1802:. The types of clothes worn by peasants and commoners were largely uniform in appearance (with color standard of black and white), and so was the case for the upper class and elite. In fact, wealthy and leading members of society followed accepted guidelines and ritual requirements for clothing. In the upper class, each stratified grade in the social hierarchy was distinguished by the color and specific ornamentation of robes, the shape and type of headgear, and even the style of girdle worn. This rigid order was especially so during the beginning of the dynasty. However, the lines of hierarchy slowly began to blur as the color purple, once reserved solely for the attire of third rank officials or higher, began to diffuse amongst all ranks of officials who bore the color indiscriminately. Along with lower grade civil officials in the government protesting the rigid regulations for attire, the wealthy members of the merchant class also contributed to the disintegration of rules for ceremonial attire worn only by certain members of society. Yet there were still visible distinctions between civil officials and the class of rich merchants and business owners; the officials were distinguished by their long robes reaching to the ground, while merchants often wore a blouse that came down below the waist with trousers. Pants and trousers were introduced to China during the
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of their society, hence their paintings often depicted huge, sweeping landscapes. On the other hand, Southern Song officials were more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale, a method they believed had a better chance for eventual success. Hence, their paintings often focused on smaller, visually closer, and more intimate scenes, while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance or concern for the artist or viewer. This change in attitude from one era to the next stemmed largely from the rising influence of
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drink so that everyone could join in the celebration. People would gather around their local sanctuary to observe the festival's games, theatrical entertainments, juggling, clowning, and other performances. The festivities on New Years were considered the most important of the year by the
Chinese, its momentous occasion correlating with the beginning of February on the Western calendar. Preparations for the New Years festival took place over a month's time, as people busied themselves painting
1228:
1712:, lavish Chinese carnivals were revived and once again celebrated during the Song dynasty. Chinese carnival celebrations were held nationwide when the emperor felt a great occasion warranted a grand display of his benevolence and generosity, such as renowned military victories, abundant harvests after long droughts or famines, the granting of grand amnesties by the throne, sacrifices to deities, the installation of a crown prince, marriages within the imperial family, etc.
981:
2255:
function normally, there would have to be substance as well as vital energy. This allowed Song intellectuals to validate the teachings of
Mencius on the innate goodness of human nature, while at the same time providing an explanation for human wrongdoing. In essence, the principle underlying a human being is good and benevolent, but vital energy has the potential to go astray and be corrupted, giving rise to selfish impulses and all other negative human traits.
3913:
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these other two groups as mere professionals, since they relied on paid commissions for their livelihood and did not paint merely for enjoyment or self-expression. The scholar-artists considered that painters who concentrated on realistic depictions, who employed a colorful palette, or, worst of all, who accepted monetary payment for their work were no better than butchers or tinkers in the marketplace. They were not to be considered real artists.
1551:. Although trained to speak in the erudite Classical language, acting troupes commonly drew their membership from one of the lowest classes in society: prostitutes. Themes enjoyed in stage skits varied from satires about corrupt officials to comedy acts with titles like "Setting fire when delivering the soup," "Raising a ruckus in the winehouse," "The peony smells best when the wine is stolen," and "Catching a monkey in a restaurant." The only
1563:
claims "the city itself was turned into a stage and the citizens into the essential audience." Many of the songs played for stage performances were tunes that originated from vendors' and peddlers' songs. Contests were held on New Year's Day to determine which vendor or peddler had the best chants and songs while selling wares; the winners were brought before the imperial court to perform. The
1912:. However, records indicate that already in the Northern Song period, the first capital at Kaifeng sported restaurants that served southern Chinese cuisine. This catered to capital officials whose native provinces were in the southeast, and would have found northern cuisine lacking in sufficient seasoning for their tastes. In fact, texts from the Song era provide the first use of the phrases
222:(420β589), painting had become an art of high sophistication that was associated with the gentry class as one of their main artistic pastimes, the others being calligraphy and poetry. During the Song dynasty there were avid art collectors that would often meet in groups to discuss their own paintings, as well as rate those of their colleagues and friends. The poet and statesman
1484:
direct link between the two due to their close proximity within the cities. Of the fifty-some theatres located in the 'pleasure districts' of
Kaifeng, four of these theatres were large enough to entertain audiences of several thousand each, drawing huge crowds which nearby businesses thrived upon. The chief crowd that gathered was composed of those from
1188:(who ruled the Southern Tang under the name Li Houzhu) wrote some of his most famous works during his time as a prisoner at the first Song court, following the demise of his former kingdom: Li Yu is an important transitional figure, sometimes considered to be the first major Song poet, and sometimes acclaimed as the last major Tang poet.
2120:(r. 581β604) abolished the Nine Ranks in favor of a Confucian-taught bureaucracy drafted through civil service examinations, he also heavily sponsored the popular ideology of Buddhism to legitimate his rule. Hence, it was given free rein and influence to flourish and dominate Chinese culture during the Sui and Tang periods; historian
2175:
the charity and alms to the poor, the Song government took on this ideal role instead, through its various programs of welfare and charity (refer to
Society section). In addition, the historian Arthur F. Wright notes this situation during the Song period, with philosophical nativism taking from Buddhism its earlier benevolent role:
56:. It saw great advancements in the visual arts, music, literature, and philosophy. Officials of the ruling bureaucracy, who underwent a strict and extensive examination process, reached new heights of education in Chinese society, while general Chinese culture was enhanced by widespread printing, growing literacy, and various arts.
230:(1051β1107) often partook in these affairs, borrowing art pieces to study and copy, or if they really admired a piece then an exchange was often proposed. The small round paintings popular in the Southern Song were often collected into albums as poets would write poems along the side to match the theme and mood of the painting.
174:. However, even though intricate bronze-casting, ceramics and lacquerware, jade carving, sculpture, architecture, and the painting of portraits and closely viewed objects like birds on branches were held in high esteem by the Song Chinese, landscape painting was paramount. By the beginning of the Song dynasty a distinctive
1701:, when it was recorded that a large fireworks display was held alongside Chinese dancers in strange costumes moving through clouds of colored smoke in their performance. The common people also purchased firecrackers from city shopkeepers and vendors, made of simple sticks of bamboo filled with a small amount of gunpowder.
2043:
fermented bean soup, fruit cooked in scented honey, and 'honey crisps' of kneaded and baked honey, flour, mutton fat and pork lard. Dessert molds of oiled flour and sugared honey were shaped into girls' faces or statuettes of soldiers with full armor like door guards, and were called "likeness foods" (
2174:
ideal of ethical universalism with benevolent charity and relief to those in need inspired those such as Fan
Zhongyan and Wang Anshi, along with the Song government. In contrast to the earlier heavily Buddhist Tang period, where wealthy and pious Buddhist families and Buddhist temples handled much of
1814:
The attire of Song women was distinguished from men's clothing by being fastened on the left, not on the right. Women wore long dresses or blouses that came down almost to the knee. They also wore skirts and jackets with short or long sleeves. When strolling about outside and along the road, women of
1534:
Color and clothing distinguished the rank of theatre actors in the Song. Similar to vendors who wore specific outfits to identify which guild they belonged to, actors' generic costumes reflected the role type they played on stage, whether it be student, young man, young woman, official, soldier, etc.
1396:
in 1182 AD, and many others. There were also great authors of written works pertaining to geography and cartography during the Song, such as Yue Shi (his book in 983), Wang Zhu (in 1051), Li Dechu (in 1080), Chen
Kunchen (in 1111), Ouyang Wen (in 1117), and Zhu Mu (in 1240). Although an early form of
1323:
in 1088 AD, an enormous encyclopedic book that covered a wide range of subjects, including literature, art, military strategy, mathematics, astronomy, meteorology, geology, geography, metallurgy, engineering, hydraulics, architecture, zoology, botany, agronomy, medicine, anthropology, archeology, and
197:
There was a significant difference in painting trends between the
Northern Song period (960β1127) and Southern Song period (1127β1279). The paintings of Northern Song officials were influenced by their political ideals of bringing order to the world and tackling the largest issues affecting the whole
1981:
were also popular, and remained open all day and night along the
Imperial Way. According to one Song source on Kaifeng, the night markets closed at the third night watch but reopened on the fifth, while they had also gained a reputation for staying open during winter storms and the darkest, rainiest
1875:
for restaurants and taverns, as well as for feasts at banquets, festivals and carnivals, and modest dining. Many of the peculiar names for these dishes do not provide clues as to what types of food ingredients were used. However, judging from the listed seasonings they used for these dishes, such as
1827:
People in the Song dynasty never left their homes barefoot, and always had some sort of headgear on. Shops in the city specialized in certain types of hats and headgear, including caps with pointed tails, as well as belts and waistwraps. Only
Buddhist monks shaved their heads and strolled about with
1602:
In ancient China, there were many domestic and public pleasures in the rich urban environment unique to the Song dynasty. For the austere and hardworking peasantry, annual festivals and holidays provided a time of joy and relaxation, and for the poorest it meant a chance to borrow food and alcoholic
2250:. They emphasized moral self-cultivation over service to the ruler of the state (healing society's ills from the bottom-up, not the top-down), as opposed to statesmen like Fan Zhongyan or Su Shi, who pursued their agenda to advise the ruler to make the best decisions for the common good of all. The
1924:
to refer specifically to northern, southern, and
Sichuan cooking, respectively. Many restaurants were known for their specialties; for example, there was one restaurant in Hangzhou that served only iced foods, while some restaurants catered to those who wanted either hot, warm, room temperature, or
1715:
It was during the Song dynasty that the custom of sitting on chairs instead of floormats became commonplace. However, the older practice continued to be customary for some time, with a Imperial birthday banquet in the Southern Song reportedly involving "officials sitting on sheets with purple edges
2254:
also taught that the workings of nature and metaphysics could be taught through the principle (li) and the vital energy (qi). The principle of nature could be moral or physical, such as the principle of marriage being moral, while the principle of trees is physical. Yet for principles to exist and
1941:
and saltwater fish. The memory and patience of waiters had to be keen; in the larger restaurants, serving dinner parties that required twenty or so dishes became a hassle if even a slight error occurred. If a guest reported the mistake of a waiter to the head of the restaurant, the waiter could be
1647:
would host festivals with tens of thousands of colorful and brightly lit paper lanterns hoisted on long poles up and down the main street, the poles also wrapped in colorful silk with numerous dramatic paper figures flying in the wind like fairies. There were also other venerated holidays, such as
1562:
Surprisingly, actors on stage did not have a wholesale monopoly on theatrical entertainment, as even vendors and peddlers in the street, singing lewd songs and beating on whatever they could find to compensate for percussion instruments, could draw crowds. This practice was so widespread that West
1483:
was the first real center where the performing arts became "an industry, a conglomerate involving theatre, gambling, prostitution, and food." The rise in consumption by merchants and scholar-officials, he states, "accelerated the growth of both the performance and the food industries," asserting a
1417:
were products of infrequent demands from the central government and were typically only four chapters long. The widespread availability of printing in the Song allowed many ordinary people to access materials that were once read almost exclusively by experts, such as printed texts and handbooks on
2042:
soup, spicy soup with mussels and fish cooked with plums, sweet soya soup, baked sesame buns stuffed with either sour bean filling or pork tenderloin, mixed vegetable buns, fragrant candied fruit, strips of ginger and fermented beanpaste, jujube-stuffed steamed dumplings, fried chestnuts, salted
242:
During the Northern Song (960β1126 CE), a new class of scholar-artists emerged who did not possess the trompe-l'oeil skills of the academy painters nor even the proficiency of common marketplace painters. The literati's painting was simpler and at times quite unschooled, yet they would criticize
233:
Although they were avid art collectors, some Song scholars did not readily appreciate artworks commissioned by those painters found at shops or common marketplaces, and some of the scholars even criticized artists from renowned schools and academies. Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, a Professor of Early
2179:
It is true that Buddhist monks were given official appointments as managers of many of these enterprises, but the initiative came from Neo-Confucian officials. In a sense the Buddhist idea of compassion and many of the measures developed for its practical expression had been appropriated by the
2160:
deplored this and devoted himself to teaching benevolence and righteousness. His exposition of benevolence and righteousness won the day, and the teachings of Mo Di and Yang Zhu were extirpated. In Han times the myriad schools of thought all flourished together. Tung Chung-shu deplored this and
2013:
fruit juice, honey and ginger drinks, tea, and pawpaw juice. Dairy products and farming were foreign concepts to the Chinese, which explains the absence of cheese and milk in their diet. Beef was also rarely eaten, since the bull was an important draft animal. The main diet of the lower classes
178:
had emerged. Artists mastered the formula of creating intricate and realistic scenes placed in the foreground, while the background retained qualities of vast and infinite space. Distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist, while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground.
2288:, and other ideas became the official imperial ideology from late Song times to the late 19th century. The basis of his teaching was influenced by the Cheng brothers, but he greatly extended their teachings, forming the core of Neo-Confucianism. This included emphasis on the Four Books: the
1567:
of the Southern Song states that these vendors, when presented to the consorts and concubines of the palace, were lavished with heaps of gold and pearls for their wares; some vendors would "become rich in a single evening." Theatrical stunts were also performed to gain attention, such as
202:
philosophy. Adherents to Neo-Confucianism focused on reforming society from the bottom up, not the top down, which can be seen in their efforts to promote small private academies during the Southern Song instead of the large state-controlled academies seen in the Northern Song era.
63:
flourished during the Song dynasty, especially in regard to paintings, which is an art practiced by many. Trends in painting styles amongst the gentry notably shifted from the Northern (960β1127) to Southern Song (1127β1279) periods, influenced in part by the gradual embrace of the
2038:, apricots and pears; in the region around Hangzhou alone, there were eleven kinds of apricots and eight different kinds of pears that were produced. Specialties and combination dishes in the Song period included scented shellfish cooked in rice-wine, geese with apricots,
2014:
remained rice, pork, and salted fish, while it is known from restaurant dinner menus that the upper classes did not eat dog meat. The rich are known to have consumed an array of different meats, such as chicken, shellfish, fallow deer, hares, partridge, pheasant,
2128:"This curse has overspread the empire for a thousand years, and what can one man in one day do about it? The people are drunk with it, and it has entered the marrow of their bones; it is surely not to be overcome by eloquent talk. What, then, is to be done?
1854:
was invited to the home of an Arab merchant, and described the jujube as thus: "This fruit is the color of sugar, its skin and its pulp are sweet, and it gives the impression, when you eat it, of having first been cooked in the oven and then allowed to
1292:(1063β1135). 'Travel record literature' ('youji wenxue') was also a popular category of literature during the Song period, which was accounts of one's own travel experiences typically written in narrative or prose styles, and included authors such as
1758:
1531:. In Kaifeng drama, one singer was preferred for each play, accompanied by string and percussion instruments. In Hangzhou drama, there was a multitude of singers on stage for each set, while string and wind instruments were preferred.
1819:
around their shoulders. Ladies also wore hairpins and combs in their hair, while princesses, imperial concubines, and the wives of officials and wealthy merchants wore head ornaments of gold and silver that were shaped in the form of
1806:
in the 4th century BC, and were not exclusive to merchants; every soldier wore trousers as part of his uniform, while trousers were also worn by the common people. Although most men were cleanshaven, soldiers, military officers, and
1052:
996:
957:
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philosophers, finding a certain purity in the originality of the ancient classical texts, wrote commentaries on them. The most influential of these philosophers was Zhu Xi, whose synthesis of Confucian thought and Buddhist,
1191:
Historiography in literature remained prominent during the Song, as it had in previous ages and would in successive ages of China. Along with Song Qi, the essayist and historian Ouyang Xiu were responsible for compiling the
1925:
cold foods. Descendants of those from Kaifeng owned most of the restaurants found in Hangzhou, but many other regional varieties in foodstuffs and cooking were sponsored by restaurants. This included restaurants catering
1535:
Actors honed their theatrical skills at drama schools. Musicians also found work in the theatre industry, since plays performed in the markets were often accompanied by music. Actors on stage always spoke their lines in
2165:
Although Confucianism was cast in stark contrast to the perceived alien and morally inept Buddhism by those such as Ouyang Xiu, Confucianism nonetheless borrowed ideals of Buddhism to provide for its own revival. From
874:
2085:, which was then largely regarded as foreign, and as offering few solutions for practical problems. However, Buddhism in this period continued as a cultural underlay to the more accepted Confucianism and even
1277:
of 1037. Although Neo-Confucianism became dominant over Buddhism in China during this period, there was still a significant amount of Buddhist literature. For example, there was the collection of Zen Buddhist
1568:
fried-glutinous-rice-ball vendors hanging small red lamps on portable bamboo racks who would twirl them around to the beat of a drum to dazzle crowds. Puppet shows in the streets and wards were also popular.
858:
157:
writers often pursued the discovery of patterns and principles that they believed caused all social and natural phenomena. The making of glazed and translucent porcelain and celadon wares with complex use of
1895:
Regional differences in culture brought about different types of foods, while in certain areas the cooking traditions of regional cultures blended together; such was the case of the Southern Song capital at
794:
2089:, both seen as native and pure by conservative Neo-Confucians. The continuing popularity of Buddhism can be seen with strong evidence by achievements in the arts, such as the 100 painting set of the
1828:
no headgear or hat of any sort to cover their heads. For footwear, people could purchase leather shoes called 'oiled footwear', wooden sandals, hempen sandals, and the more expensive satin slippers.
2161:
revived Confucianism. Therefore the Way of Confucius shone forth, and the myriad schools expired. This is the effect of what I have called "correcting the root cause in order to overcome the evil".
1720:
testified that the custom of low-level furniture was preserved in the palace but became phased out among the commoners, and the etiquette rules against the use of chairs was increasingly outdated.
1782:
used for heating one's home was scarce and often expensive, so people often wore clothing with extra silk-floss and fur-lined coats in the winter. The clothing material preferred by the rich was
1880:, oil, salt, and vinegar, Song era cuisine is perhaps not too different from the Chinese cuisine of today. Other additional seasonings and ingredients included walnuts, turnips, crushed Chinese
145:
style paintingβ"shan" meaning mountain, and "shui" meaning riverβbecame prominent features in Chinese landscape art. The emphasis laid upon landscape painting in the Song period was grounded in
1523:) developed separately. These two different regional genres of musical drama used different regional dialects of speech, recitation, and dialogue, entailed their own unique sets of role types (
358:
914:
1778:
There were many types of clothing and different clothing trends in the Song period, yet clothes in China were always modeled after the seasons and as outward symbols of one's social class.
818:
616:
1348:. Although these two figures were perhaps the greatest technical authors in their field during the time, there were many others. For producing textiles, Qin Guan's book of 1090 AD, the
1008:
806:
601:
842:
1868:
1640:
2200:
Although Buddhism lost its prominence in the elite circles and government sponsorships of Chinese society, this did not mean the disappearance of Buddhism from Chinese culture.
2104:
The conservative Confucian movement could be seen before the likes of Zhu Xi (1130β1200), with staunch anti-Buddhists such as Ouyang Xiu (1007β1072). In his written work of the
286:
During the Song period Buddhism saw a small revival since its persecution during the Tang dynasty. This could be seen in the continued construction of sculpture artwork at the
830:
681:
1036:
1136:
form being especially being associated with Song poetry. Song developments in poetry included the works of the social critic and pioneer of the "new subjective style"
756:
2112:
period. He argued that Buddhism became widely accepted when China's traditional institutions were weakened at the time. This was due to many factors, such as foreign
455:
3944:
1020:
3492:
Hargett, James M. "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960β1279)," Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (July 1985): 67β93.
2312:. His approach to Confucianism was shunned by his contemporaries, as his writings were forbidden to be cited by students taking the Imperial Examinations. However,
1413:
were products of local initiative and decision-making, were typically ten to fifty chapters in length, and were almost always printed for a large audience, whereas
926:
522:
586:
2227:'s influence into the lower classes, so too did Neo-Confucians of the 13th century succeed in driving Buddhism out of the higher echelons of Chinese society.
732:
3695:
1559:(εΌ εηε
), featuring interludes such as a clown stealing food and wine at a wedding banquet in act 16 and a quick comedy sketch about renting a room in act 24.
2316:
found his writing to be intriguing, reversing the policy against him, and making it a requirement for students to study his commentaries on the Four Books.
507:
2148:
In conclusion on how to root out the 'evil' that was Buddhism, Ouyang Xiu presented a historical example of how it could be uprooted from Chinese culture:
902:
75:, restaurants that catered to a variety of regional cooking, lavish clothing and apparel sold in the markets, while both urban and rural people engaged in
2018:, quail, fox, badger, clam, crab, and many others. Local freshwater fish from the nearby lake and river were also caught and brought to market, while the
1616:
309:
3616:
Sorensen, Henrik H. 1995. "Buddhist Sculptures from the Song Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, Sichuan," Artibus Asiae (Vol. LV, 3/4, 1995): 281β302.
1164:
form of Chinese poetry found its greatest acceptance and popularity during the Song dynasty, and was used by most Song poets. The high court Chancellor
238:, points out that Song scholars' appreciation of art created by their peers was not extended to those who made a living simply as professional artists:
377:
890:
1965:
In the early morning in Hangzhou, along the wide avenue of the Imperial Way, special breakfast items and delicacies were sold. This included fried
1309:
There were many technical and scientific writings during the Song period. The two most eminent authors of the scientific and technical fields were
298:, Sichuan province features a wealth of Song era Buddhist sculptures, including the Buddha and deities clad in lavish imperial and monastic robes.
279:. The Southern Song dynasty court painters included Zhao Mengjian (θΆεε
, c. 1199β1264), a member of the Imperial family, known for popularising the
537:
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during the Song period contained a range of many different genres and was enriched by the social complexity of the period. Although the earlier
1636:
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and official headgear of the emperor. This type of headgear, along with the headgear of officials and merchants, was made of black-colored
1261:
in the 10th century and fully edited by the time of Cefu Yuangui in the 11th century. The largest of these was the 1013 publication of the
717:
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1479:, founded in the early 8th century during the Tang dynasty. However, historian Stephen H. West asserts that the Northern Song era capital
422:
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1332:(Illustrated Pharmacopoeia), which had the related subjects of botany, zoology, metallurgy, and mineralogy, and wrote his famous
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1224:(1130β1200), while this project was totally complete with the efforts of his disciples around the time of his death in 1200.
19:
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displays could also be held during festivities. For example, the martial demonstration in 1110 AD to entertain the court of
1220:
all the way up to the 10th century and the fall of the Tang. In 1189 it was compiled and condensed into fifty-nine books by
247:
However, during the Song period, there were many acclaimed court painters and they were highly esteemed by emperors and the
4054:
4039:
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1267:, a massive encyclopedia consisting of 9.4 million written Chinese characters divided into 1000 volumes. There were also
1263:
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of the Song period featured beautifully carved artwork of miniature nature scenes, landscapes, or simple decorative
4701:
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3939:
3626:
West, Stephen H. "Playing With Food: Performance, Food, and The Aesthetics of Artificiality in The Sung and Yuan,"
2109:
1235:
343:
267:
219:
1652:, as it was supposedly this period of the year that was depicted in the artwork (mentioned above) by the artist
3781:
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Banhart, Richard M. et al. (1997). Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2009:
Central Asia, grape-wine was often reserved for the elite. Besides wine, other beverages included pear juice,
1206:(1021β1086), was responsible for heading a team of scholars that compiled the enormous historical work of the
4587:
3885:
3776:
3407:
Bol, Peter K. "The Rise of Local History: History, Geography, and Culture in Southern Song and Yuan Wuzhou,"
1942:
verbally reprimanded, have his salary docked, or in extreme cases, kicked out of the establishment for good.
647:
3550:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering
1216:
in 294 volumes. It covered the major themes and intricate nuances of Chinese history from 425 BC during the
4085:
3754:
3718:
2081:. This renewed interest in the Confucian ideals and society of ancient times coincided with the decline of
1985:
There were also some exotic foreign foods imported to China from abroad, including raisins, dates, Persian
1774:(εε·Ύ) headscarf. Various kinds of headscarves became fashionable among the commoners and the educated gentry
1577:
1419:
76:
2933:
Ruixi Zhu; Bangwei Zhang; Fusheng Liu; Chongbang Cai; Zengyu Wang; Bang Qian Zhu; Peter Ditmanson (2016).
2308:). His viewpoint was that improvement of the world began with improvement of the mind, as outlined in the
2124:
describes Confucianism in this period as being reverted to a state of "stale archaism". Ouyang Xiu wrote:
4546:
4077:
3999:
3971:
3750:
1799:
1423:
1130:), there were important poetic developments by famous poets of the Song era, with the flourishing of the
739:
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2005:. Although grape-based wine had been known in China since the ancient Han dynasty Chinese ventured into
3961:
3771:
1837:
3536:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth
2108:, he wrote of his theory for how Buddhism had so easily penetrated Chinese culture during the earlier
1607:, crafting paper streamers with lucky characters for "welcoming the spring," making printed images of
3833:
1324:
more. As for Shen Kuo's equally brilliant peer, Su Song created a celestial atlas of five different
4409:
4164:
3818:
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3512:
Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World
2006:
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1619:(1232β1298 AD), during the Xiao-Zong period (1163β1189 AD) the best lantern festivals were held at
1253:
175:
2078:
1356:), included description of a silk-reeling machine that incorporated the earliest known use of the
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3848:
2116:
ruling over the north, and China's political schism that caused warfare and other ills. Although
2022:
provided geese and duck as well. Common fruits that were consumed included melons, pomegranates,
1698:
1427:
623:
483:
441:
280:
262:
1850:
such as these were imported to Song China from South Asia and the Middle East. An official from
4265:
3813:
2313:
2243:
2205:
1769:
1611:, and cooking special kinds of foods such as porridge of red haricot beans. The widely popular
1258:
107:
1656:(although some would argue the painting actually represented the time of autumn in the year).
206:
4840:
4795:
4034:
3543:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics
3423:
Japanese Historians and the National Myths, 1600β1945: The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jinmu.
2258:
2213:
1515:
1217:
87:
2246:(who were brothers), and was a major influence for Zhu Xi, one of the leading architects of
1458:
feather banner like the one used in dramatical theater to signal an acting leader of troops.
1401:
existed in China since the 1st century, the matured form known as "treatise on a place", or
4681:
4170:
3890:
1808:
1787:
1747:
3557:
Science and Civilization: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2, Agriculture
135:
during the Song dynasty reached a new level of sophistication with further development of
8:
4720:
4560:
3949:
3895:
2345:
2216:
1489:
1072:
171:
3497:
Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung
1302:
812:
A cut and engraved sandstone and celadon jar from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, 10thβ11th century.
4696:
4656:
3863:
3858:
3661:
2117:
2056:
1540:
1341:
1101:
1088:
287:
146:
136:
3705:
3700:
2077:
Song intellectuals sought answers to all philosophical and political questions in the
1811:
champions preferred side-whiskers and goatee beards, as they were a sign of virility.
1296:(1126β1193). A great example of Chinese travel literature in the Song period would be
1251:
There were also very large encyclopedic works written in the Song period, such as the
1180:(1140β1207) were especially known for their ci poetry, amongst many others. The great
294:
province. Similar in design to the sculptures at Dazu, the Song temple at Mingshan in
4735:
4575:
4570:
4507:
4044:
3868:
3853:
3843:
3838:
3798:
3670:
3596:
3581:
3500:
3483:
3468:
3460:
3445:
3426:
3390:
3375:
3360:
2938:
2238:
influenced the beliefs and teachings of Northern Song-era Confucian scholars such as
1763:
1677:
1672:
1649:
1536:
1357:
1319:
1284:
1213:
111:
2468:
1798:
cloth, but cotton clothes were also used, the latter being most widely available in
1615:
was held every 15th day of 1st lunar month. According to the literatus and official
4646:
4580:
4127:
4095:
3878:
3873:
3633:
2325:
2267:
2247:
2121:
2060:
1950:
1926:
1733:
1612:
1485:
1450:
1240:
1194:
933:
766:
199:
163:
154:
132:
65:
2184:
2132:
1659:
1212:, a universal history completed in 1084 AD with a total of over 3 million written
116:
4313:
3900:
3803:
3763:
1978:
1705:
1268:
211:
159:
153:
stressed that humans were but tiny specks amongst vast and greater cosmos, while
1231:
A butterfly and wisteria flowers, by XΓΌ Xi (c. 886 β c. 975), painted around 970
1068:
182:
4633:
4283:
4004:
3966:
3524:
2251:
2153:
2031:
1803:
1528:
1208:
1173:
1109:
1092:
1002:
The bodhisattva Kuan-yan (Guanyin), Northern Song dynasty, China, c. 1025, wood
920:
A Southern Song (1127β1279) vase with applied dragons and painted floral sprays
881:
836:
A small celadon tripod from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, dated to the late 10th century.
251:. One of the greatest landscape painters given patronage by the Song court was
60:
2932:
1945:
4829:
4712:
4706:
4691:
4513:
4501:
3981:
3976:
2305:
2280:
2209:
2141:
1990:
1889:
1632:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1438:
1157:
1153:
964:
72:
1492:
only went to restaurants and attended theatre performances during holidays.
4807:
4686:
4661:
4495:
4446:
4295:
4187:
4142:
4137:
4009:
3741:
3606:
3573:
3437:
2224:
2098:
1958:
1954:
1904:-style cooking and foods (popular in the previous Northern Song capital at
1709:
1668:
1653:
1595:
1548:
1544:
1289:
1165:
1114:
1105:
1076:
763:
265:(1127β1162) once commissioned an art project of numerous paintings for the
252:
248:
49:
1977:, soups of various kinds, hot pancakes, steamed pancakes, and iced cakes.
1842:
4801:
4758:
4651:
4641:
4603:
4592:
4482:
4458:
4332:
4301:
4205:
4132:
4090:
3569:
2340:
2272:
2231:
2171:
2094:
2070:
1476:
1443:
1353:
1293:
1149:
1137:
1132:
1096:
276:
167:
103:
96:
1156:(502β557 AD), and further development during the brief existence of the
33:
4597:
4554:
4452:
4415:
4385:
4379:
4356:
4338:
4247:
4235:
4211:
2235:
2039:
2002:
1877:
1203:
1199:
1169:
849:
785:
691:
466:
261:
scroll, one of the most well-known masterpieces of Chinese visual art.
3710:
3691:
Song Dynasty art and video commentary at Minneapolis Institute of Arts
3529:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations
1582:
4622:
4531:
4476:
4470:
4391:
4259:
4253:
4241:
4229:
4223:
4147:
4110:
4100:
2330:
2239:
2212:
share the ChΓ‘n (Zen) doctrine with the imperial court. Much like the
2019:
2015:
1994:
1851:
1821:
1694:
1690:
1608:
1398:
1381:
1185:
1058:
Standing Bodhisattva, China, Song dynasty, 12th century, painted wood
1043:
1027:
948:
672:
463:
272:
190:
187:
141:
121:
800:
Longquan ware black stoneware vase with celadon glaze, Song dynasty.
4783:
4771:
4752:
4676:
4565:
4525:
4397:
4373:
4350:
4307:
4289:
4115:
3482:. Translated by H. M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
2167:
2082:
2065:
1934:
1909:
1897:
1881:
1863:
Song dynasty painting showing commoners engaged in tea competition.
1628:
1604:
1506:
1372:
Prevention and Relief) edited by Dong Wei in the 12th century, the
1361:
1333:
1325:
1310:
1244:
1177:
1127:
824:
Stoneware with greenish glaze, Northern Song, 10th to 11th century.
368:
1409:, under the Song. The major differences between the two were that
166:
wares were particularly popular in the Song period. Black and red
4789:
4777:
4666:
4421:
4199:
4193:
4120:
4105:
3828:
3808:
2220:
2193:
2189:
2157:
2113:
1905:
1791:
1644:
1480:
1455:
1389:
1345:
1314:
987:
384:
319:
291:
125:
41:
3480:
Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250β1276
1997:
was more common in China, a fact noted even by the 13th century
1908:) to Hangzhou, which was blended with the cooking traditions of
1871:
preserve lists of names for entrΓ©es and food dishes in customer
1869:
Dongjing Meng Hua Lu (Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital)
1641:
Dongjing Meng Hua Lu (Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital)
1279:
40:, by Zhang Zeduan, a painting depicting the imperial gardens of
4403:
4344:
4326:
4277:
4271:
4217:
2585:
2567:
2285:
2086:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2010:
1998:
1986:
1970:
1938:
1885:
1847:
1717:
1624:
1620:
1393:
1369:
1297:
1221:
1141:
1140:(1002β1060), the politically controversial yet renowned master
1123:
446:
223:
150:
2879:
2877:
1671:; the female musicians in the center of the image are playing
1198:
by 1060, covering the history of the Tang dynasty. Chancellor
769:
with gold and silver markings, from the NantoyΕsΕ Collection,
52:(960β1279 AD) was a culturally rich and sophisticated age for
4464:
4434:
1974:
1966:
1930:
1901:
1816:
1729:
1704:
Although they were discontinued after the devastation of the
1273:
1145:
1119:
1080:
865:
864:
Gray sandstone dish with a celadon coating, decorated with a
770:
707:
577:
295:
227:
53:
25:
1475:
trace their roots back to the academy of music known as the
880:
A funerary porcelain figurine in the personification of the
622:
Official Song era portrait painting of Empress Cao, wife of
4519:
2874:
2603:
2594:
2223:
amongst the leading members of Roman society while pushing
1872:
1795:
1783:
1779:
1751:
1738:
1681:, and the male musician is playing a wooden clapper called
1497:
1152:(1084β1151), and many others. Although having roots in the
2204:
Buddhism continued to flourish during the Song period, as
2156:, Yang Zhu and Mo Di were engaged in violent controversy.
1547:
was not introduced into theatrical performances until the
2449:
2447:
2385:
Barnhart, "Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting", 93.
2201:
2137:
1929:
that emphasized use of pepper, dishes and beverages from
1505:
style of poetic lyrics. After the capital had shifted to
1446:" (εε‘ε©΄ζεΎθ½΄), a painting by Liu Songnian (εζΎεΉ΄ 1174β1224 AD)
1377:
1340:
in 1092 AD, which described in full detail his ingenious
896:
Celadon plate from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, 10thβ11th century.
214:
spout, gray sandstone with celadon coating, 10th century.
3374:. Seattle & London: University of Washington Press.
2549:
1555:
play to have survived from the Southern Song era is the
1227:
1900:. After the mass exodus from the north, people brought
932:
A Song five-tubed jar with lotus petal design, made of
711:, painted in 1207 by Liu Songnian, Southern Song period
2444:
1663:
A half-section of the 12th-century Song remake of the
1454:
A 12th-century painting by Su Hanchen; a girl waves a
3387:
China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty
2406:
2404:
2402:
2400:
3613:. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
3611:
Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections
3442:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
2612:
2531:
128:
husband (Zuoxianwang) dating from the Southern Song.
2886:
2639:
1794:. The clothing material used by the poor was often
1328:, wrote the 1070 AD pharmaceutical treatise of the
1026:White-glazed pillow in the shape of an infant boy;
162:was also developed further during the Song period.
3660:
2397:
2357:
1247:province, Northern Song era, 10th or 11th century.
868:motif, from Yaozhou in Shaanxi, 11thβ12th century.
428:Palace children playing, Northern or Southern Song
416:A duckling, anonymous painter of the Southern Song
3130:
3128:
2497:
2495:
1631:was also known for its great variety of colorful
4827:
2937:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139β140.
2483:
2467:. Shanghai News and Press Bureau. Archived from
1360:in order to function. In the literary field of
1344:clock tower constructed in the capital city of
595:, a painting in the Litang style, 12th century.
3519:China: Its History and Culture: Fourth Edition
3178:
3160:
3125:
3116:
3011:
2513:
2492:
2304:(the latter two being chapters in the ancient
3726:
3514:. New York: Basic Books, Perseus Books Group.
3208:
3206:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3095:
3093:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3004:
3002:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2968:
2966:
2956:
2954:
2867:
2865:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2522:
1271:written during the Song dynasty, such as the
1148:(1051β1107), the premier Chinese female poet
4159:Along the River During the Qingming Festival
3669:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
3621:Academies and Society in Southern Sung China
3595:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
3342:
3340:
3330:
3328:
3326:
3296:
2917:
1014:Bodhisattva, Song Dynasty, 11thβ12th century
3578:Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary
2504:
1529:musical instruments playing different tunes
884:, from Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, 12th century.
77:seasonal festivities and religious holidays
3733:
3719:
3457:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
3224:
3215:
3203:
3187:
3169:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3137:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3090:
3063:
3049:
3020:
2999:
2975:
2963:
2951:
2862:
2848:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2814:
2812:
2800:
2782:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2727:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2673:
2666:
2664:
2462:
2426:
1815:wealthy means chose to wear square purple
1239:Funerary vase and cover, stoneware in the
593:Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one
3696:Paintings of Song, Liao and Jin dynasties
3658:
3517:Morton, Scott and Charlton Lewis (2005).
3499:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3459:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3337:
3323:
3305:
3287:
3278:
3269:
3260:
2576:
2388:
2370:
1643:how the earlier Northern Song capital at
1594:), a large horizontal scroll painting by
1368:(The Rescue of the People; a Treatise on
1144:(1037β1101), the eccentric yet brilliant
908:A Song ceramic box with floral medallions
784:A Song teapot in the Qingbai style, from
4745:
3436:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall,
3314:
2908:
2456:
2435:
2257:
2183:
2131:
2064:
1944:
1858:
1841:
1757:
1737:
1658:
1592:Along the River During Qingming Festival
1581:
1449:
1437:
1234:
1226:
1067:
1063:
389:, anonymous painter of the Southern Song
258:Along the River During Qingming Festival
205:
181:
115:
86:
32:
18:
3740:
3623:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
3404:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
3251:
3233:
3146:
3102:
3040:
2899:
2830:
2821:
2809:
2791:
2773:
2764:
2741:
2709:
2691:
2682:
2661:
2652:
1723:
529:Birds in a Bamboo and Plum Tree Thicket
236:University of California, Santa Barbara
4828:
4727:Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified
4652:Endless power transmitting chain drive
3640:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
3566:. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd.
2894:Cambridge Illustrated History of China
2647:Cambridge Illustrated History of China
2630:
2621:
2412:Cambridge Illustrated History of China
2365:Cambridge Illustrated History of China
2336:Society and culture of the Han dynasty
1716:on the ground". Southern Song scholar
1202:(1019β1086), the political nemesis of
1176:(1045β1105), and the military general
1042:Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Guanyin),
486:, a renowned scholar and painter, 1112
255:(1085β1145), who painted the original
3714:
3645:An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica
3564:A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder
3402:Chinese Thought, Society, and Science
1786:, and for special occasions they had
608:Mountain Magpie, Sparrows and Bramble
365:Travelers among Mountains and Streams
93:A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains
3647:. New York: Oxford University Press.
3630:(Volume 57, Number 1, 1997): 67β106.
3444:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
1867:From the Song period, works such as
1689:With the advent of the discovery of
1317:(1020β1101). Shen Kuo published his
1172:(1007β1072), the great calligrapher
848:A small "qinbai" porcelain jar from
404:, Li Anzhong, early-mid 12th century
23:Song Dynasty officials listening to
3411:(Volume 61, Number 1, 2001): 37β76.
2591:Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 107β108.
2573:Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 445β448.
1831:
1527:), and employed different types of
1405:, replaced the old "map guide", or
1264:Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau
986:Seated Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (
13:
3652:
3628:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
3562:Partington, James Riddick (1960).
3409:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
2935:A Social History of Medieval China
1957:painting and possible remake of a
1433:
1430:, divination, and Taoist rituals.
1160:immediate preceding the Song, the
1030:, Northern Song Dynasty (960β1127)
688:Holding a Wand Under the Pine Tree
610:, by Huang Zhucai (933βafter 993).
14:
4852:
3684:
3593:Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times
3455:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999).
3370:Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. (2007).
2555:Needham, Volume 3, 208 & 278.
1388:(Master Zhu on Managing Communal
1313:(1031β1095) and his contemporary
1168:(989β1052), ardent Neo-Confucian
990:), wood and pigment, 11th century
514:The Peacock King, Gunsho Mingwang
470:, by Zhang Shengwen, c. 1173β1176
3911:
3706:Art of the Southern Song Dynasty
3701:Art of the Northern Song Dynasty
3372:Artisans in Early Imperial China
2034:, jujubes, Chinese and Japanese
1108:is viewed as the zenith era for
1051:
1035:
1019:
1007:
995:
979:
956:
940:
925:
913:
901:
889:
873:
857:
841:
829:
817:
805:
793:
777:
755:
731:
716:
699:
680:
661:
646:
630:
615:
600:
585:
566:
551:
536:
521:
506:
491:
475:
454:
433:
421:
409:
394:
376:
357:
342:
327:
308:
3242:
3081:
2926:
2883:Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 128.
2755:
2700:
2609:Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 623.
2600:Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 621.
2558:
2540:
2110:Southern and Northern Dynasties
1892:, citrus zest, and sesame oil.
1639:(active 1126β1147) recalled in
1288:of 1125, which was expanded by
268:Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute
226:(1037β1101) and his accomplice
220:Southern and Northern Dynasties
4153:Great Bodhisattva of Zhengding
2417:
2379:
1571:
963:Bluish white glazed figurine,
852:in Jiangxi, 11thβ12th century.
743:by Zhao Mengjian, c. 1199β1264
82:
71:People in urban areas enjoyed
59:Appreciation of art among the
1:
4588:Southern Song dynasty coinage
3521:. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
3352:
2219:promoting Roman paganism and
2050:
1303:Record of Stone Bell Mountain
68:political ideology at court.
3418:. New York: W.W. Norton Inc.
2073:statue from the Song dynasty
1578:Traditional Chinese holidays
1501:dramatic style employed the
972:
301:
275:(177β250 AD) of the earlier
7:
4000:Department of State Affairs
3638:Buddhism in Chinese History
3545:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
3416:The World of Late Antiquity
3389:. Oxford University Press.
2453:Barbieri-Low (2007), 39β40.
2319:
2265:, Buddhist artwork of five
2152:Of old, in the time of the
1635:, in all shapes and sizes.
1075:of mixed styles written by
748:
740:The Three Friends of Winter
10:
4857:
3962:Bureau of Military Affairs
3559:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
3552:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
3538:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
3531:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
3421:Brownlee, John S. (1997).
2054:
1838:History of Chinese cuisine
1835:
1727:
1575:
1473:Theatre and drama in China
1461:
1086:
352:, by Mao Yi, 12th century.
271:, based on the woman poet
101:
4836:Cultural history of China
4613:
4545:
4366:
4180:
4072:
4025:
3990:
3920:
3909:
3834:Alliance Conducted at Sea
3824:SongβViet war (1075β1077)
3749:
3555:Needham, Joseph. (1986).
3548:Needham, Joseph. (1986).
3541:Needham, Joseph. (1986).
3534:Needham, Joseph. (1986).
3495:Hymes, Robert P. (1986).
1953:of an outdoor banquet, a
1665:Night Revels of Han Xizai
1418:agriculture, childbirth,
73:theatrical drama on stage
38:Games in the Jinming Pool
16:Aspect of Chinese history
4165:Four Great Books of Song
3591:Rossabi, Morris (1988).
3580:. Surrey: Curzon Press.
3478:Gernet, Jacques (1962).
2351:
2136:Portrait of the Chinese
1744:Emperor Zhenzong of Song
1673:transverse bamboo flutes
1509:, the dramatic style of
1254:Four Great Books of Song
544:The White Jasmine Branch
4016:Secretariat-Chancellery
3664:Sung and Yuan paintings
2618:Needham, Volume 3, 521.
2537:Needham, Volume 1, 136.
1937:, and coastal foods of
1586:A small section of the
951:tea bowls from the Song
726:, anonymous Song artist
624:Emperor Renzong of Song
576:, by Mi Youren (son of
561:, by Li Kan (1244β1320)
484:Emperor Huizong of Song
337:, by Su Han Chen, 1150.
281:Three Friends of Winter
263:Emperor Gaozong of Song
234:Chinese History at the
4647:Early Bessemer process
4615:Science and technology
3814:Nong Zhigao rebellions
3643:Wu, Jing-nuan (2005).
3619:Walton, Linda (1999).
3425:Vancouver: UBC Press.
3248:West, 75, footnote 25.
3087:West, 73, footnote 17.
2501:Pratt & Rutt, 478.
2314:Emperor Lizong of Song
2276:
2271:and one attendant, by
2206:Emperor Lizong of Song
2197:
2196:, 11th to 12th century
2188:A seated lion statue,
2182:
2163:
2145:
2130:
2074:
1962:
1864:
1856:
1775:
1755:
1686:
1599:
1545:common spoken language
1459:
1447:
1248:
1232:
1084:
322:, latter 11th century.
318:, signed and dated by
245:
215:
194:
129:
120:Anonymous painting of
108:History of Chinese art
99:
45:
30:
4035:Ministry of Personnel
3940:Imperial examinations
3414:Brown, Peter (1971).
3385:Benn, Charles. 2002.
2261:
2230:In terms of Buddhist
2214:Eastern Roman Emperor
2187:
2177:
2150:
2144:, painted in 1238 AD.
2135:
2126:
2068:
1948:
1862:
1845:
1836:Further information:
1761:
1741:
1728:Further information:
1708:(755β763) during the
1662:
1585:
1557:Zhang Xie zhuang yuan
1462:Further information:
1453:
1441:
1420:pharmacy and medicine
1397:the local geographic
1366:Jiu Huang Huo Min Shu
1358:mechanical belt drive
1238:
1230:
1071:
1064:Poetry and literature
724:Mother Hen and Chicks
654:Listening to the Wind
499:A Scholar in a Meadow
449:(c. 1020β1090), 1072.
240:
209:
193:bottle, 11th century.
185:
119:
102:Further information:
90:
36:
22:
4171:Dongjing Meng Hua Lu
3945:Administrative units
3819:SongβTibet relations
3794:SongβΔαΊ‘i Cα» Viα»t war
3510:Kelly, Jack (2004).
3400:Bodde, Derk (1991).
2298:Doctrine of the Mean
1724:Clothing and apparel
1588:Qingming Shang He Tu
1490:government officials
4721:Forensic entomology
4682:Watertight bulkhead
4561:Joint-stock company
4055:Ministry of Justice
4040:Ministry of Revenue
3950:Sixteen Prefectures
2471:on 27 February 2015
2346:The Qing Ding Pearl
2217:Julian the Apostate
2091:Five Hundred Luohan
1809:professional boxing
1338:Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao
1073:Chinese calligraphy
641:by Chen Rong, 1244.
91:A small section of
4657:Astronomical clock
3864:Treaty of Shaoxing
3659:Fong, Wen (1973).
3346:Ebrey et al., 169.
3334:Ebrey et al., 168.
2679:West, 69 & 74.
2489:Sorensen, 282β283.
2277:
2198:
2146:
2118:Emperor Wen of Sui
2079:Confucian Classics
2075:
2057:Chinese philosophy
1963:
1865:
1857:
1776:
1756:
1687:
1600:
1543:that imitated the
1541:vernacular Chinese
1495:From Kaifeng, the
1486:the merchant class
1460:
1448:
1424:domestic economics
1269:rhyme dictionaries
1257:compiled first by
1249:
1233:
1214:Chinese characters
1112:(particularly the
1102:Chinese literature
1089:Chinese literature
1085:
656:, by Ma Lin, 1246.
350:Cats in the Garden
288:Dazu Rock Carvings
216:
195:
147:Chinese philosophy
137:landscape painting
130:
100:
46:
31:
4821:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4736:Dream Pool Essays
4628:Gunpowder weapons
4541:
4540:
4068:
4067:
4060:Ministry of Works
4045:Ministry of Rites
3992:Three Departments
3829:Fang La rebellion
3809:Wang Ze rebellion
3634:Wright, Arthur F.
2263:Luohan Laundering
1762:Scholars wearing
1693:in China, lavish
1650:Qingming Festival
1537:Classical Chinese
1320:Dream Pool Essays
1285:Blue Cliff Record
387:and Mountain Bird
112:Chinese paintings
4848:
4767:
4764:
4743:
4742:
4491:
4490: 1174β1189
4488:
4430:
4429: 1050β1080
4427:
4322:
4321: 1111β1117
4319:
4178:
4177:
4128:Longquan celadon
4096:Five Great Kilns
3988:
3987:
3915:
3735:
3728:
3721:
3712:
3711:
3680:
3668:
3347:
3344:
3335:
3332:
3321:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3303:
3300:
3294:
3291:
3285:
3282:
3276:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3258:
3255:
3249:
3246:
3240:
3237:
3231:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3213:
3210:
3201:
3198:
3185:
3184:Gernet, 184β185.
3182:
3176:
3173:
3167:
3166:Gernet, 134β135.
3164:
3158:
3155:
3144:
3141:
3135:
3132:
3123:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3100:
3097:
3088:
3085:
3079:
3076:
3061:
3058:
3047:
3044:
3038:
3035:
3018:
3017:Gernet, 127β128.
3015:
3009:
3006:
2997:
2994:
2973:
2970:
2961:
2958:
2949:
2948:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2897:
2890:
2884:
2881:
2872:
2869:
2860:
2857:
2846:
2843:
2828:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2807:
2804:
2798:
2795:
2789:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2753:
2750:
2739:
2736:
2725:
2722:
2707:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2680:
2677:
2671:
2668:
2659:
2656:
2650:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2610:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2565:
2562:
2556:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2538:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2520:
2519:Partington, 238.
2517:
2511:
2508:
2502:
2499:
2490:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2463:Cultural China.
2460:
2454:
2451:
2442:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2415:
2408:
2395:
2392:
2386:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2368:
2361:
2326:Culture of China
2248:Neo-Confucianism
2192:, from Yaozhou,
2122:Arthur F. Wright
2061:Chinese Buddhism
1982:days of winter.
1951:Chinese painting
1876:pepper, ginger,
1832:Food and cuisine
1734:Chinese clothing
1613:Lantern Festival
1384:in 1060 AD, the
1364:, there was the
1336:treatise of the
1241:Longquan celadon
1195:New Book of Tang
1118:style poetry of
1055:
1039:
1023:
1011:
999:
983:
960:
944:
934:Longquan celadon
929:
917:
905:
893:
877:
861:
845:
833:
821:
809:
797:
781:
767:Chinese inkstone
759:
735:
720:
703:
684:
665:
650:
634:
619:
604:
589:
574:Cloudy Mountains
570:
559:Bamboos and Rock
555:
540:
525:
510:
495:
479:
458:
437:
425:
413:
402:Bird on a Branch
398:
380:
361:
346:
335:Playing Children
331:
316:Magpies and Hare
312:
164:Longquan celadon
155:Neo-Confucianist
133:Chinese painting
44:, Northern Song.
4856:
4855:
4851:
4850:
4849:
4847:
4846:
4845:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4813:
4765:
4741:
4697:Horner's method
4609:
4537:
4489:
4441:Emperor Huizong
4428:
4362:
4320:
4176:
4064:
4050:Ministry of War
4021:
3986:
3916:
3907:
3886:Mongol conquest
3804:Chanyuan Treaty
3764:Chenqiao mutiny
3745:
3739:
3687:
3677:
3655:
3653:Further reading
3650:
3570:Pratt, Keith L.
3525:Needham, Joseph
3355:
3350:
3345:
3338:
3333:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3204:
3199:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3147:
3142:
3138:
3134:Gernet, 183β184
3133:
3126:
3122:Gernet, 133β134
3121:
3117:
3112:
3103:
3098:
3091:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3064:
3059:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3036:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3007:
3000:
2995:
2976:
2971:
2964:
2959:
2952:
2945:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2875:
2870:
2863:
2858:
2849:
2844:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2742:
2737:
2728:
2723:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2546:Sivin, III, 32.
2545:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:Hargett, 67β68.
2527:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2500:
2493:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2472:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2409:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2322:
2093:, completed by
2063:
2055:Main articles:
2053:
1927:Sichuan cuisine
1840:
1834:
1736:
1726:
1706:Anshi Rebellion
1699:Emperor Huizong
1580:
1574:
1470:
1436:
1434:Performing arts
1330:Ben Cao Tu Jing
1300:'s (1037β1101)
1099:
1087:Main articles:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1047:
1040:
1031:
1024:
1015:
1012:
1003:
1000:
991:
984:
975:
968:
961:
952:
945:
936:
930:
921:
918:
909:
906:
897:
894:
885:
878:
869:
862:
853:
846:
837:
834:
825:
822:
813:
810:
801:
798:
789:
782:
773:
760:
751:
744:
736:
727:
721:
712:
704:
695:
685:
676:
675:, 11th century.
669:Monkey and cats
666:
657:
651:
642:
635:
626:
620:
611:
605:
596:
590:
581:
571:
562:
556:
547:
546:, 12th century.
541:
532:
531:, 12th century.
526:
517:
516:, 11th century.
511:
502:
501:, 11th century.
496:
487:
480:
471:
459:
450:
438:
429:
426:
417:
414:
405:
399:
390:
381:
372:
362:
353:
347:
338:
332:
323:
313:
304:
218:Ever since the
176:landscape style
114:
85:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4854:
4844:
4843:
4838:
4819:
4818:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4811:
4805:
4799:
4793:
4787:
4781:
4775:
4769:
4766: 10th c.
4756:
4749:
4747:
4740:
4739:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4709:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4634:Wujing Zongyao
4630:
4619:
4617:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4607:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4563:
4558:
4551:
4549:
4543:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4535:
4529:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4493:
4480:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4456:
4450:
4444:
4438:
4432:
4419:
4413:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4383:
4377:
4370:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4361:
4360:
4354:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4324:
4311:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4284:Huang Tingjian
4281:
4275:
4269:
4263:
4257:
4251:
4245:
4239:
4233:
4227:
4221:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4197:
4191:
4184:
4182:
4175:
4174:
4167:
4162:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4093:
4088:
4082:
4080:
4070:
4069:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4031:
4029:
4027:Six Ministries
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3996:
3994:
3985:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3967:Qingli Reforms
3964:
3959:
3954:
3953:
3952:
3942:
3937:
3936:
3935:
3924:
3922:
3918:
3917:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3787:Gaoliang River
3784:
3779:
3774:
3766:
3760:
3758:
3747:
3746:
3738:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3686:
3685:External links
3683:
3682:
3681:
3675:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3641:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3614:
3604:
3589:
3567:
3560:
3553:
3546:
3539:
3532:
3522:
3515:
3508:
3493:
3490:
3476:
3453:
3434:
3419:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3383:
3368:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3336:
3322:
3313:
3304:
3302:Wright, 93β94.
3295:
3286:
3277:
3268:
3259:
3250:
3241:
3232:
3223:
3214:
3202:
3186:
3177:
3168:
3159:
3145:
3136:
3124:
3115:
3101:
3089:
3080:
3062:
3048:
3039:
3019:
3010:
2998:
2974:
2962:
2950:
2944:978-1107167865
2943:
2925:
2923:Benn, 154β155.
2916:
2907:
2898:
2885:
2873:
2861:
2847:
2829:
2820:
2808:
2799:
2790:
2781:
2772:
2763:
2754:
2740:
2726:
2708:
2699:
2690:
2681:
2672:
2660:
2651:
2638:
2629:
2620:
2611:
2602:
2593:
2584:
2575:
2566:
2557:
2548:
2539:
2530:
2521:
2512:
2503:
2491:
2482:
2455:
2443:
2434:
2425:
2416:
2396:
2387:
2378:
2369:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2321:
2318:
2310:Great Learning
2302:Great Learning
2252:Cheng brothers
2180:Chinese state.
2170:Buddhism, the
2154:Warring States
2052:
2049:
2032:golden oranges
1833:
1830:
1804:Warring States
1746:, showing the
1742:A painting of
1725:
1722:
1667:, original by
1633:paper lanterns
1576:Main article:
1573:
1570:
1442:"A Children's
1435:
1432:
1386:Zhu Zi Cang Fa
1218:Warring States
1209:Zizhi Tongjian
1174:Huang Tingjian
1110:Chinese poetry
1093:Chinese poetry
1065:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1050:
1048:
1046:, Song dynasty
1041:
1034:
1032:
1025:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1006:
1004:
1001:
994:
992:
985:
978:
974:
971:
970:
969:
962:
955:
953:
946:
939:
937:
931:
924:
922:
919:
912:
910:
907:
900:
898:
895:
888:
886:
882:Chinese zodiac
879:
872:
870:
863:
856:
854:
847:
840:
838:
835:
828:
826:
823:
816:
814:
811:
804:
802:
799:
792:
790:
783:
776:
774:
761:
754:
750:
747:
746:
745:
737:
730:
728:
722:
715:
713:
705:
698:
696:
694:, 11th century
686:
679:
677:
667:
660:
658:
652:
645:
643:
636:
629:
627:
621:
614:
612:
606:
599:
597:
591:
584:
582:
572:
565:
563:
557:
550:
548:
542:
535:
533:
527:
520:
518:
512:
505:
503:
497:
490:
488:
481:
474:
472:
460:
453:
451:
439:
432:
430:
427:
420:
418:
415:
408:
406:
400:
393:
391:
382:
375:
373:
371:, 11th century
363:
356:
354:
348:
341:
339:
333:
326:
324:
314:
307:
303:
300:
212:phoenix-headed
210:A vase with a
84:
81:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4853:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4824:
4809:
4806:
4803:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4782:
4779:
4776:
4773:
4770:
4760:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4748:
4744:
4738:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4728:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4715:
4714:
4713:Yingzao Fashi
4710:
4708:
4707:Liaodi Pagoda
4705:
4704:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4692:Tianchi basin
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4625:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4568:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4548:
4544:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4514:Zhao Mengjian
4512:
4509:
4506:
4503:
4502:Wuzhun Shifan
4500:
4497:
4494:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4439:
4436:
4433:
4423:
4420:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4390:
4387:
4384:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4365:
4358:
4355:
4352:
4349:
4346:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4328:
4325:
4315:
4312:
4309:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4240:
4237:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4219:
4216:
4213:
4210:
4207:
4204:
4201:
4198:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4183:
4179:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4160:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4017:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3982:Three Bureaus
3980:
3978:
3977:Baojia system
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3951:
3948:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3914:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3884:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3849:Huangtiandang
3847:
3845:
3842:
3841:
3840:
3839:JinβSong Wars
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3799:SongβXia wars
3797:
3795:
3792:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3782:Southern Tang
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3736:
3731:
3729:
3724:
3722:
3717:
3716:
3713:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3678:
3676:0-87099-084-5
3672:
3667:
3666:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3646:
3642:
3639:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3608:
3607:Sivin, Nathan
3605:
3602:
3601:0-520-05913-1
3598:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3586:0-7007-0463-9
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3506:
3505:0-521-30631-0
3502:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3488:0-8047-0720-0
3485:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3473:0-521-66991-X
3470:
3466:
3465:0-521-43519-6
3462:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3450:0-618-13384-4
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3432:
3431:0-7748-0645-1
3428:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3413:
3410:
3406:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3395:0-19-517665-0
3392:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:0-295-98713-8
3377:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3365:0-300-09447-7
3362:
3358:
3357:
3343:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3317:
3308:
3299:
3290:
3281:
3272:
3263:
3254:
3245:
3236:
3227:
3218:
3209:
3207:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3181:
3172:
3163:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3140:
3131:
3129:
3119:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3096:
3094:
3084:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3043:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3014:
3005:
3003:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2969:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2946:
2940:
2936:
2929:
2920:
2911:
2902:
2895:
2889:
2880:
2878:
2868:
2866:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2824:
2815:
2813:
2803:
2794:
2785:
2776:
2767:
2761:Rossabi, 162.
2758:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2703:
2694:
2685:
2676:
2667:
2665:
2655:
2648:
2642:
2633:
2624:
2615:
2606:
2597:
2588:
2579:
2570:
2561:
2552:
2543:
2534:
2525:
2516:
2510:Brownlee, 19.
2507:
2498:
2496:
2486:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2450:
2448:
2438:
2432:Ebrey, 81β83.
2429:
2420:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2391:
2382:
2373:
2366:
2360:
2356:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2306:Book of Rites
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2281:Neo-Confucian
2274:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2210:Wuzhun Shifan
2208:had the monk
2207:
2203:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2142:Wuzhun Shifan
2139:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2048:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1861:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1829:
1825:
1824:and flowers.
1823:
1818:
1812:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1760:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1721:
1719:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1569:
1566:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1468:Beijing opera
1465:
1464:Chinese opera
1457:
1452:
1445:
1440:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1392:) written by
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:) written by
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:Southern Tang
1155:
1154:Liang dynasty
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1017:
1010:
1005:
998:
993:
989:
982:
977:
976:
966:
965:Northern Song
959:
954:
950:
943:
938:
935:
928:
923:
916:
911:
904:
899:
892:
887:
883:
876:
871:
867:
860:
855:
851:
844:
839:
832:
827:
820:
815:
808:
803:
796:
791:
787:
780:
775:
772:
768:
765:
758:
753:
752:
742:
741:
734:
729:
725:
719:
714:
710:
709:
702:
697:
693:
689:
683:
678:
674:
670:
664:
659:
655:
649:
644:
640:
633:
628:
625:
618:
613:
609:
603:
598:
594:
588:
583:
579:
575:
569:
564:
560:
554:
549:
545:
539:
534:
530:
524:
519:
515:
509:
504:
500:
494:
489:
485:
478:
473:
469:
468:
465:
457:
452:
448:
444:
443:
436:
431:
424:
419:
412:
407:
403:
397:
392:
388:
386:
379:
374:
370:
366:
360:
355:
351:
345:
340:
336:
330:
325:
321:
317:
311:
306:
305:
299:
297:
293:
289:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
269:
264:
260:
259:
254:
250:
244:
239:
237:
231:
229:
225:
221:
213:
208:
204:
201:
200:Neo-Confucian
192:
189:
184:
180:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
156:
152:
148:
144:
143:
138:
134:
127:
123:
118:
113:
109:
105:
98:
94:
89:
80:
78:
74:
69:
67:
66:Neo-Confucian
62:
57:
55:
51:
43:
39:
35:
28:
27:
21:
4841:Song dynasty
4823:
4808:Guo Shoujing
4734:
4725:
4711:
4702:Architecture
4687:Fishing reel
4662:Movable type
4632:
4602:
4496:Zhou Jichang
4447:Zhang Zeduan
4296:Zhou Bangyan
4188:Fan Zhongyan
4169:
4157:
4143:Yaozhou ware
4138:Qingbai ware
4073:
3972:New Policies
3777:Southern Han
3768:Unification
3742:Song dynasty
3665:
3662:
3644:
3637:
3627:
3620:
3610:
3592:
3577:
3574:Richard Rutt
3563:
3556:
3549:
3542:
3535:
3528:
3518:
3511:
3496:
3479:
3475:(paperback).
3467:(hardback);
3456:
3441:
3438:James Palais
3422:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3386:
3371:
3316:
3307:
3298:
3289:
3280:
3271:
3262:
3253:
3244:
3235:
3230:Rossabi, 78.
3226:
3221:West, 73β74.
3217:
3212:Gernet, 136.
3200:Gernet, 135.
3180:
3175:Gernet, 138.
3171:
3162:
3143:Gernet, 184.
3139:
3118:
3099:Gernet, 137.
3083:
3078:Gernet, 133.
3060:Gernet, 134.
3042:
3037:Gernet, 129.
3013:
3008:Gernet, 128.
2996:Gernet, 130.
2972:Gernet, 127.
2960:Gernet, 131.
2934:
2928:
2919:
2910:
2901:
2893:
2888:
2871:Gernet, 186.
2859:Gernet, 106.
2823:
2802:
2793:
2788:Gernet, 224.
2784:
2779:West, 78β79.
2775:
2766:
2757:
2738:Gernet, 223.
2706:West, 69β70.
2702:
2693:
2684:
2675:
2654:
2646:
2641:
2632:
2623:
2614:
2605:
2596:
2587:
2578:
2569:
2560:
2551:
2542:
2533:
2524:
2515:
2506:
2485:
2473:. Retrieved
2469:the original
2458:
2437:
2428:
2423:Walton, 199.
2419:
2411:
2394:Morton, 105.
2390:
2381:
2376:Morton, 104.
2372:
2364:
2359:
2309:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2278:
2266:
2262:
2229:
2225:Christianity
2199:
2178:
2164:
2151:
2147:
2127:
2105:
2103:
2099:Zhou Jichang
2090:
2076:
2044:
1984:
1979:Noodle shops
1969:, pieces of
1964:
1959:Tang dynasty
1955:Song dynasty
1921:
1917:
1913:
1894:
1866:
1826:
1813:
1777:
1770:
1764:
1714:
1710:Tang dynasty
1703:
1688:
1682:
1676:
1669:Gu Hongzhong
1664:
1654:Zhang Zeduan
1637:Meng Yuanlao
1601:
1596:Zhang Zeduan
1587:
1565:Wulin jiushi
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1549:Yuan dynasty
1533:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1496:
1494:
1471:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1385:
1373:
1365:
1349:
1342:astronomical
1337:
1329:
1318:
1308:
1301:
1290:Yuanwu Keqin
1283:
1272:
1262:
1252:
1250:
1243:style; from
1207:
1193:
1190:
1181:
1166:Fan Zhongyan
1161:
1131:
1113:
1106:Tang dynasty
1100:
1077:Song dynasty
764:Song dynasty
738:
723:
706:
687:
668:
653:
639:Nine Dragons
638:
607:
592:
573:
558:
543:
528:
513:
498:
482:Painting by
461:
442:Early Spring
440:
401:
383:
364:
349:
334:
315:
285:
266:
256:
253:Zhang Zeduan
249:royal family
246:
241:
232:
217:
196:
168:lacquerwares
140:
131:
92:
70:
61:gentry class
58:
50:Song dynasty
47:
37:
24:
4810:(1231β1316)
4804:(1202β1261)
4802:Qin Jiushao
4798:(1192-1279)
4792:(1186β1249)
4786:(1031β1095)
4780:(1020β1101)
4774:(1010β1070)
4759:Zhang Sixun
4604:Zhu Fan Zhi
4593:Champa rice
4557:(1021β1086)
4534:(1235β1305)
4528:(1222β1307)
4522:(1210β1269)
4516:(1199β1295)
4510:(1190β1230)
4504:(1178β1249)
4483:Lin Tinggui
4479:(1140β1210)
4473:(1120β1182)
4467:(1100β1197)
4461:(1096β1119)
4459:Wang Ximeng
4455:(1094-1172)
4449:(1085β1145)
4443:(1082β1135)
4437:(1051β1107)
4418:(1049β1106)
4412:(1036β1093)
4406:(1020β1090)
4400:(1019β1079)
4394:(1000β1064)
4359:(1170β1231)
4353:(1140β1207)
4347:(1130β1200)
4341:(1127β1206)
4335:(1126β1193)
4333:Fan Chengda
4329:(1125β1209)
4310:(1085β1144)
4304:(1084β1155)
4302:Li Qingzhao
4298:(1056β1121)
4292:(1047β1126)
4286:(1045β1105)
4280:(1039β1112)
4274:(1037β1101)
4268:(1033β1107)
4262:(1032β1085)
4256:(1022β1077)
4250:(1019β1086)
4244:(1019β1083)
4238:(1017β1073)
4232:(1012β1067)
4226:(1011β1077)
4220:(1009β1066)
4214:(1007β1072)
4208:(1002β1060)
4206:Mei Yaochen
4133:Cizhou ware
4010:Chancellery
4005:Secretariat
3933:Family tree
3891:Diaoyucheng
3311:Wright, 94.
3293:Wright, 93.
3284:Wright, 89.
3275:Wright, 88.
3266:Wright, 92.
2806:West, 83β85
2582:Bodde, 140.
2465:"Narcissus"
2441:Ebrey, 163.
2341:Song poetry
2273:Lin Tinggui
2232:metaphysics
2172:Bodhisattva
2095:Lin Tinggui
2071:Bodhisattva
2007:Hellenistic
1890:ginkgo nuts
1768:-robes and
1598:(1085β1145)
1572:Festivities
1477:Pear Garden
1444:Puppet Show
1376:(Record of
1354:Sericulture
1334:horological
1294:Fan Chengda
1150:Li Qingzhao
1138:Mei Yaochen
1097:Song poetry
1083:(1051β1107)
637:One of the
277:Han dynasty
104:Chinese art
97:Wang Ximeng
83:Visual arts
4830:Categories
4755:(972β1051)
4672:Pound lock
4598:Nanhai One
4555:Wang Anshi
4453:Su Hanchen
4416:Li Gonglin
4386:Zhao Chang
4382:(970β1053)
4380:Xu Daoning
4376:(960β1030)
4357:Zhao Rukuo
4339:Yang Wanli
4248:Sima Guang
4236:Zhou Dunyi
4212:Ouyang Xiu
4202:(998β1061)
4196:(991β1055)
4190:(989β1052)
3921:Government
3609:. (1995).
3576:. (1999).
3527:. (1986).
3440:, (2006).
3353:References
3320:Brown, 93.
2914:Benn, 157.
2475:14 October
2300:, and the
2236:Zhou Dunyi
2051:Philosophy
2040:lotus-seed
2003:Marco Polo
1991:grape wine
1888:, olives,
1878:soya sauce
1790:with gold
1788:silk robes
1748:long robes
1204:Wang Anshi
1200:Sima Guang
1170:Ouyang Xiu
947:A pair of
850:Jingdezhen
786:Jingdezhen
692:Xu Daoning
4746:Inventors
4623:Gunpowder
4532:Qian Xuan
4498:(12th c.)
4477:Liang Kai
4471:Zhao Boju
4410:Wang Shen
4392:Yi Yuanji
4388:(10th c.)
4260:Cheng Hao
4254:Zhang Zai
4242:Zeng Gong
4230:Cai Xiang
4224:Shao Yong
4148:Jian ware
4111:Guan ware
4101:Ding ware
3896:Xiangyang
3772:Later Shu
3257:West, 89.
3239:West, 75.
3157:West, 73.
3113:West, 93.
3046:West, 71.
2905:Kelly, 2.
2845:West, 86.
2827:West, 91.
2818:West, 85.
2797:West, 79.
2770:West, 72.
2752:West, 87.
2724:West, 70.
2697:West, 98.
2688:West, 76.
2670:West, 69.
2658:Hymes, 3.
2331:Shao Yong
2279:The Song
2275:, 1178 AD
2240:Cheng Hao
2140:Buddhist
2101:in 1178.
2069:A wooden
2020:West Lake
2016:francolin
2001:traveler
1995:rice wine
1961:original.
1884:kernels,
1822:phoenixes
1800:the south
1695:fireworks
1691:gunpowder
1609:Zhong Kui
1605:door gods
1428:geography
1399:gazetteer
1390:Granaries
1382:Cai Xiang
1352:(Book of
1326:star maps
1044:limestone
1028:ding ware
973:Sculpture
949:stoneware
673:Yi Yuanji
464:Sakyamuni
302:Paintings
273:Cai Wenji
191:porcelain
188:ding ware
142:shan shui
122:Cai Wenji
4784:Shen Kuo
4772:Jia Xian
4753:Bi Sheng
4677:Dry dock
4566:Banknote
4526:Gong Kai
4398:Wen Tong
4374:Fan Kuan
4367:Painters
4351:Xin Qiji
4308:Zhu Bian
4290:Cai Jing
4266:Cheng Yi
4116:Jun ware
4086:Religion
3957:Military
3928:Emperors
3859:Yancheng
3844:Jingkang
3755:Timeline
3636:(1959).
2636:Bol, 46.
2627:Bol, 44.
2320:See also
2290:Analects
2244:Cheng Yi
2168:Mahayana
2083:Buddhism
1999:Venetian
1935:Shandong
1922:chuanfan
1910:Zhejiang
1898:Hangzhou
1882:cardamon
1629:Hangzhou
1627:, while
1507:Hangzhou
1488:, while
1362:agronomy
1311:Shen Kuo
1245:Zhejiang
1178:Xin Qiji
1128:Bai Juyi
749:Ceramics
708:A Luohan
580:), 1130.
369:Fan Kuan
124:and her
4790:Song Ci
4778:Su Song
4667:Compass
4547:Economy
4508:Li Song
4422:Cui Bai
4200:Song Qi
4194:Yan Shu
4181:Writers
4121:Ru ware
4106:Ge ware
4078:Society
4074:Culture
3879:Caizhou
3869:Tangdao
3751:History
2892:Ebrey,
2645:Ebrey,
2410:Ebrey,
2363:Ebrey,
2294:Mencius
2221:Theurgy
2194:Shaanxi
2190:celadon
2158:Mencius
2114:Xianbei
2106:Ben-lun
2036:quinces
2028:longans
2024:lychees
1987:jujubes
1906:Kaifeng
1848:jujubes
1817:scarves
1792:brocade
1645:Kaifeng
1617:Zhou Mi
1481:Kaifeng
1456:peacock
1411:fangzhi
1403:fangzhi
1350:Can Shu
1346:Kaifeng
1315:Su Song
1282:in the
1259:Li Fang
988:Guanyin
385:Loquats
320:Cui Bai
292:Sichuan
160:enamels
126:Xiongnu
42:Kaifeng
4576:Guanzi
4571:Jiaozi
4404:Guo Xi
4345:Zhu Xi
4327:Lu You
4314:Zhu Yu
4278:Su Zhe
4272:Su Shi
4218:Su Xun
4091:Poetry
3874:Caishi
3744:topics
3673:
3599:
3584:
3503:
3486:
3471:
3463:
3448:
3429:
3393:
3378:
3363:
2941:
2896:, 148.
2649:, 158.
2564:Wu, 5.
2414:, 163.
2367:, 162.
2286:Taoist
2268:luohan
2087:Taoism
2045:guoshi
2011:lychee
1989:, and
1971:mutton
1939:shrimp
1920:, and
1918:beishi
1914:nanshi
1886:fagara
1852:Canton
1846:Dried
1796:hempen
1765:zhiduo
1718:Lu You
1683:paiban
1625:Fuzhou
1621:Suzhou
1513:(also
1415:tujing
1407:tujing
1394:Zhu Xi
1374:Cha Lu
1370:Famine
1298:Su Shi
1222:Zhu Xi
1142:Su Shi
1124:Li Bai
1095:, and
967:period
467:Buddha
447:Guo Xi
224:Su Shi
172:motifs
151:Taoism
139:. The
110:, and
4796:Li Ye
4581:Huizi
4465:Li Di
4435:Mi Fu
3901:Yamen
3854:De'an
2352:Notes
1975:goose
1967:tripe
1931:Hebei
1902:Henan
1873:menus
1855:dry."
1771:rujin
1730:Hanfu
1553:xiwen
1525:juese
1521:nanqu
1516:nanxi
1511:xiwen
1503:beiqu
1280:kΕans
1274:Jiyun
1186:Li Yu
1184:poet
1146:Mi Fu
1120:Du Fu
1081:Mi Fu
1079:poet
866:peony
771:Japan
690:, by
671:, by
578:Mi Fu
445:, by
367:, by
296:Anyue
228:Mi Fu
186:Song
95:, by
54:China
26:guqin
4642:Coke
4520:Muqi
4076:and
3671:ISBN
3597:ISBN
3582:ISBN
3572:and
3501:ISBN
3484:ISBN
3469:ISBN
3461:ISBN
3446:ISBN
3427:ISBN
3391:ISBN
3376:ISBN
3361:ISBN
2939:ISBN
2477:2014
2242:and
2097:and
2059:and
1933:and
1784:silk
1780:Coal
1752:silk
1732:and
1678:guan
1675:and
1648:the
1623:and
1498:zaju
1466:and
462:The
48:The
4763:fl.
4487:fl.
4426:fl.
4318:fl.
2202:Zen
2138:Zen
2047:).
1973:or
1519:or
1378:Tea
1115:shi
290:in
4832::
3339:^
3325:^
3205:^
3189:^
3148:^
3127:^
3104:^
3092:^
3065:^
3051:^
3022:^
3001:^
2977:^
2965:^
2953:^
2876:^
2864:^
2850:^
2832:^
2811:^
2743:^
2729:^
2711:^
2663:^
2494:^
2446:^
2399:^
2296:,
2292:,
2234:,
2030:,
2026:,
1993:;
1949:A
1916:,
1539:;
1426:,
1422:,
1306:.
1182:ci
1162:ci
1133:ci
1126:,
1122:,
1091:,
762:A
283:.
149:;
106:,
79:.
4768:)
4761:(
4492:)
4485:(
4431:)
4424:(
4323:)
4316:(
4018:)
4014:(
3757:)
3753:(
3734:e
3727:t
3720:v
3679:.
3603:.
3588:.
3507:.
3452:.
3433:.
3397:.
3382:.
3367:.
2947:.
2479:.
1754:.
1685:.
1590:(
788:.
29:.
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