657:
35:
480:
742:
2927:
150:
595:
161:
622:âthe forge-welding of a blade from several differing piecesâproduced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood. Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as "Damascus steel" since 1973 when
406:
the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of the 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that the folding process has a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the steel, with increasing toughness as fold numbers increase. This effect is likely due to the thinning and refinement of the microstructure, and to achieve optimal properties, the steel should be folded a few hundred times.
804:. This process was referred to as "laminating" or "Damascus". These types of barrels earned a reputation for weakness and were never meant to be used with modern smokeless powder, or any kind of moderately powerful explosive. Because of the resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end barrels were made by Belgian and British gun makers. These barrels are
644:, and currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade. The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet. The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed. To attain a Master Smith rating with the
108:(full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE â 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to some extent.
582:
production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered. The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention among academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids.
409:
Further studies of
Damascus steel created other steels showed similar results, confirming that increasing folds results in greater impact strength and toughness, and extending this finding to be consistent at higher temperatures. They also compare mechanical properties of the Damascus to the original
508:
Wootz was also mentioned to have been made out of a co-fusion process using "shaburqan" (hard steel, likely white cast iron) and "narmahan" (soft steel) by Biruni, both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with cast iron. In such a crucible recipe, no
426:
mechanisms in
Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces between the two constituent steels. When impact is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate easily along the lamination interfaces. When impact is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination
700:
spheroid bands in a manner identical to pattern-welded
Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve the carbides was thought to permanently destroy the pattern. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern could be recovered by
405:
showed that the 54-fold samples had an impact toughness of 4.36 J/cm, while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm. Tensile testing showed that yield strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the maximum strength of
91:
Modern steelmakers and metallurgists have studied medieval "Damascus steel" extensively, developing theories on how it was made, and why its use died out by the late 19th century. Modern reproductions can use the term "Damascene", or call themselves "Damascus steel", and many use similar techniques
704:
They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not
258:
The reputation and history of
Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade. Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made the
585:
Modern attempts to duplicate the metal have not always been entirely successful due to differences in raw materials and manufacturing techniques, but several individuals in modern times have successfully produced pattern forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with visible carbide banding on the
504:
elements. These ingots would then be further forged and worked into
Damascus steel blades. Research now shows that carbon nanotubes can be derived from plant fibers, suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are
418:
The processing and design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect on mechanical properties as well. Regardless of tempering temperature and the liquid the steel is quenched in, the impact strength of
Damascus steel where the impact is perpendicular to the band orientation is
581:
in the
Damascus steel's composition, if true, could support the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the
435:
Identification of crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgical structures is difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by just one criterion, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must be taken into consideration:
65:, characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. "Damascus steel" developed a high reputation for being tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a sharp, resilient edge.
372:
bars with 1.0 wt% carbon with regards to mechanical properties. The average yield strength of 740 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel yield strength of 550 MPa, and the average tensile strength of 1070 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel tensile strength of 965 MPa.
393:
Another study investigated the properties of
Damascus steel produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal amounts of carbon, but the 15N20 steel notably has 2 wt% nickel. The 1075 steel is known for high strength, but low toughness, with a
398:
microstructure, and the 15N20 steel is known for high toughness with a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical properties of the resultant laminate
Damascus steel were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well as samples with 250 folds.
464:: It is produced by the Western Barbarians. Some have a spiral self-patterning, while others have a sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. When a knife or sword is wiped clean and treated with 'gold thread' alum, appears. Its value is greater than silver.
2740:
708:
A subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations.
384:
measurements of the
Damascus steel ranged from 62-67. These mechanical properties were consistent with the expected properties from the constituent steels of the material, falling between the upper and lower bounds created by the original steels.
733:
reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel.
2279:
712:
Thermal cycling after forging allows for the aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via
684:
state. Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbideâtheir goal was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in the wootz.
664:
J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. They started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original
134:. In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is no evidence of local production of crucible steel, though there is evidence of imported steel being forged into swords in Damascus. The name could have been an early form of
427:
interfaces are effectively protected, deflecting the cracks and increasing the energy required for cracks to propagate through the material. Band orientation should be chosen to protect against deformation and increase toughness.
545:. Some gunsmiths during the 18th and 19th century used the term "damascus steel" to describe their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did not use crucible steel. Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline.
2350:
Kochmann, W.; Reibold, Marianne; Goldberg, Rolf; Hauffe, Wolfgang; Levin, Alexander A; Meyer, Dirk C; Stephan, Thurid; MĂŒller, Heide; Belger, AndrĂ©; Paufler, Peter (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel".
791:
techniques as opposed to the traditional folding and forging. The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to ancient Damascus steels, with a tensile strength of 1300 MPa and 10% elongation.
1806:
Feuerbach, Ann; Merkel, John F.; Griffiths, Dafydd R. (1996). "Production of Crucible Steel by Co-Fusion: Archaeometallurgical Evidence from the Ninth-Early Tenth Century at the Site of Merv, Turkmenistan".
483:
Macroscopic section of crucible steel (left) and false color labeling (right) showing rafts rich in carbide forming elements (CFEs) which lead to clustered cementite spheroids, as well as divorced cementite
569:âą The disruption of mining and steel manufacture by the British Raj in the form of production taxes and export bans may have also contributed to a loss of knowledge of key ore sources or key techniques.
339:
steel, Valyrian steel also seems to be a lost art from an ancient civilization. Unlike Damascus steel, however, Valyrian steel blades require no maintenance and cannot be damaged through normal combat.
548:âą Due to the distance of trade for this steel, a sufficiently lengthy disruption of the trade routes could have ended the production of Damascus steel and eventually led to the loss of the technique.
566:âą The technique for controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging at a specific temperature could also have been lost, thereby preventing the final damask pattern in the steel from occurring.
563:
within the materials needed for the production of the steel may be absent if this material was acquired from different production regions or smelted from ores lacking these key trace elements.
311:. The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the ruins of ancient Tyre". "Eulenspiegel" is the name of the legendary prankster of medieval Germany.
529:
in a blade forged from Damascus steel, although John Verhoeven of Iowa State University in Ames suggests that the research team which reported nanowires in crucible steel was seeing
509:
added plant material is necessary to provide the required carbon content, and as such any nanowires of cementite or carbon nanotubes would not have been the result of plant fibers.
1500:
410:
materials, finding that the properties of the Damascus steel lie in between those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite material properties.
141:"Damascus steel" may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or simply those with the distinctive surface patterns on the swords, in the same way that
738:
successfully reproduced the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980.
2243:
222:
The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived. From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the
303:
A common misconception is that the steel was hardened by thrusting it six times in the back and thighs of a slave. This originated in an article on page 28 of the
380:
spacing in the Damascus steel, refining the microstructure. The elongation and reduction in area were also slightly higher than the hot-rolled steel averages.
1397:
High-speed steel: the development, nature, treatment, and use of high-speed steels, together with some suggestions as to the problems involved in their use
2688:
2769:
1759:
1572:Ăzkan, Furkan; Kirdan, Hakan; Kara, Ä°smail Hakkı; HĂŒsem, Fazıl; Ăzcelik, Sait; Akinay, YĂŒksel; Ăug, Harun; Sun, Yavuz; Ahlatci, Hayrettin (2014-10-01).
808:
and meant to be used with light pressure loads. Current gun manufacturers make slide assemblies and small parts such as triggers and safeties for
541:
Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented by
940:
28:
1237:. Oxford University Press for the Board of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford and the British Institute of Persian Studies.
901:
1055:
3275:
196:
known as Muharrar, in addition to steel that was imported.There was also domestic production of crucible steel outside of India, including
1147:
812:
pistols from powdered Swedish steel resulting in a swirling two-toned effect; these parts are often referred to as "Stainless Damascus".
1472:
1508:
2635:
Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E. (September 2004). "The continuing study of damascus steel: Bars from the Alwar Armory".
1322:
800:
Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a
1719:
Goodell B, Xie X, Qian Y, Daniel G, Peterson M, Jellison J (2008). "Carbon nanotubes produced from natural cellulosic materials".
149:
2762:
914:
2380:
2698:
2480:
KĂŒrnsteiner, Philipp; Wilms, Markus Benjamin; Weisheit, Andreas; Gault, Baptiste; JĂ€gle, Eric AimĂ©; Raabe, Dierk (June 2020).
2033:
656:
3237:
2591:
2559:
2277:, Verhoeven, John D. & Pendray, Alfred H., "Method of making "Damascus" blades", published 1992-03-09
2199:
2169:
2002:
1242:
1215:
1188:
1157:
885:
915:
The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century, Alan R. Williams (2012).
2250:
2738:, Verhoeven, J.D. & Pendray, A.H., "Method of making "Damascus" blades", published 9 February 1993
1180:
The knight and the blast furnace: a history of the metallurgy of armour in the Middle Ages & the early modern period
111:
Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources for the term "Damascus" in the context of steel:
2755:
2227:
1424:
1366:
1019:
924:
755:
669:
steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords that Verhoeven and Pendray had access to.
3255:
777:. Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures are a result of the forging process.
688:
Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed
76:, that many of the swords themselves, or at least the steel ingots from which they were forged, were imported from
68:
There is now a general agreement that although the term "Damascus steel" traces its roots to the medieval city of
2673:
1889:
641:
1767:
626:
3306:
3265:
3245:
3037:
787:
German researchers have investigated the possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through
2629:
119:
as Damascene but it is worth noting that these swords were not described as having a pattern in the steel.
3198:
645:
259:
blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible and very hard at the same time.
533:, which can itself exist as rods, so there might not be any carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure.
3074:
1259:
2274:
3270:
3122:
2157:
360:
Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization of a Damascus sword, performing
2019:
419:
significantly higher than the impact strength where the impact is parallel to the band orientation.
3321:
3316:
3213:
3011:
603:
440:
The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively homogeneous steel content with virtually no
457:
By these definitions, modern recreations of crucible steel are consistent with historic examples.
3260:
3250:
3137:
2799:
2727:
1573:
788:
2551:
2544:
1091:
3152:
3084:
3069:
3061:
3027:
1401:
781:
735:
673:
325:
24:
1651:
1163:
335:, appears to have been inspired by Damascus steel, but with a magic twist. Just like Damascus/
3311:
2894:
2891:
2122:(May 1960). "Pattern-Welding and Damascening of Sword-BladesâPart 2: The Damascene Process".
1620:
1205:
1178:
856:
630:
2084:(February 1960). "Pattern-Welding and Damascening of Sword-BladesâPart 1: Pattern-Welding".
3301:
3223:
3187:
3142:
3032:
3006:
2644:
2493:
2395:
2306:
1911:
1850:
1585:
1336:
1067:
1012:
The book most comprehensive in knowledge on precious stones: al-Beruni's book on mineralogy
453:
The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample
1445:
8:
3192:
3182:
3178:
3127:
3117:
3001:
2980:
2867:
2834:
1987:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
1496:
1417:""The Wealth They Left Us": Two Women Author Themselves through Others' Lives in Beowulf"
763:
607:
542:
320:
287:
2648:
2497:
2399:
2310:
1854:
1589:
1071:
648:
that Moran founded, the smith must forge a Damascus blade with a minimum of 300 layers.
2897:
2794:
2660:
2462:
2411:
2379:
Levin, A. A.; Meyer, D. C.; Reibold, M.; Kochmann, W.; PĂ€tzke, N.; Paufler, P. (2005).
2332:
2139:
2101:
1967:
1916:
1876:
1837:
Reibold, M.; Paufler, P.; Levin, A. A.; Kochmann, W.; PĂ€tzke, N.; Meyer, D. C. (2006).
1359:
The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 1350â1650
1119:
Wadsworth, Jeffrey; Sherby, Oleg D. (1980). "On the Bulat â Damascus Steel Revisited".
1083:
966:
934:
902:"The Mystery of the Damascus Sword and India's Materials Heritage - Forbes India Blogs"
689:
501:
447:
423:
402:
241:
iron is produced in Persia ; it is so hard and sharp that it can cut gold and jade ...
126:
The most common explanation is that steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of
34:
1395:
957:
Bronson, Bennet (1986). "The making and selling of wootz, a crucible steel of India".
207:
In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka,
2911:
2664:
2587:
2555:
2517:
2509:
2466:
2368:
2336:
2324:
2223:
2195:
2165:
1998:
1971:
1959:
1868:
1736:
1689:
1601:
1551:
1547:
1362:
1328:
1279:
1238:
1231:
Allan, James W.; Gilmour, Brian J. J.; Studies, British Institute of Persian (2000).
1211:
1184:
1153:
1132:
1087:
1025:
1015:
970:
920:
881:
730:
493:
212:
193:
81:
2481:
2419:
2415:
2996:
2975:
2652:
2501:
2452:
2403:
2360:
2314:
2131:
2093:
2063:
2037:
1994:
1990:
1949:
1880:
1858:
1816:
1728:
1663:
1632:
1593:
1543:
1271:
1128:
1075:
846:
714:
526:
369:
365:
122:
Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.
2364:
1621:"Genuine Damascus steel: a type of banded microstructure in hypereutectoid steels"
701:
thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the steel at a moderate temperature.
3296:
3203:
2956:
2860:
1416:
1232:
774:
619:
578:
479:
361:
331:
304:
219:, where the steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Middle East.
2293:
Verhoeven, J. D.; Pendray, A. H.; Dauksch, W. E.; Wagstaff, S. R. (2018-07-01).
1667:
805:
745:
Cementite crystal structure. Iron atoms are in blue, carbon atoms are in black.
3107:
3089:
2961:
2907:
2119:
2081:
2051:
1941:
1531:
826:
381:
355:
297:
283:
263:
181:
77:
50:
2717:
2656:
2505:
2319:
2294:
1079:
987:
Hassan, A. Y. (1978). "Iron and Steel Technology in Medieval Arabic Sources".
3290:
3051:
2840:
2513:
2372:
2328:
1963:
1693:
1605:
1555:
1283:
267:
2747:
1448:[Lines 1655 - 1693 (Robert Fletcher, trans.; Sandy Eckard, pres.)].
1332:
1029:
741:
233:
iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians , is especially fine. The
3165:
3160:
2926:
2887:
2883:
2735:
2521:
2407:
2215:
1985:
Balasubramaniam, R. (2008). "Metallurgy of Ancient Indian Iron and Steel".
1872:
1740:
1636:
1275:
821:
677:
636:
This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices
2457:
2440:
1954:
3208:
3112:
2969:
2935:
2713:
1820:
1732:
851:
841:
836:
831:
726:
497:
349:
336:
223:
208:
177:
100:
The origin of the name "Damascus Steel" is contentious. Islamic scholars
58:
1650:ÄernĂœ, Michal; FilĂpek, Josef; Mazal, Pavel; DostĂĄl, Petr (2013-04-08).
1324:
India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World
729:
to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar
660:
Detail of handmade hair-cutting scissors from a Japanese company, 2010s.
594:
3097:
2940:
2850:
2143:
2105:
1597:
1320:
809:
623:
246:
211:/ ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including
185:
1656:
Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis
160:
3218:
3132:
2903:
2855:
2812:
770:
767:
697:
681:
602:
Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using
560:
530:
522:
169:
105:
104:(full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE â 873 CE) and
62:
2135:
2097:
2067:
2054:(1948). "A Sword of the Nydam Type from Ely Fields Farm, near Ely".
1863:
1838:
1790:
1297:
3102:
2844:
2830:
2822:
1298:"Early Islamic manufacture of crucible steel at Merv, Turkmenistan"
1183:. History of warfare. Vol. 12. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 11â15.
693:
556:
552:
489:
395:
377:
116:
101:
80:, where the steel making techniques used were first developed. or
69:
1760:"Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says"
705:
remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements.
2706:
Science and Civilization in China Volume 5-11: Ferrous Metallurgy
801:
518:
292:
216:
368:. They found that the Damascus steel was somewhat comparable to
266:
in such a way as to retain a bend after being flexed past their
2292:
637:
551:âą The need for key trace impurities of carbide formers such as
319:
The exceptionally strong fictional Valyrian steel mentioned in
189:
142:
131:
46:
38:
Close-up of a 13th-century Persian-forged Damascus steel sword.
2244:"ABS Testing Rules and Guidelines for the Master Smith Rating"
1532:"Damascus steel, characterization of one Damascus steel sword"
262:
Extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords were often
2782:
2674:"Pattern Formation in Wootz Damascus Steel Swords and Blades"
2479:
2349:
1056:"The key role of impurities in ancient damascus steel blades"
759:
666:
279:
173:
135:
127:
73:
54:
20:
2734:
1686:
Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use, and origins
1574:"Mechanical Properties of Pattern Welded 1075-15N20 Steels*"
1473:"On Slaves and Silk Hankies Seeking Truth in Damascus Steel"
725:
In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as
500:
additives along with certain specific types of iron rich in
2778:
2034:"John Verhoeven: Mystery of Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled"
1836:
441:
201:
197:
85:
1839:"Materials: Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre"
1530:
Peterson, D.T.; Baker, H.H.; Verhoeven, J.D. (June 1990).
1005:
2699:
John Verhoeven: Mystery of Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled
2378:
1207:
Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History
273:
2482:"High-strength Damascus steel by additive manufacturing"
1805:
192:). Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in
2634:
1649:
1053:
1683:
1529:
1054:
Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E. (1998).
720:
1700:
1375:
766:
to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of
343:
1718:
1571:
1495:
1230:
1152:. Iola, WI: Krause Publications. pp. 137â145.
780:Sanderson proposes that the process of forging and
145:fabrics (also named for Damascus), got their name.
2543:
1888:
1501:"There's a real-life equivalent to Valyrian Steel"
1321:Sharada Srinivasan; Srinivasa Ranganathan (2004).
651:
586:surface, consistent with original Damascus Steel.
3288:
2607:Hopkins, Cameron (2000). "Damascus Knight .45".
2273:
2156:
2056:Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society
1792:Islamic Swords: ch 3: Kindi on Swords commentary
680:in cementite spheroids, which resulted from its
676:state, with a grain structure and beads of pure
16:Type of steel used in Middle Eastern swordmaking
1984:
1652:"Basic mechanical properties of layered steels"
1118:
168:Damascus blades were first manufactured in the
2434:
2432:
2214:
115:Al-Kindi called swords produced and forged in
2777:
2763:
2712:
2026:
1257:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
130:and one of the largest cities in the ancient
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2381:"Microstructure of a genuine Damascus sabre"
1832:
1830:
1260:"Persian PulÄd Production: ChÄhak Tradition"
1258:Alipour, Rahil; Rehren, Thilo (2015-02-15).
492:process to obtain wootz steel ingots, woody
2429:
2020:"Carbon nanotubes: Saladin's secret weapon"
1754:
1752:
1750:
1361:. Cambridge University Press. p. 192.
939:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
237:states: 'There are five kinds of iron ...
29:Rif Dimashq offensive (FebruaryâApril 2018)
2770:
2756:
1489:
1327:. National Institute of Advanced Studies.
1105:
1036:
1014:]. Islamabad: Pakistan Hijra Council.
496:and leaves are known to have been used as
376:These results are likely due to the finer
2671:
2568:
2528:
2456:
2438:
2318:
2222:. Knife World Publications. p. 169.
2011:
1953:
1939:
1862:
1827:
1721:Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
1618:
989:Journal for the History of Arabic Science
413:
49:: ÙÙÙۧ۰ ŰŻÙ
ŰŽÙÙ) refers to the high carbon
2189:
2185:
2183:
2181:
1909:
1747:
1356:
1176:
1170:
784:accounts for the nano-scale structures.
740:
655:
613:
593:
536:
478:
430:
159:
92:of lamination, banding, and patterning.
33:
2606:
2581:
2541:
2194:. Krause Publications. pp. 224â6.
2017:
1314:
1145:
1008:KitÄb al-jamÄhir fÄ« maÊ»rifat al-jawÄhir
956:
880:. Atlantis Arts Press. pp. 10â11.
329:, as well as its television adaptation
3289:
2703:
2630:"Damascene Technique in Metal Working"
2118:
2080:
2050:
1706:
1414:
1393:
1381:
1234:Persian Steel: The Tanavoli Collection
986:
875:
749:
629:unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the
589:
274:Cultural references and misconceptions
23:. For the album of the same name, see
2751:
2178:
1935:
1933:
1679:
1677:
1567:
1565:
1470:
1203:
869:
606:. Many have attempted to discover or
521:published a report in 2006 revealing
474:
2681:Indian Journal of History of Science
2018:Milgrom, Lionel (15 November 2006).
1197:
982:
980:
952:
950:
572:
314:
27:. For Operation Damascus Steel, see
2719:The Secrets of Wootz Damascus Steel
1940:Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15).
1788:
1006:Bīrƫnī, Muងammad ibn Aងmad (1989).
754:A team of researchers based at the
721:Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat
598:Pattern on modern "Damascus knife".
164:A bladesmith from Damascus, c. 1900
13:
2716:; Pendray, Al (21 November 2017).
2441:"Sharpest cut from nanotube sword"
2150:
1942:"Sharpest cut from nanotube sword"
1930:
1674:
1619:Verhoeven, John D. (August 2002).
1562:
1400:. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
1290:
618:Since the well-known technique of
610:the process by which it was made.
512:
344:Material and mechanical properties
14:
3333:
2623:
1890:"Secret's out for Saracen sabres"
1425:University of California at Davis
977:
947:
72:, perhaps as an early example of
2925:
2730:from the original on 2021-11-17.
2694:from the original on 2017-12-12.
795:
148:
19:For Damascus Twist barrels, see
2600:
2586:. Woods N' Water. p. 240.
2550:. Krause Publications. p.
2473:
2388:Crystal Research and Technology
2353:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
2343:
2286:
2267:
2236:
2208:
2112:
2074:
2044:
1978:
1903:
1799:
1782:
1712:
1684:Feuerbach, Anna Marie. (2002).
1643:
1612:
1523:
1464:
1438:
1408:
1387:
1350:
1251:
1224:
756:Technical University of Dresden
652:Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible
422:This is due to the failure and
1995:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9765
1910:Fountain, Henry (2006-11-28).
1264:Journal of Islamic Archaeology
1139:
999:
908:
894:
300:translations as "damascened".
1:
2795:History of ferrous metallurgy
2365:10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005
1446:"Beowulf: Lines 1399 to 1799"
1394:Becker, Otto Matthew (1910).
862:
253:
3038:Argon oxygen decarburization
2708:, Cambridge University Press
2609:American Handgunner Magazine
1766:. 2010-10-28. Archived from
1548:10.1016/1044-5803(90)90042-i
1133:10.1016/0079-6425(80)90014-6
789:laser additive manufacturing
53:of the blades of historical
7:
3199:Differential heat treatment
2582:Matunas, Edward A. (2003).
2218:; Barney, Richard (1995) .
1668:10.11118/actaun201361010025
1357:Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003).
815:
646:American Bladesmith Society
450:is a typical characteristic
403:Charpy V-notch impact tests
307:of November 4, 1894 titled
10:
3340:
2704:Wagner, Donald B. (2008),
2546:Shotguns & Shotgunning
2295:"Damascus Steel Revisited"
1536:Materials Characterization
1471:Alter, Stephen C. (2017).
1177:Williams, Alan R. (2003).
917:The Sword and the Crucible
388:
353:
347:
155:
18:
3236:
3174:
3151:
3123:Ferritic nitrocarburizing
3083:
3060:
3050:
3020:
2989:
2949:
2934:
2923:
2876:
2821:
2808:
2790:
2657:10.1007/s11837-004-0193-4
2584:Do-It-Yourself Gun Repair
2506:10.1038/s41586-020-2409-3
2320:10.1007/s11837-018-2915-z
2162:Gun digest book of knives
1423:. Department of English,
1415:Osborn, Marijane (2002).
1210:. MIT Press. p. 80.
1149:The Wonder of Knifemaking
1080:10.1007/s11837-998-0419-y
672:The wootz was in a soft,
577:The discovery of alleged
309:Tempering Damascus Blades
95:
3214:Post weld heat treatment
2672:Verhoeven, J.D. (2007).
1688:. University of London.
604:experimental archaeology
180:that were imported from
2800:List of steel producers
2542:Simpson, Layne (2003).
2164:. DBI. pp. 58â64.
2124:Studies in Conservation
2086:Studies in Conservation
1146:Goddard, Wayne (2000).
876:Figiel, Leo S. (1991).
505:analyzed more closely.
3028:Electro-slag remelting
2439:Sanderson, K. (2006).
2408:10.1002/crat.200410456
2190:Kertzman, Joe (2007).
2160:; Roger Combs (1992).
1989:. pp. 1608â1613.
1637:10.1002/srin.200200221
1276:10.1558/jia.v1i2.24174
1204:Pacey, Arnold (1991).
746:
736:Pavel Petrovich Anosov
661:
599:
485:
472:
414:Lamination and banding
326:A Song of Ice and Fire
296:was described in some
251:
165:
39:
25:Damascus Steel (album)
3238:Production by country
2458:10.1038/news061113-11
1955:10.1038/news061113-11
1060:Journal of Metallurgy
919:. Brill. p. 30.
857:Laminated steel blade
744:
659:
614:Moran: billet welding
597:
537:Loss of the technique
482:
459:
431:Metallurgical process
321:George R. R. Martin's
228:
163:
37:
3224:Superplastic forming
3143:Quench polish quench
3033:Vacuum arc remelting
3012:Basic oxygen process
3007:Electric arc furnace
1821:10.1557/PROC-462-105
1733:10.1166/jnn.2008.235
1511:on 19 September 2018
1452:. pp. 1665â1670
3307:History of Damascus
3179:Cryogenic treatment
3002:Open hearth furnace
2990:Primary (Post-1850)
2981:Cementation process
2868:Direct reduced iron
2649:2004JOM....56i..17V
2498:2020Natur.582..515K
2400:2005CryRT..40..905L
2311:2018JOM....70g1331V
1912:"Antique Nanotubes"
1855:2006Natur.444..286R
1770:on 18 November 2006
1764:National Geographic
1590:2014MTest..56..897O
1497:The Daily Telegraph
1072:1998JOM....50i..58V
764:electron microscopy
750:Additional research
640:together to form a
590:Modern Reproduction
517:A research team in
226:from South India.
200:(Turkmenistan) and
2950:Primary (Pre-1850)
2220:How to Make Knives
2040:on 11 August 2018.
1917:The New York Times
1897:. 8 November 2006.
1598:10.3139/120.110649
747:
662:
631:Knifemakers' Guild
600:
486:
475:Addition of carbon
166:
40:
3284:
3283:
3232:
3231:
3046:
3045:
2921:
2920:
2912:Induction furnace
2593:978-0-9722804-2-6
2561:978-0-87349-567-7
2492:(7813): 515â519.
2201:978-0-89689-470-9
2171:978-0-87349-129-7
2004:978-1-4020-4559-2
1948:: news061113â11.
1789:Hoyland, Robert.
1578:Materials Testing
1244:978-0-19-728025-6
1217:978-0-262-66072-3
1190:978-90-04-12498-1
1166:on April 1, 2017.
1159:978-0-87341-798-3
887:978-0-9628711-0-8
878:On Damascus Steel
731:Michael of Russia
573:Modern conjecture
446:The formation of
382:Rockwell hardness
315:In modern culture
57:forged using the
3329:
3058:
3057:
2997:Bessemer process
2947:
2946:
2929:
2819:
2818:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2731:
2709:
2695:
2693:
2678:
2668:
2617:
2616:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2579:
2566:
2565:
2549:
2539:
2526:
2525:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2460:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2418:. Archived from
2385:
2376:
2359:(1â2): L15âL19.
2347:
2341:
2340:
2322:
2305:(7): 1331â1336.
2290:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2255:
2249:. Archived from
2248:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2216:Loveless, Robert
2212:
2206:
2205:
2192:Art of the Knife
2187:
2176:
2175:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2036:. Archived from
2030:
2024:
2023:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1957:
1937:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1892:
1884:
1866:
1834:
1825:
1824:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1756:
1745:
1744:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1569:
1560:
1559:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1507:. Archived from
1499:(21 June 2017).
1493:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1477:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1335:. Archived from
1318:
1312:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1302:www.academia.edu
1294:
1288:
1287:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1162:. Archived from
1143:
1137:
1136:
1121:Prog. Mater. Sci
1116:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1090:. Archived from
1051:
1034:
1033:
1003:
997:
996:
984:
975:
974:
954:
945:
944:
938:
930:
912:
906:
905:
898:
892:
891:
873:
847:Tamahagane steel
775:carbon nanotubes
715:Ostwald ripening
627:William F. Moran
608:reverse-engineer
579:carbon nanotubes
527:carbon nanotubes
470:
370:hot-rolled steel
366:hardness testing
288:Grendel's mother
249:
152:
3339:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3322:Arab inventions
3317:Lost inventions
3287:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3228:
3204:Decarburization
3170:
3147:
3088:
3079:
3042:
3016:
2985:
2957:Pattern welding
2938:
2930:
2917:
2872:
2861:Anthracite iron
2810:
2809:Iron production
2804:
2786:
2776:
2741:
2691:
2676:
2626:
2621:
2620:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2580:
2569:
2562:
2540:
2529:
2478:
2474:
2437:
2430:
2422:
2383:
2377:
2348:
2344:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2188:
2179:
2172:
2155:
2151:
2136:10.2307/1504953
2120:Maryon, Herbert
2117:
2113:
2098:10.2307/1505063
2082:Maryon, Herbert
2079:
2075:
2068:10.5284/1034398
2052:Maryon, Herbert
2049:
2045:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1983:
1979:
1938:
1931:
1922:
1920:
1908:
1904:
1887:
1864:10.1038/444286a
1835:
1828:
1809:MRS Proceedings
1804:
1800:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1771:
1758:
1757:
1748:
1717:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1682:
1675:
1648:
1644:
1617:
1613:
1584:(10): 897â900.
1570:
1563:
1528:
1524:
1514:
1512:
1494:
1490:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1469:
1465:
1455:
1453:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1413:
1409:
1392:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1355:
1351:
1342:
1340:
1319:
1315:
1306:
1304:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1175:
1171:
1160:
1144:
1140:
1117:
1106:
1097:
1095:
1052:
1037:
1022:
1004:
1000:
985:
978:
959:Archeomaterials
955:
948:
932:
931:
927:
913:
909:
900:
899:
895:
888:
874:
870:
865:
818:
798:
752:
723:
654:
620:pattern welding
616:
592:
575:
539:
515:
513:Modern research
477:
471:
468:
433:
416:
391:
362:tensile testing
358:
352:
346:
332:Game of Thrones
317:
305:Chicago Tribune
276:
256:
250:
245:
158:
98:
70:Damascus, Syria
61:process in the
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3337:
3336:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3242:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3190:
3185:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Carbonitriding
3105:
3100:
3094:
3092:
3090:Case-hardening
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3066:
3064:
3055:
3052:Heat treatment
3048:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2976:Tatara furnace
2973:
2966:Damascus steel
2962:Crucible steel
2959:
2953:
2951:
2944:
2932:
2931:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2908:Cupola furnace
2901:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2838:
2827:
2825:
2816:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2775:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2732:
2710:
2701:
2696:
2687:(4): 559â574.
2669:
2632:
2625:
2624:External links
2622:
2619:
2618:
2599:
2592:
2567:
2560:
2527:
2472:
2428:
2425:on 2006-03-15.
2394:(9): 905â916.
2342:
2285:
2266:
2235:
2228:
2207:
2200:
2177:
2170:
2149:
2111:
2073:
2043:
2025:
2010:
2003:
1977:
1929:
1902:
1900:
1899:
1826:
1798:
1781:
1746:
1711:
1709:, p. 271.
1699:
1673:
1642:
1631:(8): 356â365.
1625:Steel Research
1611:
1561:
1542:(4): 355â374.
1522:
1488:
1463:
1437:
1407:
1386:
1384:, p. 269.
1374:
1367:
1349:
1313:
1289:
1270:(2): 231â261.
1250:
1243:
1223:
1216:
1196:
1189:
1169:
1158:
1138:
1104:
1035:
1020:
998:
976:
946:
925:
907:
893:
886:
867:
866:
864:
861:
860:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
827:Crucible steel
824:
817:
814:
797:
794:
751:
748:
722:
719:
682:hypereutectoid
653:
650:
615:
612:
591:
588:
574:
571:
538:
535:
514:
511:
476:
473:
466:
455:
454:
451:
444:
432:
429:
415:
412:
390:
387:
356:Crucible steel
345:
342:
316:
313:
298:Modern English
275:
272:
255:
252:
243:
182:Southern India
157:
154:
124:
123:
120:
97:
94:
78:Southern India
51:crucible steel
43:Damascus steel
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3335:
3334:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3277:
3276:United States
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3138:Precipitation
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3091:
3086:
3082:
3076:
3075:Short circuit
3073:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3049:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2892:Reverberatory
2889:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2841:Blast furnace
2839:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2773:
2768:
2766:
2761:
2759:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2595:
2589:
2585:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2547:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2433:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2346:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2276:
2270:
2256:on 2018-10-03
2252:
2245:
2239:
2231:
2229:0-695-80913-X
2225:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2203:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2173:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2021:
2014:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1934:
1919:
1918:
1913:
1906:
1896:
1895:New Scientist
1891:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1849:(7117): 286.
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1831:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1802:
1794:
1793:
1785:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1727:(5): 2472â4.
1726:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1678:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1566:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1510:
1506:
1505:The Telegraph
1502:
1498:
1492:
1474:
1467:
1451:
1447:
1441:
1426:
1422:
1421:heroicage.org
1418:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1398:
1390:
1383:
1378:
1370:
1368:0-521-82613-6
1364:
1360:
1353:
1339:on 2019-02-11
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1325:
1317:
1303:
1299:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1246:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1227:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1181:
1173:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1142:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1094:on 2019-08-29
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1021:969-8016-28-7
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
994:
990:
983:
981:
972:
968:
964:
960:
953:
951:
942:
936:
928:
926:9789004227835
922:
918:
911:
903:
897:
889:
883:
879:
872:
868:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
819:
813:
811:
807:
803:
796:In gun making
793:
790:
785:
783:
778:
776:
772:
769:
765:
761:
757:
743:
739:
737:
732:
728:
718:
716:
710:
706:
702:
699:
695:
691:
686:
683:
679:
675:
670:
668:
658:
649:
647:
643:
639:
634:
632:
628:
625:
621:
611:
609:
605:
596:
587:
583:
580:
570:
567:
564:
562:
558:
554:
549:
546:
544:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
510:
506:
503:
502:microalloying
499:
495:
491:
481:
465:
463:
458:
452:
449:
445:
443:
439:
438:
437:
428:
425:
420:
411:
407:
404:
400:
397:
386:
383:
379:
374:
371:
367:
363:
357:
351:
341:
338:
334:
333:
328:
327:
322:
312:
310:
306:
301:
299:
295:
294:
290:in the story
289:
286:used to kill
285:
281:
271:
269:
268:elastic limit
265:
260:
248:
242:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
220:
218:
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
184:(present-day
183:
179:
175:
171:
162:
153:
151:
146:
144:
139:
137:
133:
129:
121:
118:
114:
113:
112:
109:
107:
103:
93:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
36:
30:
26:
22:
3312:Metalworking
3166:Martempering
3161:Austempering
3070:Low hydrogen
2965:
2888:Finery forge
2884:Wrought iron
2723:
2718:
2714:Loades, Mike
2705:
2684:
2680:
2643:(9): 17â20.
2640:
2636:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2583:
2545:
2489:
2485:
2475:
2448:
2444:
2420:the original
2391:
2387:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2302:
2298:
2288:
2269:
2258:. Retrieved
2251:the original
2238:
2219:
2210:
2191:
2161:
2152:
2130:(2): 52â60.
2127:
2123:
2114:
2092:(1): 25â37.
2089:
2085:
2076:
2059:
2055:
2046:
2038:the original
2028:
2013:
1986:
1980:
1945:
1921:. Retrieved
1915:
1905:
1894:
1846:
1842:
1812:
1808:
1801:
1791:
1784:
1772:. Retrieved
1768:the original
1763:
1724:
1720:
1714:
1702:
1685:
1662:(1): 25â38.
1659:
1655:
1645:
1628:
1624:
1614:
1581:
1577:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1515:19 September
1513:. Retrieved
1509:the original
1504:
1491:
1479:. Retrieved
1466:
1454:. Retrieved
1449:
1440:
1428:. Retrieved
1420:
1410:
1396:
1389:
1377:
1358:
1352:
1341:. Retrieved
1337:the original
1323:
1316:
1305:. Retrieved
1301:
1292:
1267:
1263:
1253:
1233:
1226:
1206:
1199:
1179:
1172:
1164:the original
1148:
1141:
1127:(1): 35â68.
1124:
1120:
1096:. Retrieved
1092:the original
1063:
1059:
1011:
1007:
1001:
992:
988:
962:
958:
916:
910:
896:
877:
871:
822:Toledo steel
806:proof marked
799:
786:
779:
753:
724:
711:
707:
703:
687:
678:iron carbide
671:
663:
635:
617:
601:
584:
576:
568:
565:
550:
547:
543:Coomaraswamy
540:
516:
507:
487:
461:
460:
456:
434:
421:
417:
408:
401:
392:
375:
359:
330:
324:
323:book series
318:
308:
302:
291:
277:
261:
257:
238:
235:Bao zang lun
234:
230:
229:
221:
206:
167:
147:
140:
125:
110:
99:
90:
67:
42:
41:
3302:Steelmaking
3209:Forming gas
3113:Carburizing
2970:Wootz steel
2936:Steelmaking
2835:sponge iron
2158:Lewis, Jack
1774:19 November
1707:Wagner 2008
1481:29 December
1382:Wagner 2008
852:Mokume-gane
842:Bulat steel
837:Noric steel
832:Wootz steel
727:bulat steel
498:carburizing
488:During the
364:as well as
350:Wootz steel
224:Middle East
178:wootz steel
3291:Categories
3266:Luxembourg
3246:Bangladesh
3188:Deflashing
3098:Ausforming
2941:Steel mill
2851:Cold blast
2843:(produces
2833:(produces
2785:production
2736:US 5185044
2275:US 5185044
2260:2011-03-12
1923:2011-11-13
1450:As.wvu.edu
1343:2014-08-12
1307:2020-09-10
1098:2002-11-04
863:References
810:Colt M1911
758:that used
624:Bladesmith
484:spheroids.
354:See also:
348:See also:
254:Reputation
247:Li Shizhen
186:Tamil Nadu
3219:Quenching
3193:Hardening
3183:Deburring
3153:Tempering
3133:Nitriding
3128:Induction
3118:Cryogenic
3085:Hardening
3062:Annealing
3021:Secondary
2904:Cast iron
2877:Secondary
2856:Hot blast
2813:Ironworks
2665:137555792
2615:(4): 128.
2514:1476-4687
2467:136774602
2373:0925-8388
2337:139673807
2329:1543-1851
2062:: 73â76.
1972:136774602
1964:0028-0836
1694:499391952
1606:2195-8572
1556:1044-5803
1456:16 August
1284:2051-9710
1088:135854276
1066:(9): 58.
971:111606783
935:cite book
782:annealing
771:nanowires
768:cementite
698:cementite
561:manganese
531:cementite
523:nanowires
448:dendrites
396:pearlitic
170:Near East
106:al-Biruni
63:Near East
3103:Boriding
2895:Puddling
2845:pig iron
2831:Bloomery
2823:Smelting
2728:Archived
2689:Archived
2522:32581379
2416:96560374
1873:17108950
1741:18572666
1333:82439861
1030:25412863
995:: 31â52.
816:See also
694:pearlite
674:annealed
557:vanadium
553:tungsten
490:smelting
469:Cao Zhao
467:â
462:Bin iron
424:fracture
378:pearlite
264:tempered
244:â
213:Khorasan
204:, Iran.
194:Khorasan
136:branding
117:Damascus
102:al-Kindi
82:Khorasan
74:branding
3271:Nigeria
3054:methods
2898:Furnace
2724:YouTube
2645:Bibcode
2494:Bibcode
2451:: 286.
2396:Bibcode
2307:Bibcode
2144:1504953
2106:1505063
1881:4431079
1851:Bibcode
1586:Bibcode
1068:Bibcode
802:mandrel
690:ferrite
519:Germany
494:biomass
389:Folding
293:Beowulf
284:Beowulf
217:Isfahan
156:History
3297:Steels
2742:
2663:
2590:
2558:
2520:
2512:
2486:Nature
2465:
2445:Nature
2414:
2371:
2335:
2327:
2281:
2226:
2198:
2168:
2142:
2104:
2001:
1970:
1962:
1946:Nature
1879:
1871:
1843:Nature
1739:
1692:
1604:
1554:
1430:6 July
1365:
1331:
1282:
1241:
1214:
1187:
1156:
1086:
1028:
1018:
969:
923:
884:
760:x-rays
642:billet
638:welded
633:Show.
215:, and
190:Kerala
174:ingots
143:Damask
132:Levant
96:Naming
55:swords
47:Arabic
3261:Italy
3256:India
3251:China
2906:(via
2886:(via
2783:steel
2692:(PDF)
2677:(PDF)
2661:S2CID
2463:S2CID
2423:(PDF)
2412:S2CID
2384:(PDF)
2333:S2CID
2254:(PDF)
2247:(PDF)
2140:JSTOR
2102:JSTOR
1968:S2CID
1877:S2CID
1476:(PDF)
1084:S2CID
1010:[
967:S2CID
965:: 1.
667:wootz
337:Wootz
282:that
280:blade
209:wootz
172:from
128:Syria
59:wootz
21:Skelp
2890:or
2781:and
2779:Iron
2588:ISBN
2556:ISBN
2518:PMID
2510:ISSN
2369:ISSN
2325:ISSN
2224:ISBN
2196:ISBN
2166:ISBN
1999:ISBN
1960:ISSN
1869:PMID
1776:2006
1737:PMID
1690:OCLC
1602:ISSN
1552:ISSN
1517:2018
1483:2023
1458:2021
1432:2021
1404:â14.
1363:ISBN
1329:OCLC
1280:ISSN
1239:ISBN
1212:ISBN
1185:ISBN
1154:ISBN
1026:OCLC
1016:ISBN
941:link
921:ISBN
882:ISBN
773:and
762:and
696:and
525:and
442:slag
278:The
202:Yazd
198:Merv
188:and
86:Iran
2910:or
2653:doi
2637:JOM
2552:256
2502:doi
2490:582
2453:doi
2449:444
2404:doi
2361:doi
2357:372
2315:doi
2299:JOM
2132:doi
2094:doi
2064:doi
2060:XLI
1991:doi
1950:doi
1859:doi
1847:444
1817:doi
1813:462
1729:doi
1664:doi
1633:doi
1594:doi
1544:doi
1272:doi
1129:doi
1076:doi
559:or
239:Bin
231:Bin
176:of
3293::
3087:/
2968:,
2847:)
2726:.
2722:.
2685:42
2683:.
2679:.
2659:.
2651:.
2641:56
2639:.
2613:20
2611:.
2570:^
2554:.
2530:^
2516:.
2508:.
2500:.
2488:.
2484:.
2461:.
2447:.
2443:.
2431:^
2410:.
2402:.
2392:40
2390:.
2386:.
2367:.
2355:.
2331:.
2323:.
2313:.
2303:70
2301:.
2297:.
2180:^
2138:.
2126:.
2100:.
2088:.
2058:.
1997:.
1966:.
1958:.
1944:.
1932:^
1914:.
1893:.
1875:.
1867:.
1857:.
1845:.
1841:.
1829:^
1815:.
1811:.
1762:.
1749:^
1735:.
1723:.
1676:^
1660:61
1658:.
1654:.
1629:73
1627:.
1623:.
1600:.
1592:.
1582:56
1580:.
1576:.
1564:^
1550:.
1540:24
1538:.
1534:.
1503:.
1419:.
1402:10
1300:.
1278:.
1266:.
1262:.
1125:25
1123:.
1107:^
1082:.
1074:.
1064:50
1062:.
1058:.
1038:^
1024:.
991:.
979:^
961:.
949:^
937:}}
933:{{
717:.
555:,
270:.
138:.
88:.
84:,
3195:)
3181:(
2972:)
2964:(
2943:)
2939:(
2914:)
2900:)
2837:)
2815:)
2811:(
2771:e
2764:t
2757:v
2667:.
2655::
2647::
2596:.
2564:.
2524:.
2504::
2496::
2469:.
2455::
2406::
2398::
2375:.
2363::
2339:.
2317::
2309::
2263:.
2232:.
2204:.
2174:.
2146:.
2134::
2128:5
2108:.
2096::
2090:5
2070:.
2066::
2022:.
2007:.
1993::
1974:.
1952::
1926:.
1883:.
1861::
1853::
1823:.
1819::
1795:.
1778:.
1743:.
1731::
1725:8
1696:.
1670:.
1666::
1639:.
1635::
1608:.
1596::
1588::
1558:.
1546::
1519:.
1485:.
1460:.
1434:.
1371:.
1346:.
1310:.
1286:.
1274::
1268:1
1247:.
1220:.
1193:.
1135:.
1131::
1101:.
1078::
1070::
1032:.
993:2
973:.
963:1
943:)
929:.
904:.
890:.
692:/
45:(
31:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
