:
781:
Distinguishing between debris flows and floods from field evidence in small watersheds
255:
of sediment grains distinguishes debris-flow deposits from most water-laid sediments.
194:
3006:
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2837:
2777:
2737:
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2193:
1979:
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947:
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286:
244:
151:
1429:
Mass
Movements. Section of the information platform "Natural hazards in Switzerland"
1159:
1111:
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792:
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The debris basin on the Kahoma Stream Flood
Control Project, protecting the town of
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612:
175:
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2150:
2087:
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2022:
2017:
1984:
1949:
1920:
1673:
1372:
1215:
1074:
E. B., Pitman; L. Le (2005). "A two-fluid model for avalanche and debris flows".
649:
400:
In real two-phase (debris) mass flows there exists a strong coupling between the
290:
105:
Notable debris-flow disasters of the twentieth century involved more than 20,000
24:
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853:
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1969:
1929:
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428:
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110:
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87:
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is zero, and the basal slope effect on the solid phase also vanishes. In this
337:
Numerous different approaches have been used to model debris-flow properties,
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3062:
3047:
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2742:
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1954:
1934:
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1635:
1424:
Video documentation of experiments at the USGS debris-flow flume, Oregon, USA
1375:
1324:
1286:
1175:"Field observations of basal forces and fluid pore pressure in a debris flow"
1125:
623:, have been built since to prevent flows of this kind from reaching the city.
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350:
99:
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311:
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floods. Normal stream flows contain even lower concentrations of sediment.
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2562:
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2128:
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1989:
1964:
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1582:
1547:
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1151:
1103:
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675:
436:
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94:(roughly 2000 kilograms per cubic meter), but owing to widespread sediment
83:
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2504:
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2188:
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1733:
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679:
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558:, and thus the force associated with buoyancy. Under these conditions of
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1315:
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939:
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131:
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1994:
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1503:
1434:
Washington State information about Debris flows, and related material
697:
620:
539:
171:
114:
734:"Preliminary Soil-Slip Susceptibility Maps, Southwestern California"
59:
2712:
2679:
2356:
2198:
2165:
1807:
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1700:
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708:
597:
563:
420:
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154:. Debris flows in forested regions can contain large quantities of
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702:
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139:
135:
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2101:
2032:
2004:
1903:
1438:
705:, below which lies Illgraben a popular debris flow tourist spot
616:
240:
198:
Ancient debris flow deposit at
Resting Springs Pass, California
79:
52:
28:
546:
disappears, the lateral solid pressure gradient vanishes, the
2915:
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2855:
2599:
2572:
2519:
2386:
2381:
2351:
2336:
2145:
1915:
1899:
1621:
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1419:
Dongchuan Debris Flow
Observation and Research Station, China
1400:. New York: Noonday Press (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989
486:
405:
401:
282:
276:
783:. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 2005.
223:
each pulse or surge has a distinctive head, body and tail.
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2910:
2466:
2426:
2391:
1758:
219:
215:
143:
71:
1473:
1284:
2865:
2306:
70:
are geological phenomena in which water-laden masses of
1173:
B. W., McArdell & P. Bartelt, J. Kowalski (2007).
332:
576:
566:
by the fluid, the debris mass is fully fluidized (or
518:
495:
471:
445:
795:"An overview of debris-flow mathematical modelling"
542:natural debris flows. For neutrally buoyant flows,
1252:. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Archived from
1073:
588:
530:
501:
477:
457:
1076:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
852:, Sebastien Jarny & Philippe Coussot (2006).
3128:
924:"Large debris flows: A macro-viscous phenomenon"
652:, (right) from runoff from the mountains (left).
1898:
509:) is large (e.g., in the natural debris flow).
732:D.M. Morton, R.M. Alvarez, and R.H. Campbell.
321:jökulhlaups is the breaching of ice-dammed or
1884:
1459:
1364:(November 20, 1989), p.116; Jowitt, Deborah.
1124:
744:
742:
23:Debris flow channel with deposits left after
554:, the only remaining solid force is due to
439:(thus, frictional resistance) by a factor (
1891:
1877:
1466:
1452:
1213:
739:
662:In 1989, as part of his large-scale piece
1314:
1217:Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena
1198:
882:
372:Dam break wave, e.g. Hunt, Chanson et al.
1214:Jakob, Matthias; Hungr, Oldrich (2005).
773:
611:
512:If the flow is neutrally buoyant, i.e.,
285:is a debris flow related in some way to
225:
193:
120:
58:
34:
18:
2490:International scale of river difficulty
1207:
870:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2006)132:3(280)
3129:
921:
842:
1872:
1447:
966:Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
854:"Dam Break Wave of Thixotropic Fluid"
736:(Open-File Report OF 03-17 USGS 2003)
657:
78:flow down mountainsides, funnel into
607:
1242:
909:10.1146/annurev.fl.13.010181.000421
333:Theories and models of debris flows
138:. Media reports often use the term
109:, in 1985 and tens of thousands in
13:
1385:
1131:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
375:Roll wave, e.g., Takahashi, Davies
14:
3163:
1412:
666:, and later, in 1999, as part of
889:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
858:Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
637:
2647:Flooded grasslands and savannas
1349:
1278:
1268:
1166:
1118:
1067:
1024:
981:
972:
819:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104135
419:, which in turn diminishes the
1289:; Lindsay, D.N. (2019-08-01).
1053:10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.107992
1010:10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107431
954:
915:
876:
833:
786:
726:
674:brought together the music of
381:A type of translating rock dam
107:fatalities in Armero, Colombia
1:
714:
305:
125:Debris flows have volumetric
2813:Universal Soil Loss Equation
2763:Hydrological transport model
2657:Storm Water Management Model
1828:Potentially hazardous object
1220:. Springer. pp. 38–39.
664:David Gordon's United States
388:
293:, intense rainfall on loose
7:
691:
411:, where the solid's normal
10:
3168:
2317:Antecedent drainage stream
1366:"Rush Forward. Look Back."
309:
274:
3081:
3053:River valley civilization
3015:
2954:
2936:Riparian-zone restoration
2836:
2698:
2670:
2571:
2543:
2475:
2297:
2164:
2081:
2003:
1914:
1820:
1783:
1742:
1724:
1693:
1686:
1654:
1620:
1613:
1591:
1561:
1527:
1494:
1485:
1357:"Dance: Burning the Flag"
922:Davies, T. R. H. (1986).
589:{\displaystyle \gamma =0}
531:{\displaystyle \gamma =1}
458:{\displaystyle 1-\gamma }
423:resistance, enhances the
345:. Some are listed here.
3116:Countries without rivers
3091:Rivers by discharge rate
2803:Runoff model (reservoir)
2768:Infiltration (hydrology)
719:
270:
258:
2788:River Continuum Concept
2553:Agricultural wastewater
1439:Debris Flow Association
668:Autobiography of a Liar
502:{\displaystyle \gamma }
478:{\displaystyle \gamma }
150:, where they may spawn
86:comparable to those of
49:Saint-Julien-Mont-Denis
3111:River name etymologies
3038:Hydraulic civilization
2896:Floodplain restoration
2672:Point source pollution
2447:Sedimentary structures
1152:10.1098/rspa.1954.0186
1096:10.1098/rsta.2005.1596
883:Takahashi, T. (1981).
624:
590:
532:
503:
479:
459:
231:
199:
64:
56:
32:
2723:Discharge (hydrology)
2685:Industrial wastewater
2166:Sedimentary processes
1397:The Control of Nature
799:Earth-Science Reviews
685:The Control of Nature
615:
591:
533:
504:
480:
460:
229:
197:
121:Features and behavior
62:
46:
22:
16:Geological phenomenon
2828:Volumetric flow rate
2412:Riffle-pool sequence
1200:10.1029/2006GL029183
574:
516:
493:
469:
443:
100:pore-fluid pressures
3002:Whitewater kayaking
2997:Whitewater canoeing
2798:Runoff curve number
2642:Flood pulse concept
1378:(December 21, 1999)
1307:2019Geosp..15.1140K
1226:2005dfhr.book.....J
1191:2007GeoRL..34.7406M
1144:1954RSPSA.225...49B
1088:2005RSPTA.363.1573P
1082:(1832): 1573–1602.
1045:2022Geomo.39607992B
1002:2021Geomo.37207431B
901:1981AnRFM..13...57T
811:2022ESRv..23204135T
779:Pierson, Thomas C.
148:continental margins
134:particles to great
90:and other types of
3137:Geological hazards
3028:Aquatic toxicology
2941:Stream restoration
2906:Infiltration basin
2758:Hydrological model
2274:Sediment transport
2097:Estavelle/Inversac
1975:Subterranean river
1479:list by death toll
1371:2014-12-13 at the
1316:10.1130/GES02048.1
1179:Geophys. Res. Lett
940:10.1007/BF01182546
658:In popular culture
625:
586:
528:
499:
475:
455:
427:, and reduces the
245:granular mechanics
232:
200:
152:turbidity currents
65:
57:
33:
3152:Natural disasters
3124:
3123:
3101:Whitewater rivers
3007:Whitewater slalom
2838:River engineering
2738:Groundwater model
2699:River measurement
2627:Flood forecasting
2442:Sedimentary basin
2299:Fluvial landforms
2204:Bed material load
1980:River bifurcation
1866:
1865:
1843:Geomagnetic storm
1816:
1815:
1682:
1681:
1609:
1608:
1553:Soil liquefaction
1475:Natural disasters
678:and the words of
608:Damage prevention
425:pressure gradient
409:momentum transfer
287:volcanic activity
160:hyperconcentrated
44:
3159:
3086:Rivers by length
2921:River morphology
2823:Wetted perimeter
2728:Drainage density
2239:Headward erosion
2068:Perennial stream
1940:Blackwater river
1893:
1886:
1879:
1870:
1869:
1775:Tropical cyclone
1769:Tornado outbreak
1691:
1690:
1618:
1617:
1571:Pyroclastic flow
1563:Volcano eruption
1492:
1491:
1468:
1461:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1379:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1318:
1301:(4): 1140–1163.
1282:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1028:
1022:
1021:
985:
979:
976:
970:
958:
952:
951:
934:(1–4): 161–178.
919:
913:
912:
880:
874:
873:
846:
840:
837:
831:
830:
790:
784:
777:
771:
770:
768:
767:
761:
755:. Archived from
754:
746:
737:
730:
670:, choreographer
641:
595:
593:
592:
587:
548:drag coefficient
544:Coulomb friction
537:
535:
534:
529:
508:
506:
505:
500:
484:
482:
481:
476:
464:
462:
461:
456:
378:Progressive wave
45:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3147:Landslide types
3127:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3096:Drainage basins
3077:
3011:
2950:
2926:Retention basin
2886:Erosion control
2881:Detention basin
2832:
2748:Hjulström curve
2700:
2694:
2666:
2610:Non-water flood
2567:
2539:
2485:Helicoidal flow
2471:
2372:Fluvial terrace
2367:Floating island
2293:
2168:
2160:
2151:Rhythmic spring
2085:
2077:
2058:Stream gradient
1999:
1985:River ecosystem
1950:Channel pattern
1918:
1910:
1897:
1867:
1862:
1812:
1779:
1743:Cyclonic storms
1738:
1720:
1678:
1674:Limnic eruption
1650:
1624:
1605:
1593:Natural erosion
1587:
1557:
1531:
1523:
1481:
1472:
1415:
1388:
1386:Further reading
1383:
1382:
1373:Wayback Machine
1354:
1350:
1339:
1283:
1279:
1273:
1269:
1259:
1257:
1250:"Debris Basins"
1248:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1212:
1208:
1171:
1167:
1138:(1160): 49–63.
1123:
1119:
1072:
1068:
1029:
1025:
986:
982:
977:
973:
959:
955:
920:
916:
881:
877:
847:
843:
838:
834:
791:
787:
778:
774:
765:
763:
759:
752:
748:
747:
740:
731:
727:
722:
717:
694:
660:
655:
654:
653:
650:Lahaina, Hawaii
647:
642:
610:
575:
572:
571:
562:support of the
517:
514:
513:
494:
491:
490:
485:is the density
470:
467:
466:
444:
441:
440:
391:
335:
314:
308:
291:sector collapse
279:
273:
261:
123:
98:caused by high
88:rock avalanches
74:and fragmented
47:Debris flow in
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3165:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2987:Stone skipping
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2871:Drop structure
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2851:Balancing lake
2848:
2842:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2778:Playfair's law
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2733:Exner equation
2730:
2725:
2720:
2718:Bradshaw model
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2676:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2605:Urban flooding
2597:
2592:
2590:Crevasse splay
2587:
2585:100-year flood
2581:
2579:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2545:Surface runoff
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2525:Stream capture
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2481:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2437:Rock-cut basin
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2303:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2279:Suspended load
2276:
2271:
2269:Secondary flow
2266:
2261:
2259:Retrogradation
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2224:Dissolved load
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2156:Spring horizon
2153:
2148:
2143:
2141:Mineral spring
2138:
2137:
2136:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2122:list in the US
2119:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2093:
2091:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2048:Stream channel
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2009:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1970:Drainage basin
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1930:Alluvial river
1926:
1924:
1912:
1911:
1896:
1895:
1888:
1881:
1873:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1793:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1762:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1695:
1688:
1687:Meteorological
1684:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1630:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1597:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1567:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1543:Seismic hazard
1539:
1537:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1500:
1498:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1471:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1414:
1413:External links
1411:
1410:
1409:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1355:Tobias, Tobi.
1348:
1287:Allstadt, K.E.
1277:
1267:
1256:on 27 May 2016
1241:
1234:
1206:
1165:
1117:
1066:
1023:
980:
971:
953:
928:Acta Mechanica
914:
875:
864:(3): 280–293.
850:Hubert Chanson
841:
832:
785:
772:
738:
724:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
712:
711:
706:
700:
693:
690:
659:
656:
644:
643:
636:
635:
634:
609:
606:
585:
582:
579:
527:
524:
521:
498:
474:
454:
451:
448:
415:is reduced by
395:mixture theory
390:
387:
383:
382:
379:
376:
373:
370:
363:dilatant fluid
334:
331:
310:Main article:
307:
304:
275:Main article:
272:
269:
260:
257:
166:than about 25
122:
119:
84:bulk densities
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3164:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3142:Geomorphology
3140:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3068:Surface water
3066:
3064:
3063:Sacred waters
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3048:Riparian zone
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3033:Body of water
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2982:Riverboarding
2980:
2978:
2977:River surfing
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:and modelling
2697:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2662:Return period
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2622:Flood control
2620:
2618:
2617:Flood barrier
2615:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2249:Palaeochannel
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2209:Granular flow
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1955:Channel types
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1935:Braided river
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1889:
1887:
1882:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1838:Meteor shower
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1741:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1636:Coastal flood
1634:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1407:
1406:0-374-12890-1
1403:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1377:
1376:Village Voice
1374:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1344:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1271:
1255:
1251:
1245:
1237:
1235:3-540-20726-0
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1218:
1210:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1185:(7): L07406.
1184:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1126:R. A. Bagnold
1121:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1033:Geomorphology
1027:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
990:Geomorphology
984:
975:
969:, 25, 483–495
968:
967:
962:
957:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
918:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
885:"Debris Flow"
879:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
845:
836:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
789:
782:
776:
762:on 2013-06-03
758:
751:
745:
743:
735:
729:
725:
710:
707:
704:
701:
699:
696:
695:
689:
687:
686:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
651:
646:
640:
633:
629:
622:
618:
614:
605:
603:
599:
583:
580:
577:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:limiting case
549:
545:
541:
525:
522:
519:
510:
496:
488:
472:
452:
449:
446:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
407:
403:
398:
396:
386:
380:
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3106:Flash floods
3058:River cruise
2955:River sports
2808:Stream gauge
2793:Rouse number
2783:Relief ratio
2632:Flood-meadow
2563:Urban runoff
2477:Fluvial flow
2462:River valley
2432:River island
2397:Meander scar
2312:Alluvial fan
2254:Progradation
2213:
2129:Karst spring
2073:Winterbourne
2028:Chalk stream
1990:River source
1965:Distributary
1833:Impact event
1821:Astronomical
1755:Thunderstorm
1750:Bomb cyclone
1614:Hydrological
1583:Volcanic ash
1548:Seismic risk
1518:
1496:Mass wasting
1395:
1392:McPhee, John
1359:
1351:
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1294:
1280:
1270:
1258:. Retrieved
1254:the original
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764:. Retrieved
757:the original
728:
683:
676:Harry Partch
672:David Gordon
667:
663:
661:
630:
626:
560:hydrodynamic
511:
437:shear stress
399:
392:
384:
355:viscoplastic
336:
315:
302:, Colombia.
280:
262:
236:debris cones
233:
201:
185:
176:
164:
156:woody debris
124:
111:Vargas State
104:
96:liquefaction
68:Debris flows
67:
66:
2967:Fly fishing
2891:Fish ladder
2876:Daylighting
2595:Flash flood
2558:First flush
2505:Plunge pool
2229:Downcutting
2214:Debris flow
2189:Aggradation
2063:Stream pool
1848:Solar flare
1734:Megadrought
1694:Temperature
1667:Megatsunami
1646:Storm surge
1641:Flash flood
1519:Debris flow
1275:pp.149-162.
680:John McPhee
367:thixotropic
327:entrainment
295:pyroclastic
208:floodplains
177:yamatsunami
117:, in 1999.
55:, July 2013
25:2010 storms
3131:Categories
3073:Wild river
2753:Hydrograph
2743:Hack's law
2708:Baer's law
2652:Inundation
2637:Floodplain
2577:stormwater
2535:Whitewater
2407:Oxbow lake
2244:Knickpoint
2219:Deposition
2112:Hot spring
2053:Streamflow
2043:Stream bed
1960:Confluence
1529:Earthquake
1487:Geological
1260:30 January
1039:: 107992.
996:: 107431.
805:: 104135.
766:2013-10-18
715:References
568:lubricated
421:frictional
339:kinematics
318:jökulhlaup
312:Jökulhlaup
306:Jökulhlaup
265:geological
174:is called
92:landslides
3043:Limnology
2992:Triathlon
2962:Canyoning
2931:Revetment
2861:Check dam
2773:Main stem
2530:Waterfall
2417:Point bar
2402:Mouth bar
2342:Billabong
2289:Water gap
2284:Wash load
2264:Saltation
2184:Anabranch
2107:Holy well
1995:Tributary
1858:Hypernova
1853:Supernova
1801:Firestorm
1716:Heat wave
1711:Ice storm
1706:Cold wave
1509:Avalanche
1504:Landslide
1333:197584816
1325:1553-040X
1295:Geosphere
1061:239137775
1018:225111202
948:122217532
895:: 57–77.
827:251268686
698:Colluvium
621:Medeu Dam
578:γ
564:particles
520:γ
497:γ
473:γ
465:), where
453:γ
450:−
389:Two-phase
186:mountain
172:landslide
115:Venezuela
2846:Aqueduct
2713:Baseflow
2680:Effluent
2357:Cut bank
2322:Avulsion
2199:Bed load
2179:Abrasion
1808:ARkStorm
1796:Wildfire
1701:Blizzard
1601:Sinkhole
1369:Archived
1361:New York
1343:70203874
1160:98030586
1112:17779815
1104:16011934
709:Rheology
692:See also
598:granular
417:buoyancy
404:and the
343:dynamics
249:outcrops
212:friction
136:boulders
127:sediment
3023:Aquifer
3016:Related
2972:Rafting
2500:Meander
2495:Log jam
2457:Thalweg
2362:Estuary
2234:Erosion
2171:erosion
2083:Springs
2038:Current
2005:Streams
1945:Channel
1908:springs
1904:streams
1791:Derecho
1765:Tornado
1726:Drought
1662:Tsunami
1514:Mudflow
1303:Bibcode
1222:Bibcode
1187:Bibcode
1140:Bibcode
1084:Bibcode
1041:Bibcode
998:Bibcode
897:Bibcode
807:Bibcode
703:Illhorn
556:gravity
540:viscous
433:mixture
369:, etc.)
359:Bagnold
351:Bingham
323:moraine
253:sorting
188:tsunami
168:degrees
140:mudflow
2818:WAFLEX
2690:Sewage
2573:Floods
2515:Riffle
2510:Rapids
2452:Strath
2422:Ravine
2347:Canyon
2102:Geyser
2033:Coulee
2018:Bourne
2013:Arroyo
1916:Rivers
1900:Rivers
1404:
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1158:
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1102:
1059:
1016:
946:
825:
617:Almaty
602:motion
413:stress
361:-type
341:, and
300:Armero
263:Other
241:levees
80:stream
53:France
29:Ladakh
2916:Levee
2901:Flume
2856:Canal
2600:Flood
2520:Shoal
2387:Gully
2382:Gulch
2352:Chine
2337:Bayou
2194:Armor
2146:Ponor
1921:lists
1784:Other
1655:Other
1622:Flood
1576:Lahar
1329:S2CID
1156:S2CID
1108:S2CID
1057:S2CID
1014:S2CID
944:S2CID
823:S2CID
760:(PDF)
753:(PDF)
720:Notes
682:from
487:ratio
406:fluid
402:solid
283:lahar
277:Lahar
271:Lahar
259:Types
2946:Weir
2911:Leat
2575:and
2467:Wadi
2427:Rill
2392:Glen
2377:Gill
2327:Bank
2169:and
2134:list
2117:list
2088:list
2023:Burn
1906:and
1759:Hail
1627:List
1534:List
1402:ISBN
1337:USGS
1321:ISSN
1262:2013
1230:ISBN
1100:PMID
429:drag
393:The
220:silt
216:sand
144:sand
132:clay
76:rock
72:soil
2866:Dam
2332:Bar
2307:Ait
1311:doi
1195:doi
1148:doi
1136:225
1092:doi
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1049:doi
1037:396
1006:doi
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206:or
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