97:
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451:
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20:
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806:
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329:
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375:
77:, stone, or any material that will withstand the fusing temperature. In technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and another material (or more glass). The term "enamel" is most often restricted to work on metal, which is the subject of this article. Essentially the same technique used with other bases is known by different terms: on glass as
404:, France, the most famous centre of vitreous enamel production in Western Europe, though Spain also made a good deal. Limoges became famous for champlevé enamels from the 12th century onwards, producing on a large scale, and then (after a period of reduced production) from the 15th century retained its lead by switching to painted enamel on flat metal plaques. The
918:. Frit for enamelling steel is typically an alkali borosilicate glass with a thermal expansion and glass temperature suitable for coating steel. Raw materials are smelted together between 2,100 and 2,650 °F (1,150 and 1,450 °C) into a liquid glass that is directed out of the furnace and thermal shocked with either water or steel rollers into frit.
1127:, not strictly a technique, but a necessary step in many techniques, especially painted enamel on thin plaques; introduced in 15th-century Europe. Enamel is applied to the back of a piece as well – sandwiching the metal – to equalize the rates of expansion under heat, and so create less tension on the glass so it does not crack.
1031:
is the best known type of painted enamel, using this from the 16th century onwards. Most traditional painting on glass, and some on ceramics, uses what is technically enamel, but is often described by terms such as "painted in enamels", reserving "painted enamel" and "enamel" as a term for the whole
940:
There are various types of frit, which may be applied in sequence. A ground coat is applied first; it usually contains smelted-in transition metal oxides such as cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, and iron that facilitate adhesion to the metal. Next, clear and semi-opaque frits that contain material
260:
of c. 1325 BC, are frequently described as using "enamel", many scholars doubt the glass paste was sufficiently melted to be properly so described, and use terms such as "glass-paste". It seems possible that in
Egyptian conditions the melting point of the glass and gold were too close to make enamel
648:
which he co-founded is one of the few makers from this era still active. Distinctively
Japanese designs, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. Designs also increasingly used areas of blank space. With the greater subtlety these techniques allowed, Japanese enamels
910:
One of the most widespread modern uses of enamel is in the production of quality chalk-boards and marker-boards (typically called 'blackboards' or 'whiteboards') where the resistance of enamel to wear and chemicals ensures that 'ghosting', or unerasable marks, do not occur, as happens with polymer
462:
From either
Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13–14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, where it is called "Dashi ('Muslim') ware". No Chinese pieces that are clearly from the 14th century are known; the earliest
911:
boards. Since standard enamelling steel is magnetically attractive, it may also be used for magnet boards. Some new developments in the last ten years include enamel/non-stick hybrid coatings, sol-gel functional top-coats for enamels, enamels with a metallic appearance, and easy-to-clean enamels.
1167:
The frit in the ground coat contains smelted-in cobalt and/or nickel oxide as well as other transition metal oxides to catalyse the enamel-steel bonding reactions. During firing of the enamel at between 760 and 895 °C (1,400 and 1,643 °F), iron oxide scale first forms on the steel. The
1163:
On sheet steel, a ground coat layer is applied to create adhesion. The only surface preparation required for modern ground coats is degreasing of the steel with a mildly alkaline solution. White and coloured second "cover" coats of enamel are applied over the fired ground coat. For electrostatic
1073:, version of painted enamel, French term meaning "in grey", where a dark, often blue or black background is applied, then a palescent (translucent) enamel is painted on top, building up designs in a monochrome gradient, paler as the thickness of the layer of light colour increases.
1172:. The iron acts as the anode in an electrogalvanic reaction in which the iron is again oxidised, dissolved by the glass, and oxidised again with the available cobalt and nickel limiting the reaction. Finally, the surface becomes roughened with the glass anchored into the holes.
791:
Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in
Austria and Germany in about 1850. Industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased. The wet application process started with the discovery of the use of clay to suspend
1180:
Enamel coatings applied to steel panels offer protection to the core material whether cladding road tunnels, underground stations, building superstructures or other applications. It can also be specified as a curtain walling. Qualities of this structural material include:
717:
began to be used for handicraft products after the Gold
Control Act, was enforced in India which compelled the Meenakars to look for an alternative material. Initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used on the back of pieces of
709:, which comprised a pattern of birds and animals on a floral background in light blue, green, yellow and red. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer and its lustre brings out the colours of the enamels.
1232:
829:
Vitreous enamel can be applied to most metals. Most modern industrial enamel is applied to steel in which the carbon content is controlled to prevent unwanted reactions at the firing temperatures. Enamel can also be applied to gold, silver, copper,
937:. The latter creates delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm grey. Enamel can be transparent, opaque or opalescent (translucent). Different enamel colours can be mixed to make a new colour, in the manner of paint.
240:
The earliest enamel all used the cloisonné technique, placing the enamel within small cells with gold walls. This had been used as a technique to hold pieces of stone and gems tightly in place since the 3rd millennium BC, for example in
520:
eras (late 19th/early 20th century). Enamel had been used as decoration for metalwork since about 1600, and
Japanese cloisonné was already exported to Europe before the start of the Meiji era in 1868. Cloisonné is known in Japan as
319:
piece. This occurs in several different regions, from ancient Egypt to Anglo-Saxon
England. Once enamel becomes more common, as in medieval Europe after about 1000, the assumption that enamel was originally used becomes safer.
1053:, French for "open to daylight" where the enamel is applied in cells, similar to cloisonné, but with no backing, so light can shine through the transparent or translucent enamel. It has a stained-glass like appearance; the
1252:
860:
with wealth earned by his development of improved enamelling processes, c. 1887, for sheet steel and cast iron. Such enameled ferrous material had, and still has, many applications: early 20th century and some modern
849:. A disadvantage of enamel is a tendency to crack or shatter when the substrate is stressed or bent, but modern enamels are relatively chip- and impact-resistant because of good thickness control and coefficients of
677:
in the mid-17th century. Transparent enamels were popular during this time. Both cloissoné and champlevé were produced in Mughal, with champlevé used for the finest pieces. Modern industrial production began in
527:, literally "seven treasures". This refers to richly coloured substances mentioned in Buddhist texts. The term was initially used for colourful objects imported from China. According to legend, in the 1830s
796:
in water. Developments that followed during the 20th century include enamelling-grade steel, cleaned-only surface preparation, automation, and ongoing improvements in efficiency, performance, and quality.
511:
Japanese artists did not make three-dimensional enamelled objects until the 1830s but, once the technique took hold based on analysis of
Chinese objects, it developed very rapidly, reaching a peak in the
315:
A problem that adds to the uncertainty over early enamel is artefacts (typically excavated) that appear to have been prepared for enamel, but have now lost whatever filled the cloisons or backing to a
1014:, French for "cell", where thin wires are applied to form raised barriers, which contain different areas of (subsequently applied) enamel. Widely practiced in Europe, the Middle East and East Asia.
96:
1296:
1164:
enamels, the coloured enamel powder can be applied directly over a thin unfired ground coat "base coat" layer that is co-fired with the cover coat in a very efficient two-coat/one-fire process.
1063:, French for "in the round", also known as "encrusted enamel". A 3D type of enamelling where a sculptural form or wire framework is completely or partly enamelled, as in the 15th century
1043:, from the French word meaning "low-cut". The surface of the metal is decorated with a low relief design which can be seen through translucent and transparent enamels. The 14th century
304:, made for the Roman military market, which has swirling enamel decoration in a Celtic style. In Britain, probably through preserved Celtic craft skills, enamel survived until the
1976:
Gavlenski, Jim and
Baldwin, Charles, "Advanced Porcelain Enamel Coatings with Novel Properties," Proceedings of the 69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 53-58, (2007).
1280:
1085:, French for 'enamel in a network on glass') where enamelled metal is suspended in glass. The technique was briefly popular in seventeenth-century France and was re-discovered by
1106:, where a stencil is placed over the work and the powdered enamel is sifted over the top. The stencil is removed before firing, the enamel staying in a pattern, slightly raised.
2111:
Feldman, Sid and
Baldwin, Charles, "Surface Tension and Fusion Properties of Porcelain Enamels," Proceedings of the 69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 1-10 (2008)
1808:
We doubt if any form of the enameller's art can equal the work executed in Japan, which is distinguished by great freedom of design, and the most exquisite gradations of color.
546:
company to sponsor the creation of a wide range of decorative arts at international exhibitions. This was part of a programme to promote Japan as a modern, industrial nation.
1967:
Fedak, David and Baldwin, Charles, "A Comparison of Enameled and Stainless Steel Surfaces," Proceedings of the 67th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 45-54 (2005).
1949:
Sullivan, J.D. and Nelson, F.W., "Stainless Steel Requires Special Enameling Procedures", Proceedings of the Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum," 150–155 (1970).
470:
Cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. The most elaborate and most highly valued Chinese pieces are from the early
442:
A Russian school developed, which used the technique on other objects, as in the Renaissance, and for relatively cheap religious pieces such as crosses and small icons.
1112:, where an unfired layer of enamel is applied over a previously fired layer of enamel of a contrasting colour, and then partly removed with a tool to create the design.
1212:
2073:
1478:Актуальнi питання гуманiтарних наук: Мiжвузiвський збiрник наукових праць молодих вчених Дрогобицького державного педагогiчного унiверситету iменi Iвана Франка
2893:
556:
he developed a transparent black enamel which was used for backgrounds. Translucent enamels in various other colours followed during this period. Along with
2021:
29:; 1185–1200; champlevé enamel over copper gilded; height: 17.7 cm (7.0 in), width: 17.4 cm (6.9 in), depth: 10.1 cm (4.0 in)
557:
549:
48:
to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C (1,380 and 1,560 °F). The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable
1020:, French for "raised field", where the surface is carved out to form pits in which enamel is fired, leaving the original metal exposed; the Romanesque
3263:
528:
534:
Early Japanese enamels were cloudy and opaque, with relatively clumsy shapes. This changed rapidly from 1870 onwards. The Nagoya cloisonné company (
208:. Used as a noun, "an enamel" is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. "Enamelled" and "enamelling" are the preferred spellings in
669:
by around 1600 for decorating gold and silver objects, and became a distinctive feature of Mughal jewellery. The Mughal court was known to employ
1756:
560:, Wagener transformed the firing processes used by Japanese workshops, improving the quality of finishes and extending the variety of colours.
2780:
1940:
Judd, Donald, “Porcelain Enameling Aluminum: An Overview,” Proceedings of the 59th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 45-51 (1997).
540:
existed from 1871 to 1884, to sell the output of many small workshops and help them improve their work. In 1874, the government created the
3536:
1312:
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for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design called
1417:
2886:
363:
northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images; this was also copied in Western Europe. In
1958:
Pew, Steve, "The Who, What, Why, Where, and When of Cast Iron Enameling," Advances in Porcelain Enamel Technology, 177–186, (2010).
1332:
2332:
3180:
845:), has long-lasting colour fastness, is easy to clean, and cannot burn. Enamel is glass, not paint, so it does not fade under
3659:
3256:
2129:
1851:
1704:
1554:
1510:
841:
Vitreous enamel has many useful properties: it is smooth, hard, chemically resistant, durable, scratch resistant (5–6 on the
552:
was a German scientist brought in by the government to advise Japanese industry and improve production processes. Along with
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2879:
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2152:
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Painted enamel remained in fashion for over a century, and in France developed into a sophisticated Renaissance and the
3112:
531:
broke open a Chinese enamel object to examine it, then trained many artists, starting off Japan's own enamel industry.
505:
262:
1474:"Traditions of painted hot enamel of Europe and the East of the XVIIIth century in contemporary enamel art of Ukraine"
2250:
2164:
2122:
Vitreous and porcelain enamels — Characteristics of enamel coatings applied to steel panels intended for architecture
1502:
1670:"Kawade Shibatarō | Imperial Presentation Vase with Maple Branches and Imperial Chrysanthemum Crest (one of a pair)"
467:(1425–1435), which, since they show a full use of Chinese styles, suggest considerable experience in the technique.
3581:
3249:
1697:
Japonisme and the rise of the modern art movement : the arts of the Meiji period : the Khalili collection
2805:
2601:
2269:
616:
are minimised or burned away completely with acid. This contrasts with the Chinese style which used thick metal
5002:
2213:
2195:
2181:
1586:
947:
842:
745:
More recently, the bright, jewel-like colours have made enamel popular with jewellery designers, including the
154:
The term "enamel" has also sometimes been applied to industrial materials other than vitreous enamel, such as
3446:
2717:
2694:
640:) technique which burns away the metal substrate to leave translucent enamel, producing an effect resembling
594:("piling up") technique which places layers of enamel upon each other to create a three-dimensional effect.
2550:
987:
245:, and then Egypt. Enamel seems likely to have developed as a cheaper method of achieving similar results.
1821:
Namikawa Yasuyuki and Japanese Cloisonné The Allure of Meiji Cloisonné: The Aesthetic of Translucent Black
1138:
333:
124:
5017:
5012:
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2325:
1158:
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1867:
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were regarded as unequalled in the world and won many awards at national and international exhibitions.
3790:
3057:
2974:
1611:
773:
261:
a viable technique. Nonetheless, there appear to be a few actual examples of enamel, perhaps from the
2621:
450:
424:
techniques, but cheaper champlevé works continued to be produced in large numbers for a wider market.
123:. Since the 18th century, enamels have also been applied to many metal consumer objects, such as some
5007:
4448:
2581:
2502:
2392:
1579:
Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection
821:
mortar and pestle is used to finely grind vitreous enamel powder, mixed with a volatile oil, such as
805:
645:
4992:
4982:
4284:
4106:
3918:
3426:
3381:
3172:
3142:
2954:
2949:
2929:
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2024:
collection database, "Scope note" for the term "enamelled"; other sources use different categories.
1732:
1377:
19:
5032:
4915:
4008:
3984:
3690:
3675:
2845:
2712:
2586:
1349:
1121:
Surrey enamel, a 17th-century type for brass objects such as candlesticks; effectively champlevé.
296:
mentions the Celts' use of the technique on metal, which the Romans in his day hardly knew. The
4289:
577:
3745:
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2318:
1239:
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328:
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2199:
1514:
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2810:
2684:
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2432:
2422:
1064:
992:
224:
115:
Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in
85:
74:
3506:
2722:
2228:
Dimand, M. S. "An Enameled-Glass Bottle of the Mamluk Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
8:
4647:
3808:
3735:
3601:
3521:
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3411:
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2757:
2752:
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2649:
2616:
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2225:"Collection Highlights: Art in the Islamic World". Beaker. Smithsonian Institution: 2013.
1457:Наумов, Олег (2019-01-01), "ХУДОЖНЯ ЕМАЛЬ У ХРОНОТОПІ УКРАЇНСЬКОГО МИСТЕЦТВА. Альманах",
980:
713:, a later introduction, is used for artifacts like boxes, bowls, spoons, and art pieces.
683:
439:, spreading to England and other countries. This continued until the early 19th century.
257:
256:, dated to the 13th century BC. Although Egyptian pieces, including jewellery from the
1904:
1669:
1636:
561:
5022:
4056:
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3928:
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3311:
3195:
2984:
2737:
2659:
2407:
2397:
2169:
1902:
1842:
Moura Carvalho, Pedro (2009). "Enamel in the Islamic Lands". In Williams, Haydn (ed.).
1799:
857:
762:
738:
436:
204:
2259:
Papadopoulous, Kiko. "Venetian Eastern Trade: 11th to 14th Centuries" 20 January 2012.
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1545:
Impey, Oliver; Fairley, Malcolm (2009). "Enamel in Japan". In Williams, Haydn (ed.).
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1021:
921:
Colour in enamel is obtained by the addition of various minerals, often metal oxides
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A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the
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and the enameled copper boxes of the Battersea enamellers, and for artists such as
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213:
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1985:
Andrews, A.I. Porcelain Enamels, The Garrard Press: Champaign, IL, 1961 p. 321-2.
1905:"Bernard Hesling :: biography at :: at Design and Art Australia Online"
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1757:"Ashmolean − Eastern Art Online, Yousef Jameel Centre for Islamic and Asian Art"
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and in small portraits. After it fell from fashion it continued as a medium for
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93:", the artists "enamellers" and the objects produced can be called "enamels".
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1369:(1945–1985) – American enamellist who created the largest known enamel mural
1076:
1054:
1027:
Painted enamel, a design in enamel is painted onto a smooth metal surface.
580:) technique, in which the metal foundation is hammered outwards to create a
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Porcelain enamels: the preparation, application, and properties of enamels
1017:
1011:
750:
610:(wireless cloisonné): techniques developed with Wagener in which the wire
455:
405:
352:
316:
108:
4909:
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1000:
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brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates.
746:
513:
478:(1450–1457), although 19th century or modern pieces are far more common.
421:
389:
344:
265:(beginning 1070 BC) on. But it remained rare in both Egypt and Greece.
242:
148:
100:
1885:
1803:
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2820:
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2457:
2452:
2310:
1581:. St. Petersburg, Fla.: Broughton International Inc. pp. 252–254.
1100:, in which a glass surface is enamelled, and fired to fuse the glasses.
674:
623:
491:
413:
379:
364:
277:
188:
136:
23:
4433:
2281:
CIDAE Center of Information and Difusion of the Art of Enamelling (ES)
2190:, eds. Paul T. Nicholson, Ian Shaw, 2000, Cambridge University Press,
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3007:
1819:
Toyoro Hida, Gregory Irvine, Kana Ooki, Tomoko Hana and Yukari Muro.
1115:
1109:
1070:
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934:
907:
had walls, ceilings and structural elements made of enamelled steel.
878:
835:
831:
781:
694:
598:
developed a pictorial style that imitated paintings. He is known for
428:
128:
116:
2295:
914:
The key ingredient of vitreous enamel is finely ground glass called
517:
178:
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4920:
4846:
4773:
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2290:
1168:
molten enamel dissolves the iron oxide and precipitates cobalt and
679:
673:(enamelers). These craftsmen reached a peak of during the reign of
408:
technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the
273:
248:
The earliest undisputed objects known to use enamel are a group of
184:
813:
809:
Glass vials with ground vitreous enamel powder in different colors
4941:
4851:
4763:
4672:
4637:
4622:
4607:
4592:
4582:
4455:
4389:
4340:
4279:
4136:
4111:
4076:
3958:
3933:
3833:
3466:
3376:
3371:
3341:
2560:
1306:
in painted Limoges enamel on a copper plaque, by Jacques I Laudin
1103:
881:
706:
702:
432:
401:
343:
In European art history, enamel was at its most important in the
284:(c.350–50 BC), probably as an imitation of the red Mediterranean
249:
41:
355:
enamel in imitation of cloisonné inlays of precious stones. The
4841:
4747:
4707:
4682:
4617:
4602:
4498:
4483:
4478:
4394:
4345:
4335:
4051:
4016:
3586:
3481:
3122:
2636:
2442:
1169:
1007:
The three main historical techniques for enamelling metal are:
996:
922:
714:
710:
581:
253:
191:
16:
Material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing
1497:, 4th edn, p. 239, University of California Press, 1999,
657:
280:
to the ancient Celts. Red enamel is used in 26 places on the
4820:
4810:
4800:
4783:
4778:
4768:
4727:
4557:
4537:
4473:
4405:
4146:
4121:
4066:
3943:
3903:
3878:
3526:
3401:
3331:
2555:
2522:
2356:
2341:
1903:
database and e-research tool for art and design researchers.
1410:
877:, housing and drums of clothes washers and dryers, sinks and
818:
285:
89:, "overglaze enamels" or "enamelling". The craft is called "
66:
45:
3969:
2300:
2176:, 2003 (2nd edn), Thames & Hudson, World of Art series,
1612:"Japanese Art & Artists of To-day VI. Cloisonné Enamels"
722:
or gem-studded jewellery, allowing pieces to be reversible.
431:
style, seen on objects such as large display dishes, ewers,
374:
4692:
4667:
4662:
4612:
4374:
3185:
930:
915:
885:
866:
793:
690:
2305:
1089:
in 1953. Craver spent 13 years re-creating the technique.
570:(drip-glaze) which produces a rainbow-coloured glaze and
2280:
2276:
Enameling Articles and Tutorials at The Ganoksin Project
1844:
Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections
1547:
Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections
388:
often included enamel plaques of the highest quality in
1380:
in Russia, with Moscow a centre of the Russian industry
1118:, where a silkscreen is used with 60–70in grade mesh.
895:
and pharmaceutical process tanks. Structures such as
1188:
Withstands extreme temperatures and is non-flammable
212:, while "enameled" and "enameling" are preferred in
970:
2059:
2057:
1846:. London: Khalili Family Trust. pp. 187–196.
1549:. London: Khalili Family Trust. pp. 149–156.
1465:
474:, especially the reigns of the Xuande Emperor and
323:
83:, or "painted glass", and on pottery it is called
2124:. Standards Policy and Strategy Committee. 2008.
2080:. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Archived from
1191:Long lasting UV, climate and corrosion resistance
4974:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1144:
2901:
2174:The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms
2054:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1238:Silver, silver gilt and painted enamel beaker,
1841:
1699:. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 181.
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
983:, with basse-taille enamel, partly fallen away
705:period, made a reference to an enamel work of
627:
605:
599:
589:
571:
565:
564:introduced a variety of techniques, including
541:
535:
522:
499:
347:, beginning with the Late Romans and then the
3985:
3257:
2887:
2781:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
2326:
1830:
825:, to produce enamel paints for artistic work.
737:, typical enamel cooking gear from the Dutch
1544:
1519:
1471:
1421:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1080:
965:Turb-mixer in a glass-lined chemical reactor
856:The Buick automobile company was founded by
633:
617:
611:
3271:
2206:The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts
1631:
1629:
1425:
496:chrysanthemum crests of the Imperial family
378:Examples of art made of finift enamel from
359:style was widely adopted by the peoples of
197:
3992:
3978:
3264:
3250:
2894:
2880:
2333:
2319:
1923:
1921:
1489:
1487:
1036:Variants, and less common techniques are:
652:
3537:Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano
2188:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology
463:datable pieces are from the reign of the
228:Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, 2nd-century
131:bathtubs. It has also been used on some
111:enamel; height: 2.5 cm, diameter: 15.2 cm
2340:
1763:. Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford
1626:
1405:
1148:
986:
974:
953:View into a glass-lined chemical reactor
812:
804:
729:
656:
485:
449:
373:
327:
223:
95:
18:
2078:Luce Foundation Center for American Art
1918:
1730:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1484:
162:; these actually are very different in
4975:
2231:
1726:
1724:
1694:
1609:
1456:
1133:, where jewels are set in white enamel
873:, housing and interior walls of major
336:dish, mid-16th century, attributed to
3973:
3660:List of defunct glassmaking companies
3245:
2875:
2314:
1576:
1472:Мостовщикова, Дар'я Олегівна (2020),
1461:, vol. 2019(2), pp. 192–197
1563:
1175:
458:enamel bronze wine pot, 18th century
272:culture of the northern and central
2149:An Introduction to Medieval Enamels
1733:"How It's Made: Japanese Cloisonné"
1721:
1622:: 271 – via Internet Archive.
1480:, vol. 1(30), pp. 173–180
1274:appears to her friends in a vision.
1197:Resistant to abrasion and chemicals
1032:object for works with a metal base.
941:for producing colours are applied.
891:, and processing equipment such as
13:
2935:Extrusion / Drawing (glass fibers)
2301:International Enamellers Institute
2219:
1290:, Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Avranches
1222:used to hold holy oils; most were
1057:is the surviving medieval example.
1003:enamel, about 1400. British Museum
506:Khalili Collection of Japanese Art
263:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
103:dish with scalloped rim, from the
14:
5044:
2930:Blowing and pressing (containers)
2263:
2245:(5th ed.). New York: Dover.
1194:Dirt-repellent and graffiti-proof
276:, and was perhaps carried by the
2306:Vitreous Enamel Association (UK)
2286:Society of Dutch Enamellers (NL)
1348:
1331:
1318:A freehand enameled painting by
1311:
1295:
1279:
1251:
1231:
1211:
971:Techniques of artistic enameling
958:
946:
300:is a 2nd-century AD souvenir of
2851:Radioactive waste vitrification
2806:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
2114:
2105:
2096:
2066:
2045:
2036:
2027:
2015:
2006:
1997:
1988:
1979:
1970:
1961:
1952:
1943:
1934:
1896:
1878:
1860:
1825:The Mainichi Newspapers Co, Ltd
1813:
1775:
1749:
1688:
1662:
1603:
1266:enamels; weight 1.935 kg,
324:Medieval and Renaissance Europe
202:, first found in a 9th-century
1450:
1441:
1399:
1390:
665:Enamel was established in the
504:to slightly raise the design;
1:
3999:
3597:Sterlite Optical Technologies
3447:Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works
2718:Chemically strengthened glass
2141:
1737:Dallas Museum of Art Uncrated
1731:Leonard, Loryn (2012-06-26).
1200:Easy cleaning and maintenance
1153:Old German enamel street sign
1145:Industrial enamel application
1139:Japanese shipōyaki techniques
800:
701:, who toured Iran during the
268:The technique appears in the
3113:Machine drawn cylinder sheet
2551:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
1676:. Metropolitan Museum of Art
749:jewellers, for designers of
7:
3226:Glossary of glass art terms
1784:The Decorator and Furnisher
1360:
1286:Limoges? grisaille painted
1218:Early 13th century Limoges
1159:Industrial porcelain enamel
853:well-matched to the metal.
628:
606:
600:
590:
572:
566:
542:
536:
523:
500:
298:Staffordshire Moorlands Pan
147:, and on marker boards and
10:
5049:
2291:The Enamelist Society (US)
1886:"What is Vitreous Enamel?"
1761:jameelcentre.ashmolean.org
1204:
1156:
1082:Émail en résille sur verre
1047:is an outstanding example.
235:
219:
4929:
4891:
4834:
4756:
4527:
4464:
4403:
4365:
4358:
4318:
4220:
4174:
4167:
4007:
3799:
3668:
3650:
3277:
3218:
3171:
2993:
2910:
2771:
2703:
2635:
2582:Chemical vapor deposition
2569:
2531:
2503:Ultra low expansion glass
2393:Borophosphosilicate glass
2375:
2349:
2186:Ogden, Jack, "Metal", in
725:
392:and other large works of
371:technique was developed.
158:and the polymers coating
3387:Firozabad glass industry
3382:Fenton Art Glass Company
3143:Satsuma Kiriko cut glass
2955:Overflow downdraw method
2950:Precision glass moulding
2945:Drawing (optical fibers)
2821:Glass-reinforced plastic
2483:Sodium hexametaphosphate
2242:Metalwork and Enamelling
2074:"Craft: Jewelry: Brooch"
1927:Andrews, Andrew Irving,
1782:"Japanese Art Enamels".
1695:Irvine, Gregory (2013).
1637:"Polished to Perfection"
1384:
661:Meenakaari art from Iran
481:
445:
40:, is a material made by
4494:Nickel silver (alpacca)
3691:Irving Wightman Colburn
3272:Glass makers and brands
3196:Shock metamorphic glass
2713:Anti-reflective coating
2587:Glass batch calculation
2468:Photochromic lens glass
2296:Guild of Enamellers, UK
1418:Encyclopædia Britannica
834:, stainless steel, and
697:. The French traveller
653:India and Islamic world
288:, which is used on the
196:, or from a Latin word
192:
179:
2204:Osborne, Harold (ed),
1240:Burgundian Netherlands
1154:
1081:
1004:
984:
826:
810:
772:, led by artists like
761:and other painters of
742:
741:, popular in the 1950s
662:
646:Ando Cloisonné Company
634:
618:
612:
604:(minimised wires) and
584:effect. Together with
508:
459:
416:the finest work is in
382:
340:
334:painted Limoges enamel
232:
198:
112:
107:; early 15th century;
65:Enamel can be used on
57:
30:
5003:Visual arts materials
4835:Other natural objects
3756:Henry William Stiegel
3487:Mats Jonasson Målerås
3427:Holmegaard Glassworks
2846:Prince Rupert's drops
2695:Transparent materials
2655:Gradient-index optics
2463:Phosphosilicate glass
1931:, Garrard Press, 1961
1868:"The Art of Minakari"
1610:Harada, Jiro (1911).
1459:Культура і Сучасність
1288:Stations of the Cross
1152:
990:
978:
816:
808:
733:
660:
489:
453:
377:
331:
227:
99:
56:comes from the Latin
22:
4310:Wire wrapped jewelry
4290:Repoussé and chasing
3731:Michael Joseph Owens
3307:Aurora Glass Foundry
3058:Cylinder blown sheet
2811:Glass ionomer cement
2685:Photosensitive glass
2612:Liquidus temperature
2433:Fluorosilicate glass
1065:Holy Thorn Reliquary
993:Dunstable Swan Jewel
753:such as the eggs of
537:Nagoya shippo kaisha
86:overglaze decoration
62:, meaning "glassy".
4852:Ebonite (vulcanite)
3819:Bomex/Duran/Endural
3736:Alastair Pilkington
3412:Guardian Industries
3317:Barovier & Toso
3181:Radiative processes
2996:historic techniques
2920:Float glass process
2831:Glass-to-metal seal
2753:Self-cleaning glass
2675:Optical lens design
2170:Lucie-Smith, Edward
1643:. 5 November 2017.
1641:Asian Art Newspaper
1577:Earle, Joe (1999).
1493:Sullivan, Michael,
981:Death of the Virgin
763:portrait miniatures
689:Enamel was used in
684:Bengal Enamel Works
437:portrait miniatures
351:, who began to use
258:Tomb of Tutankhamun
127:, steel sinks, and
5018:Glass compositions
5013:Glass applications
4197:Jewellery designer
3681:Richard M. Atwater
3502:Nippon Sheet Glass
3442:Kingdom of Crystal
3362:Dartington Crystal
2975:Chemical polishing
2816:Glass microspheres
2738:Hydrogen darkening
2660:Hydrogen darkening
2408:Chalcogenide glass
2398:Borosilicate glass
2270:Enamels on jewelry
2147:Campbell, Marian.
2033:Campbell, 7, 33-41
2003:Campbell, 7, 17-32
1994:Campbell, 6, 10-17
1155:
1125:Counter-enamelling
1005:
985:
875:kitchen appliances
858:David Dunbar Buick
827:
811:
784:, abstract artist
755:Peter Carl Fabergé
743:
682:in 1921, with the
663:
586:Hattori Tadasaburō
543:Kiriu kosho kaisha
509:
490:Imperial vases by
460:
383:
341:
233:
113:
52:coating. The word
31:
4970:
4969:
4887:
4886:
4757:Organic gemstones
4354:
4353:
3967:
3966:
3776:Tomasz Urbanowicz
3766:Lino Tagliapietra
3761:S. Donald Stookey
3612:Val Saint Lambert
3507:Nižbor glassworks
3422:Hardman & Co.
3239:
3238:
3173:Natural processes
3088:Fourcault process
2869:
2868:
2786:Glass-coated wire
2758:sol–gel technique
2743:Insulated glazing
2680:Photochromic lens
2665:Optical amplifier
2617:sol–gel technique
2198:, 9780521452571,
2131:978-0-580-72284-4
1853:978-1-874780-17-5
1706:978-0-500-23913-1
1674:www.metmuseum.org
1556:978-1-874780-17-5
1511:978-0-520-21877-2
1495:The arts of China
1343:enamel watch dial
1304:Gregory the Great
1176:Building cladding
1022:Stavelot Triptych
979:Medallion of the
893:chemical reactors
851:thermal expansion
847:ultraviolet light
588:he developed the
558:Tsukamoto Kaisuke
554:Namikawa Yasuyuki
550:Gottfried Wagener
164:materials science
5040:
5008:Jewellery making
4414:Britannia silver
4363:
4362:
4172:
4171:
3994:
3987:
3980:
3971:
3970:
3716:Edward D. Libbey
3686:Frederick Carder
3266:
3259:
3252:
3243:
3242:
2903:Glass production
2896:
2889:
2882:
2873:
2872:
2607:Ion implantation
2362:Glass transition
2335:
2328:
2321:
2312:
2311:
2256:
2136:
2135:
2118:
2112:
2109:
2103:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2070:
2064:
2061:
2052:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1932:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1839:
1828:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1790:(5): 170. 1893.
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1574:
1561:
1560:
1542:
1517:
1491:
1482:
1481:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1423:
1422:
1414:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1352:
1335:
1320:Einar Hakonarson
1315:
1299:
1283:
1255:
1242:, c. 1425–1450,
1235:
1215:
1084:
962:
950:
897:filling stations
865:signs, interior
639:
631:
621:
615:
609:
603:
593:
575:
569:
562:Kawade Shibatarō
545:
539:
526:
503:
361:Migration Period
357:Byzantine enamel
282:Battersea Shield
214:American English
201:
195:
182:
141:laundry machines
38:porcelain enamel
5048:
5047:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5038:
5037:
4993:Decorative arts
4983:Vitreous enamel
4973:
4972:
4971:
4966:
4925:
4883:
4872:Spondylus shell
4830:
4752:
4523:
4509:Stainless steel
4460:
4444:Sterling silver
4404:Precious metal
4399:
4367:Precious metals
4350:
4314:
4216:
4163:
4003:
3998:
3968:
3963:
3801:
3795:
3786:John M. Whitall
3771:W. E. S. Turner
3664:
3652:
3646:
3627:Watts & Co.
3347:Caithness Glass
3279:
3273:
3270:
3240:
3235:
3231:Glass recycling
3214:
3167:
3073:Enamelled glass
2995:
2989:
2980:Diamond turning
2970:Flame polishing
2912:
2906:
2900:
2870:
2865:
2801:Glass electrode
2796:Glass databases
2773:
2767:
2705:
2699:
2631:
2565:
2541:Bioactive glass
2527:
2513:Vitreous enamel
2498:Thoriated glass
2493:Tellurite glass
2478:Soda–lime glass
2448:Gold ruby glass
2418:Cranberry glass
2371:
2345:
2339:
2266:
2253:
2233:Maryon, Herbert
2222:
2220:Further reading
2144:
2139:
2132:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:Lucie-Smith, 84
2101:
2097:
2087:
2085:
2084:on 13 July 2009
2072:
2071:
2067:
2063:Lucie-Smith, 83
2062:
2055:
2051:Campbell, 7, 42
2050:
2046:
2042:Campbell, 38-42
2041:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1926:
1919:
1910:
1908:
1901:
1897:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1840:
1831:
1818:
1814:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1766:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1741:
1739:
1729:
1722:
1707:
1693:
1689:
1679:
1677:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1608:
1604:
1589:
1575:
1564:
1557:
1543:
1520:
1492:
1485:
1470:
1466:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1426:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1373:Oskar Schindler
1363:
1356:
1353:
1344:
1336:
1327:
1316:
1307:
1300:
1291:
1284:
1275:
1256:
1247:
1236:
1227:
1216:
1207:
1178:
1161:
1147:
1098:Enamelled glass
973:
966:
963:
954:
951:
803:
786:Bernard Hesling
728:
655:
626:introduced the
596:Namikawa Sōsuke
529:Kaji Tsunekichi
484:
476:Jingtai Emperor
448:
386:Mosan metalwork
326:
310:Anglo-Saxon art
294:Pliny the Elder
292:(400–300 BC).
238:
222:
210:British English
175:Old High German
173:comes from the
125:cooking vessels
80:enamelled glass
34:Vitreous enamel
17:
12:
11:
5:
5046:
5036:
5035:
5033:Ceramic glazes
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4933:Related topics
4930:
4927:
4926:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4907:
4901:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4888:
4885:
4884:
4882:
4881:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4838:
4836:
4832:
4831:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4797:
4796:
4791:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
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4333:
4328:
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4320:
4316:
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4312:
4307:
4305:Wire sculpture
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
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3989:
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3964:
3962:
3961:
3956:
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3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3919:Satsuma Kiriko
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
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3876:
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3609:
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3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3572:Royal Brierley
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3552:PPG Industries
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3477:Johns Manville
3474:
3469:
3464:
3462:Liuli Gongfang
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
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3409:
3404:
3399:
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3379:
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3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3337:Bormioli Rocco
3334:
3329:
3324:
3322:Berengo Studio
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3287:Anchor Hocking
3283:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3269:
3268:
3261:
3254:
3246:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3228:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3210:Volcanic glass
3207:
3205:Vitrified sand
3202:
3193:
3188:
3186:Opal formation
3183:
3177:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3163:Tempered glass
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3128:Polished plate
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
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3095:
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2999:
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2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2777:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2763:Tempered glass
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2733:DNA microarray
2730:
2728:Dealkalization
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
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2647:
2641:
2639:
2633:
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2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2602:Glass modeling
2599:
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2589:
2584:
2579:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2533:Glass-ceramics
2529:
2528:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2473:Silicate glass
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
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2379:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2344:science topics
2338:
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2330:
2323:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2265:
2264:External links
2262:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2251:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2202:
2184:
2167:
2157:V&A Museum
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2130:
2113:
2104:
2095:
2065:
2053:
2044:
2035:
2026:
2022:British Museum
2014:
2005:
1996:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1960:
1951:
1942:
1933:
1917:
1895:
1877:
1872:iranreview.org
1859:
1852:
1829:
1823:, pp.182-188,
1812:
1774:
1748:
1720:
1705:
1687:
1661:
1625:
1602:
1587:
1562:
1555:
1518:
1483:
1464:
1449:
1440:
1424:
1412:"Enamel"
1409:, ed. (1911).
1407:Chisholm, Hugh
1398:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1375:
1370:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1355:Iranian enamel
1354:
1347:
1345:
1337:
1330:
1328:
1324:In the forest,
1317:
1310:
1308:
1301:
1294:
1292:
1285:
1278:
1276:
1268:British Museum
1260:Royal Gold Cup
1257:
1250:
1248:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1217:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1195:
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1189:
1186:
1177:
1174:
1157:Main article:
1146:
1143:
1135:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1119:
1113:
1107:
1101:
1091:
1090:
1087:Margret Craver
1074:
1068:
1058:
1048:
1045:Royal Gold Cup
1034:
1033:
1029:Limoges enamel
1025:
1024:is an example.
1015:
972:
969:
968:
967:
964:
957:
955:
952:
945:
905:Lustron Houses
802:
799:
774:Alexei Maximov
727:
724:
654:
651:
483:
480:
465:Xuande Emperor
447:
444:
398:Limoges enamel
325:
322:
302:Hadrian's Wall
237:
234:
221:
218:
205:Life of Leo IV
121:decorative art
36:, also called
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5045:
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5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
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4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
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4940:
4938:
4937:Body piercing
4935:
4932:
4931:
4928:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4908:
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4902:
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4826:Tortoiseshell
4824:
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4709:
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4208:
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4185:
4183:
4182:Bench jeweler
4180:
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4177:
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4170:
4166:
4158:
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3822:
3820:
3817:
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3807:
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3804:
3798:
3792:
3791:Caspar Wistar
3789:
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3782:
3779:
3777:
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3769:
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3762:
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3727:
3724:
3722:
3721:Dante Marioni
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3711:Deming Jarves
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3696:Henry Crimmel
3694:
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3632:World Kitchen
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3532:Owens Corning
3530:
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3211:
3208:
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3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3153:Stained glass
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3138:Rippled glass
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3078:Flashed glass
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
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3019:
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3006:
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2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2925:Fritted glass
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2909:
2904:
2897:
2892:
2890:
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2883:
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2671:
2670:Optical fiber
2668:
2666:
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2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
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2627:Vitrification
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2597:Glass melting
2595:
2593:
2592:Glass forming
2590:
2588:
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2578:
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2524:
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2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2508:Uranium glass
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
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2491:
2489:
2488:Soluble glass
2486:
2484:
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2403:Ceramic glaze
2401:
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2252:0-486-22702-2
2248:
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2238:
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2211:
2208:, 1975, OUP,
2207:
2203:
2201:
2197:
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2185:
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2179:
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2171:
2168:
2166:
2165:0-11-290385-1
2162:
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2099:
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2018:
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1982:
1973:
1964:
1955:
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1924:
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1907:. Daao.org.au
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1503:0-520-21877-9
1500:
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1367:Fred Uhl Ball
1365:
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1244:The Cloisters
1241:
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1131:Safed chalwan
1129:
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1093:Other types:
1088:
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1059:
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1051:Plique-à-jour
1049:
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890:
889:storage silos
887:
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766:
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759:George Stubbs
756:
752:
748:
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736:
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723:
721:
716:
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700:
696:
692:
687:
685:
681:
676:
672:
668:
667:Mughal Empire
659:
650:
647:
643:
642:stained glass
638:
637:
636:plique-à-jour
630:
625:
620:
614:
608:
602:
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583:
579:
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567:nagare-gusuri
563:
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370:
369:finift enamel
366:
362:
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354:
350:
346:
339:
338:Jean de Court
335:
330:
321:
318:
313:
311:
307:
306:hanging bowls
303:
299:
295:
291:
290:Witham Shield
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
266:
264:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
231:
230:Roman Britain
226:
217:
215:
211:
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206:
200:
194:
190:
186:
181:
176:
172:
167:
165:
161:
160:enameled wire
157:
152:
150:
146:
145:refrigerators
142:
138:
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126:
122:
118:
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106:
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76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
60:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
28:
25:
21:
4962:Wearable art
4957:Phaleristics
4952:Metalworking
4857:Gutta-percha
4633:Lapis lazuli
4419:Colored gold
4300:Stonesetting
4254:
3829:Chevron bead
3781:Paolo Venini
3726:Antonio Neri
3706:A. H. Heisey
3617:Vallérysthal
3577:Saint-Gobain
3497:Mosser Glass
3327:Blenko Glass
3297:Ardagh Group
3292:Arc Holdings
3158:Studio glass
3133:Porous glass
3098:Glass mosaic
3083:Forest glass
2994:Artistic and
2836:Porous glass
2791:Safety glass
2748:Porous glass
2706:modification
2518:Wood's glass
2512:
2438:Fused quartz
2413:Cobalt glass
2367:Supercooling
2272:– historical
2241:
2237:"Enamelling"
2205:
2200:google books
2187:
2173:
2148:
2121:
2116:
2107:
2098:
2086:. Retrieved
2082:the original
2077:
2068:
2047:
2038:
2029:
2017:
2008:
1999:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1936:
1928:
1909:. Retrieved
1898:
1889:
1880:
1871:
1862:
1843:
1820:
1815:
1807:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1765:. Retrieved
1760:
1751:
1740:. Retrieved
1736:
1696:
1690:
1678:. Retrieved
1673:
1664:
1652:. Retrieved
1640:
1619:
1615:
1605:
1578:
1546:
1515:Google books
1494:
1477:
1467:
1458:
1452:
1443:
1438:Osborne, 331
1416:
1401:
1392:
1340:Louis George
1338:
1323:
1264:basse-taille
1263:
1179:
1166:
1162:
1136:
1124:
1092:
1041:Basse-taille
1035:
1006:
939:
927:praseodymium
920:
913:
909:
901:bus stations
871:cooking pots
855:
840:
828:
823:lavender oil
790:
778:Leonid Efros
770:Soviet Union
767:
744:
734:
719:
699:Jean Chardin
688:
670:
664:
629:shōtai-jippō
548:
533:
510:
472:Ming dynasty
469:
461:
441:
426:
418:basse-taille
400:was made in
394:goldsmithing
384:
342:
314:
267:
247:
239:
203:
170:
168:
156:enamel paint
153:
114:
105:Ming dynasty
90:
84:
78:
64:
53:
37:
33:
32:
5028:Ceramic art
4899:Art jewelry
4723:Tiger's eye
4628:Labradorite
4578:Chrysocolla
4573:Chrysoberyl
4489:Mokume-gane
4466:Base metals
4238:centrifugal
4207:Silversmith
4082:Ferronnière
4032:Belt buckle
4027:Belly chain
3854:Dragontrail
3839:CorningWare
3751:Otto Schott
3741:Flavio Poli
3669:Glassmakers
3637:Xinyi Glass
3582:Saint-Louis
3492:Moser Glass
3392:Franz Mayer
3108:Lampworking
3048:Crown glass
3043:Cased glass
3038:Caneworking
3033:Broad sheet
3028:Blown plate
2861:Glass fiber
2826:Glass cloth
2570:Preparation
2546:CorningWare
2428:Flint glass
2423:Crown glass
2376:Formulation
2012:Campbell, 7
1396:Campbell, 6
1272:Saint Agnes
1224:reliquaries
1061:Ronde bosse
1001:ronde bosse
863:advertising
747:Art Nouveau
739:DRU factory
735:Grey clouds
494:, with the
422:ronde-bosse
412:period. In
390:reliquaries
345:Middle Ages
252:rings from
243:Mesopotamia
137:dishwashers
4977:Categories
4733:Tourmaline
4678:Prasiolite
4553:Aventurine
4424:Crown gold
4326:Draw plate
4275:Metal clay
4212:Watchmaker
4202:Lapidarist
4187:Clockmaker
4062:Collar pin
4057:Chatelaine
3884:Millefiori
3802:and brands
3800:Trademarks
3676:John Adams
3547:Pilkington
3452:Kosta Boda
3118:Millefiori
3018:Beadmaking
2940:Glass wool
2913:techniques
2911:Commercial
2905:techniques
2856:Windshield
2690:Refraction
2650:Dispersion
2458:Milk glass
2453:Lead glass
2214:0198661134
2196:0521452570
2182:0500203652
2142:References
1911:2013-12-25
1890:vea.org.uk
1742:2020-10-16
1616:The Studio
1588:1874780137
1447:Ogden, 166
1104:Stenciling
1077:En résille
1055:Mérode Cup
843:Mohs scale
801:Properties
675:Shah Jahan
624:Ando Jubei
492:Ando Jubei
414:Gothic art
410:Romanesque
380:Kievan Rus
365:Kievan Rus
332:Detail of
278:Sarmatians
189:Old French
187:) via the
135:, such as
133:appliances
91:enamelling
5023:Glass art
4879:Toadstone
4816:Operculum
4743:Variscite
4738:Turquoise
4718:Tanzanite
4653:Moonstone
4648:Marcasite
4643:Malachite
4568:Carnelian
4543:Amazonite
4530:gemstones
4504:Pinchbeck
4449:Argentium
4439:Shibuichi
4380:Palladium
4359:Materials
4295:Soldering
4285:Polishing
4260:Engraving
4255:Enameling
4221:Processes
4192:Goldsmith
4127:Tie chain
4102:Neck ring
4092:Lapel pin
4001:Jewellery
3949:Waterford
3939:Vitrolite
3914:Ravenhead
3864:Fire-King
3849:Cristallo
3844:Cranberry
3701:Friedrich
3653:companies
3622:Waterford
3607:Swarovski
3542:Phu Phong
3512:O-I Glass
3432:Holophane
3407:Glaverbel
3357:Crystalex
3280:companies
3200:Impactite
3191:Sea glass
3103:Glassware
3063:Engraving
3053:Cut glass
3013:Glass art
3008:Art glass
3003:Āina-kāri
2723:Corrosion
2622:Viscosity
2577:Annealing
1796:2150-6256
1715:853452453
1649:1475-1372
1137:See also
1116:Serigraph
1110:Sgraffito
1071:Grisaille
1018:Champlevé
1012:Cloisonné
999:badge in
935:neodymium
879:cast iron
836:cast iron
832:aluminium
782:Australia
695:Meenakari
686:Limited.
573:uchidashi
456:cloisonné
429:Mannerist
406:champlevé
353:cloisonné
349:Byzantine
317:champlevé
308:of early
250:Mycenaean
169:The word
129:cast-iron
117:jewellery
109:cloisonné
44:powdered
4998:Coatings
4947:Gemology
4921:Fineness
4912:(purity)
4847:Bog-wood
4794:Precious
4774:Ammolite
4713:Sunstone
4703:Sodalite
4698:Sapphire
4658:Obsidian
4598:Fluorite
4588:Diopside
4548:Amethyst
4528:Mineral
4519:Tungsten
4514:Titanium
4429:Electrum
4385:Platinum
4270:Kazaziye
4265:Filigree
4243:lost-wax
4142:Toe ring
4132:Tie clip
4107:Pectoral
4097:Necklace
4072:Cufflink
4047:Bracelet
4042:Bolo tie
4022:Barrette
3814:Bohemian
3746:Salviati
3557:Preciosa
3522:Orrefors
3417:Hadeland
3312:Baccarat
3148:Slumping
2960:Pressing
2841:Pre-preg
2645:Achromat
2388:Bioglass
2383:AgInSbTe
2235:(1971).
2151:, 1983,
2088:29 March
1804:25582341
1597:42476594
1361:See also
882:bathtubs
751:bibelots
680:Calcutta
619:cloisons
613:cloisons
578:repoussé
498:, using
454:Chinese
433:inkwells
274:Caucasus
75:ceramics
54:vitreous
50:vitreous
4988:Pottery
4942:Fashion
4916:Finding
4764:Abalone
4673:Peridot
4638:Larimar
4623:Kyanite
4608:Howlite
4593:Emerald
4583:Diamond
4456:Tumbaga
4434:Shakudō
4390:Rhodium
4341:Mandrel
4280:Plating
4233:Casting
4228:Carving
4137:Tie pin
4112:Pendant
4087:Genital
4077:Earring
3959:Zerodur
3934:Vitrite
3929:Visions
3924:Tiffany
3894:Opaline
3874:Gorilla
3859:Favrile
3834:Corelle
3824:Burmese
3651:Defunct
3642:Zwiesel
3602:Steuben
3472:Luoyang
3467:Iittala
3377:Fanavid
3372:Duralex
3352:Corning
3342:Borosil
3278:Current
3219:Related
3068:Etching
3023:Blowing
2985:Rolling
2965:Casting
2772:Diverse
2704:Surface
2561:Zerodur
1767:16 July
1680:16 July
1654:16 July
1205:Gallery
1185:Durable
869:walls,
707:Isfahan
703:Safavid
671:mīnākār
591:moriage
501:moriage
402:Limoges
236:Ancient
220:History
199:smaltum
180:smelzan
166:terms.
149:signage
101:Chinese
59:vitreus
4906:(mass)
4842:Bezoar
4748:Zircon
4708:Spinel
4683:Quartz
4618:Jasper
4603:Garnet
4499:Pewter
4484:Copper
4479:Bronze
4406:alloys
4395:Silver
4346:Pliers
4336:Hammer
4248:vacuum
4175:People
4168:Making
4152:pocket
4052:Brooch
4017:Anklet
3954:Wood's
3899:Peking
3889:Murano
3869:Forest
3592:Schott
3587:Seguso
3562:Riedel
3482:Mannok
3457:Libbey
3123:Mirror
3093:Fusing
2774:topics
2637:Optics
2443:GeSbTe
2350:Basics
2249:
2212:
2194:
2180:
2163:
2128:
1850:
1827:, 2017
1802:
1794:
1713:
1703:
1647:
1595:
1585:
1553:
1509:
1501:
1378:Rostov
1220:chasse
1170:nickel
997:livery
923:cobalt
726:Modern
720:kundan
715:Copper
711:Silver
644:. The
601:shosen
582:relief
524:shippo
518:Taishō
254:Cyprus
193:esmail
171:enamel
143:, and
42:fusing
27:châsse
24:Gothic
4910:Carat
4904:Carat
4892:Terms
4867:Shell
4821:Pearl
4811:Nacre
4801:Ivory
4789:Black
4784:Coral
4779:Copal
4769:Amber
4728:Topaz
4687:smoky
4558:Beryl
4538:Agate
4474:Brass
4319:Tools
4157:strap
4147:Watch
4122:Tiara
4067:Crown
4037:Bindi
4009:Forms
3944:Vycor
3904:Pyrex
3879:Macor
3809:Activ
3527:Osram
3517:Ohara
3402:Glava
3397:Fuyao
3332:Bodum
3302:Asahi
2556:Macor
2523:ZBLAN
2357:Glass
2342:Glass
1800:JSTOR
1385:Notes
1262:with
1246:, nyc
933:, or
819:agate
780:. In
607:musen
514:Meiji
482:Japan
446:China
286:coral
270:Koban
185:smelt
177:word
71:glass
67:metal
46:glass
4862:Hair
4693:Ruby
4668:Opal
4663:Onyx
4613:Jade
4375:Gold
4331:File
4117:Ring
3909:Rona
3567:Rona
3437:Hoya
3367:Daum
2247:ISBN
2210:ISBN
2192:ISBN
2178:ISBN
2161:ISBN
2155:for
2153:HMSO
2126:ISBN
2090:2013
1848:ISBN
1792:ISSN
1769:2020
1711:OCLC
1701:ISBN
1682:2020
1656:2020
1645:ISSN
1593:OCLC
1583:ISBN
1551:ISBN
1507:ISBN
1499:ISBN
1326:1989
1302:St.
1258:The
995:, a
991:The
931:iron
916:frit
903:and
886:farm
867:oven
794:frit
776:and
691:Iran
516:and
420:and
396:.
183:(to
119:and
4806:Jet
4562:red
817:An
4979::
2239:.
2172:,
2159:,
2076:.
2056:^
1920:^
1888:.
1870:.
1832:^
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