1039:, although from 1910 onward all Florida state prisoners labored in turpentine and lumber camps. The convict labor system in Florida was described as being "severe" in comparison to that in other states. Florida was one of the last states to end convict leasing. The state convict leasing program was ended by Chapter 7833 of the Legislature effective December 31, 1919. County convicts continued to be leased to private interests until 1923. Following the abolition of convict leasing in 1919, the number and proportion of white males sentenced to state prison increased quickly; many prisoners labored in public road construction while others were sent to
226:
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907:, black people could be imprisoned, and they also received sentences for a variety of petty offenses. States began to lease convict labor to the plantations and other facilities seeking labor, as the freed men were trying to withdraw and work for themselves. This provided the states with a new source of revenue during years when their finances were largely depleted, and lessees profited by the use of forced labor at less than market rates.
43:
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942:(1976), wrote that the sole purpose of convict leasing "was financial profit to the lessees who exploited the labor of the prisoners to the fullest, and to the government which sold the convicts to the lessees". The practice became widespread and was used to supply labor to farming, railroad, mining and logging operations throughout the South.
973:" of 1891, an armed labor action lasting more than a year. At the time, both free and convict labor were used in mines, although the two types of workers were kept separated. Free coal miners attacked and burned prison stockades, and freed hundreds of black convicts; the related publicity and outrage turned Governor
880:
in that for most men, and the relatively few women drawn in, this slavery did not last a lifetime and did not automatically extend from one generation to the next. But it was nonetheless slavery – a system in which armies of free men, guilty of no crimes and entitled by law to freedom, were compelled
1051:
Although opposition to the system increased during the beginning of the 20th century, state politicians resisted its elimination. In states where the convict lease system was used, revenues from the program generated income nearly four times the cost (372%) of prison administration. The practice was
1055:
While some believe the demise of the system can be attributed to exposure of the inhumane treatment suffered by the convicts, others indicate causes ranging from comprehensive legislative reforms to political retribution. Though the convict lease system, as such, disappeared, other types of convict
1031:
Prison populations also increased overall in the South. In
Georgia, prison populations increased tenfold during the four-decade period (1868–1908) when it used convict leasing; in North Carolina, the prison population increased from 121 in 1870 to 1,302 in 1890; in Florida, the population increased
864:
sometimes contracted for prison labor, the historian Alex
Lichtenstein notes that "only in the South did the state entirely give up its control to the contractor; and only in the South did the physical "penitentiary" become virtually synonymous with the various private enterprises in which convicts
1019:
This lucrative practice created incentives for states and counties to convict
African Americans, and helped increase the prison population in the South to become predominantly African American after the Civil War. In Tennessee, African Americans represented 33 percent of the population at the main
1011:
Alabama began convict leasing in 1846 and outlawed it in 1928. It was the last state to formally outlaw it. The revenues derived from convict leasing were substantial, accounting for about 10% of total state revenues during 1883, surging to nearly 73% by 1898. Political campaigning against convict
856:
The system was highly lucrative for both the lessees and state governments. For example, in 1898, 73% of
Alabama's annual state revenue came from convict leasing. Corruption, lack of accountability, and violence resulted in "one of the harshest and most exploitative labor systems known in American
1421:
The
Georgia and Alabama Railroad formed in 1850 by Georgia state charter to organize rail service between Rome and the Alabama state line. Never financially healthy, the company managed to operate until after the Civil War; it was unrelated to later rail companies of the same name. See Fairfax
958:. The contract specified "one hundred able bodied and healthy Negro convicts" in return for a fee to the state of $ 2,500. In May, the state entered into a second agreement with Fort and his business partner Joseph Printup for another 100 convicts, this time for $ 1,000, to work on the
1129:
North
Carolina, while without a system comparable to the other states, did not prohibit the practice until 1933. Alabama was the last to end the practice of official convict leasing in 1928 by the State, but many counties in the South continued the practice for years.
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for being on a train without a ticket, Tabert was convicted and fined $ 25. Although his parents sent $ 25 for the fine, plus $ 25 for Tabert to return home to North Dakota, the money disappeared while Tabert was held in the
1052:
extremely profitable for the governments, as well as for those business owners who used convict labor. However, other problems accompanied convict leasing, and employers became gradually more aware of the disadvantages.
1020:
prison in
Nashville as of October 1, 1865, but, by November 29, 1867, their percentage had increased to 58.3. By 1869, it had increased to 64 percent, and it reached an all-time high of 67 percent between 1877 and 1879.
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926:
The criminal justice system allegedly colluded with private planters and other business owners to entrap, convict and lease black people as prison laborers. The constitutional basis for convict leasing is that the 1865
2017:
902:
to restrict free movement of black people and force them into employment. For instance, several states made it illegal for a black man to change jobs without the approval of his employer. If convicted of
857:
history". African
Americans, mostly adult males, due to "vigorous and selective enforcement of laws and discriminatory sentencing", comprised the vast majority—though not all—of the convicts leased.
984:, with the help of geologists. The prison built a working coal mine on the site, dependent on labor done by prisoners, and operated it at significant profit. These prison mines were closed in 1966.
1016:, who became Alabama's governor in 1927, had promised during his election campaign to abolish convict leasing as soon as he was inaugurated, and this was finally achieved by the end of June 1928.
1063:
The convict lease system was gradually phased out during the early 20th century due to negative publicity and other factors. A notable case of negative publicity for the system was the case of
987:
Texas began convict leasing by 1883 and abolished it officially in 1910. A cemetery containing what are believed to be the remains of 95 "slave convicts" has recently (2018) been discovered in
2010:
898:, and Union generals acted as military governors. Farmers and businessmen needed to find replacements for the labor force once their slaves had been freed. Some Southern legislatures passed
1401:
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from 125 in 1881 to 1,071 in 1904; in
Mississippi, the population quadrupled between 1871 and 1879; in Alabama, it increased from 374 in 1869 to 1,878 in 1903 and then to 2,453 in 1919.
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are twin infamies which flourish hand in hand in many of the United States. They are the two great outgrowths and results of the class legislation under which our people suffer to-day.
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to labor without compensation, were repeatedly bought and sold, and were forced to do the bidding of white masters through the regular application of extraordinary physical coercion.
2003:
837:
The state of
Louisiana leased out convicts as early as 1844. The system expanded throughout most of the South with the emancipation of enslaved people at the end of the
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in 1865. The practice peaked about 1880, was formally outlawed by the last state (Alabama) in 1928, and persisted in various forms until it was abolished by President
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men; it was ended during the 20th century. It provided prisoner labor to private parties, such as plantation owners and corporations (e.g.
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894:(1865–1877) after the end of the Civil War, when many Southern legislatures were ruled by majority coalitions of African Americans and
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If the information is appropriate for the lead of the article, this information should also be included in the body of the article.
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Moulder, Rebecca, H. "Convicts as Capital: Thomas O'Conner and the Leases of the Tennessee Penitentiary System, 1871–1883",
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In Florida, convicts, most of whom were African American males, were sent to work in phosphate mines, turpentine camps, and
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1112:. There, he was flogged to death by the whipping boss, Thomas Walter Higginbotham. Coverage of Tabert's killing by the
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1251:""The Spawn of Slavery"? Race, State Capacity, and the Development of Carceral Institutions in the Postbellum South"
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The end of convict leasing did not mean the end of convict labor, however. The state sited its new penitentiary,
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1803:. New York: Africana Studies Research Center, Brooklyn College, City University of New York. pp. 192–193.
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969:
In Tennessee, the convict leasing system was ended on January 1, 1894 because of the attention brought by the "
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labor continued (and still exist presently). These other systems include plantations, industrial prisons and
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In Georgia convict leasing began in April 1868, when Union General and newly appointed provisional governor
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1658:"The Making of Florida's 'Criminal Class': Race, Modernity and the Convict Leasing Program, 1877-1919"
931:, while abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude generally, permits it as a punishment for crime.
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664:
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491:
436:
386:
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1829:
Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II
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Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II
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1929:
A New South Rebellion: The Battle Against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1871-1896
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in 1911. When Mississippi ended convict leasing in 1906, all prisoners were sent to Parchman.
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599:
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ended convict leasing in 1923, due in part to the Tabert case and the resulting publicity.
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1962:(1891), memoir of 14 years in a Florida convict camp; full text online at Google Books
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1902:
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1861:
1844:
Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South
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1804:
1746:
1424:
A History of the Legal Development of the Railroad System of Southern Railway Company
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1367:
Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South
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1272:
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324:
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1988:
1966:
Waters, Robert. "Convict Leasing in Florida, or A Postcard from a Southern Siberia"
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1975:
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Mancini, M. (1978). "Race, Economics, and the Abandonment of Convict Leasing",
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The Reason Why the Coloured American Is Not in the World's Colombian Exposition
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1101:
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1505:"The Black Commentator - Slavery in the Third Millennium, Part II - Issue 142"
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Convict leasing in the United States was widespread in the South during the
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African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
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Doing Time in the Depression: Everyday Life in Texas and California Prison
1801:
Slavery Revisited: Blacks and the Southern Convict Lease System, 1865-1933
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1906:
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One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866-1928
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954:
issued a convict lease for prisoners to William Fort for work on the
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264:
1914:
Worse Than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice
1696:"Forced Labor in the 19th Century South: The Story of Parchman Farm"
1469:
1236:
Punishment in America: A Reference Handbook, by Cyndi Banks, page 58
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1877:
Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana History Association
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904:
143:
contains information that is not included elsewhere in the article
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2078:
876:
It was a form of bondage distinctly different from that of the
1884:
The Fox in the Henhouse: How Privatization Threatens Democracy
1685:(4), 339–340. Retrieved October 1, 2006, from JSTOR database.
1584:"Century-Old Burials of 95 Convict Slaves Uncovered in Texas"
1100:
Jail. Tabert was then leased to the Putnam Lumber Company in
727:
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approximately 60 miles (97 km) south of Tallahassee in
2100:
2090:
1875:'Less Than Mayhem': Louisiana's Convict Lease, 1865-1901".
1080:
1434:
1432:
1984:"Locked Up: The Prison Labor That Built Business Empires"
1831:. New York: Anchor Books, Random House Publishing, 2008.
1346:
Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow
2026:
Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States
1429:
1402:"South Carolina's Forgotten Black Political Revolution"
1440:"Interactive Timeline | Slavery by Another Name | PBS"
199:
Convicts leased to harvest timber c. 1915, in Florida
1937:"A Fate Worse Than Slavery, Unearthed in Sugar Land"
1137:
1886:, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2005.
1760:. Florida Department of Corrections. Archived from
1677:
1675:
2056:Plantation complexes in the Southern United States
966:. Georgia ended the convict lease system in 1908.
2292:
2152:Slave health on plantations in the United States
1672:
1547:W. Calvin Dickinson, "Brushy Mountain Prison"],
1295:Texas Tough: The Rise of America's Prison Empire
1292:
27:Penal labor system in the Southern United States
2336:Imprisonment and detention in the United States
1821:
1288:
1286:
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2157:Treatment of the enslaved in the United States
1899:East Tennessee Historical Society Publications
1792:
1610:
1324:. Univ of South Carolina Press. pp. 1–2.
2011:
1860:. New York: New York University Press, 2012.
792:
1785:, Associated Press, Jul 17, 1925, quoted in
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1191:History of unfree labor in the United States
2306:1941 disestablishments in the United States
1931:(University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
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71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2018:
2004:
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30:For the system in colonial Australia, see
1426:, 1901/reprint 2012 General Books, p. 790
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1266:
1255:Studies in American Political Development
771:Mass racial violence in the United States
181:Learn how and when to remove this message
163:Learn how and when to remove this message
2326:History of African-American civil rights
1968:, June 2007, guest post at Laura James'
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1208:Slavery in the 21st century#Prison labor
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2316:Agricultural labor in the United States
1934:
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1646:
1317:
1297:. Henry Holt and Company. p. 105.
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1027:Orphaned and "Criminal" Children. 1903.
818:that was practiced historically in the
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2321:Anti-black racism in the United States
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640:1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County
2361:Race legislation in the United States
2331:History of the Southern United States
1999:
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2376:White supremacy in the United States
1244:
1242:
1046:
124:
106:move details into the article's body
77:
36:
1935:Staples, Brent (October 27, 2018).
1603:, "The Convict Lease System", from
1470:"Convicts Leased to Harvest Timber"
1457:
24:
2371:Repealed United States legislation
2351:Legal history of the United States
2346:Labor history of the United States
1916:. New York: The Free Press, 1996.
1850:
1012:leasing in Alabama began in 1915.
982:Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary
25:
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1950:
1882:Kahn, Si, and Elizabeth Minnich.
1708:from the original on May 12, 2008
1239:
1186:Field slaves in the United States
1120:Pulitzer Prize for Public Service
766:Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
761:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
392:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer
52:This article has multiple issues.
2356:Penal labor in the United States
2301:1844 establishments in Louisiana
1726:
1400:Foner, Eric (January 31, 2018).
1196:Penal labor in the United States
1154:
1140:
1118:newspaper in 1924 earned it the
1043:, then known as Raiford Prison.
452:Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker
224:
129:
82:
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1582:Gannon, Megan (July 20, 2018).
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960:Selma, Rome and Dalton Railroad
828:Tennessee Coal and Iron Company
605:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
595:Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895
315:Expulsions of African Americans
60:or discuss these issues on the
1636:"Alabama Ends Convict Leasing"
1393:
1372:
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1338:
1311:
1230:
1041:Union Correctional Institution
916:Mississippi State Penitentiary
13:
1:
1972:, a literary blog about crime
1218:
995:The Convict Lease System and
630:Springfield race riot of 1908
2127:Slavery in the United States
1822:General and cited references
1783:"Whipping Boss will Go Free"
1683:Journal of Negro History, 63
1662:Florida Historical Quarterly
1536:Twice the Work of Free Labor
1523:Twice the Work of Free Labor
1318:Mancini, Matthew J. (1996).
1223:
956:Georgia and Alabama Railroad
946:The system in various states
940:Slavery and the Penal System
822:, the laborers being mainly
670:Washington race riot of 1919
7:
1133:
991:, now a suburb of Houston.
832:Chattahoochee Brick Company
557:James Harvey and Joe Jordan
10:
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2132:Children of the plantation
1562:"Handbook of Texas Online"
885:
232:1906 Atlanta race massacre
29:
2218:
2197:
2119:
2071:
2031:
1369:, Verso Press, 1996, p. 3
1293:Robert Perkinson (2010).
1268:10.1017/S0898588X22000281
1249:Schwarz, Susanne (2023).
1176:Federal Prison Industries
914:Laboring convicts at the
665:Chicago race riot of 1919
1901:, no. 48 (1976): 58–59.
1799:Fierce, Milfred (1994).
1733:New Georgia Encyclopedia
1656:Donegan, Connor (2019).
853:" of December 12, 1941.
625:Atlanta Massacre of 1906
1977:Slavery by Another Name
1444:Slavery By Another Name
814:was a system of forced
738:Back to Africa movement
285:Anti-miscegenation laws
1789:, from news.google.com
1729:"Convict Lease System"
1727:Todd, William Andrew.
1028:
1009:
923:
883:
872:described the system:
862:Northern United States
820:Southern United States
708:Anti-lynching movement
645:1917 Chester race riot
635:Johnson–Jeffries riots
502:Laura and L. D. Nelson
200:
1879:(Fall 2017): 416-439.
1827:Blackmon, Douglas A.
1622:digitalhistory.uh.edu
1534:Lichtenstein (1996),
1521:Lichtenstein (1996),
1475:World Digital Library
1378:Blackmon, Douglas A.
1026:
993:
913:
892:Reconstruction Period
874:
843:Franklin D. Roosevelt
600:Phoenix election riot
585:Rock Springs massacre
242:Historical background
198:
2220:Lists of plantations
2189:Underground Railroad
1959:The American Siberia
1842:Lichtenstein, Alex.
1509:blackcommentator.com
1148:United States portal
929:Thirteenth Amendment
860:While states of the
650:East St. Louis riots
620:Evansville race riot
615:Robert Charles riots
2184:Fugitive slave laws
1992:(November 25, 2023)
1912:Oshinsky, David M.
1365:Alex Lichtenstein,
1079:. Arrested in late
896:Radical Republicans
870:Douglas A. Blackmon
713:Exodusters movement
680:Tulsa race massacre
574:Massacres and riots
2366:Reconstruction Era
2051:Plantation economy
1942:The New York Times
1640:The New York Times
1170:Convict assignment
1029:
934:The criminologist
924:
839:American Civil War
718:Atlanta Compromise
590:Thibodaux massacre
580:Opelousas massacre
354:Indiana White Caps
325:Lynching postcards
270:Compromise of 1877
248:Reconstruction era
201:
32:Convict assignment
2288:
2287:
1866:978-0-8147-0940-5
1618:"Digital History"
1388:978-0-385-50625-0
1344:Litwack, Leon F.
1331:978-1-57003-083-3
1304:978-1-429-95277-4
1106:Florida Panhandle
1047:End of the system
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808:
690:Rosewood massacre
253:Voter suppression
216:Nadir of American
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102:length guidelines
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16:(Redirected from
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2061:Plantation house
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1927:Shapiro, Karen.
1874:
1871:Cardon, Nathan.
1815:
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1764:on March 4, 2016
1758:"Timeline: 1921"
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1104:, a town in the
1007:
975:John P. Buchanan
878:antebellum South
824:African-American
801:
794:
787:
723:Niagara Movement
527:Anthony Crawford
517:Jesse Washington
457:John Henry James
447:Stephen Williams
432:Ephraim Grizzard
427:People's Grocery
343:Vigilante groups
258:Disfranchisement
230:Violence in the
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100:Please read the
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1851:Further reading
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18:Convict lease
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2163:Slave trade
2137:Field slaves
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1928:
1913:
1898:
1883:
1876:
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1778:
1766:. Retrieved
1762:the original
1736:. Retrieved
1732:
1722:
1710:. Retrieved
1690:
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1639:
1630:
1621:
1612:
1604:
1601:Ida B. Wells
1596:
1588:Live Science
1577:
1565:. Retrieved
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1508:
1480:. Retrieved
1473:
1447:. Retrieved
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1128:
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1110:Dixie County
1077:North Dakota
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1037:lumber camps
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1005:Ida B. Wells
994:
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522:Newberry Six
507:King Johnson
482:Watkinsville
359:Ku Klux Klan
349:Black Legion
337:Whitecapping
332:Sundown town
291:
192:
177:
159:
153:January 2022
150:
141:lead section
139:
114:January 2022
111:
94:lead section
92:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
2260:Mississippi
2198:Other labor
2142:House negro
2084:King Cotton
1939:. Opinion.
1768:October 22,
1738:February 3,
1712:December 8,
1567:December 8,
1525:, pp. 41-42
1449:February 3,
1422:Harrison's
1172:(Australia)
1122:. Governor
1098:Leon County
1085:Tallahassee
1058:chain gangs
1014:Bibb Graves
900:Black Codes
868:The writer
816:penal labor
552:1920 Duluth
532:Ell Persons
472:David Wyatt
467:George Ward
402:Amos Miller
397:Eliza Woods
280:Segregation
2295:Categories
2072:Cash crops
1787:Miami News
1219:References
1162:Law portal
1067:, a young
989:Sugar Land
962:, also in
865:labored".
660:Red Summer
562:Joe Pullen
512:John Evans
487:Ed Johnson
417:Jim Taylor
364:Red Shirts
57:improve it
2255:Louisiana
2106:Sugarcane
1382:, (2008)
1348:, (1998)
1277:0898-588X
1224:Citations
1069:white man
997:Lynch Law
702:Reactions
610:Pana riot
376:Lynchings
320:Lynchings
304:Practices
265:Redeemers
104:and help
63:talk page
2341:Jim Crow
2275:Virginia
2250:Kentucky
2172:Internal
2167:Atlantic
1907:54953280
1703:Archived
1482:July 28,
1356:, p. 271
1134:See also
1093:vagrancy
1002:—
920:Parchman
905:vagrancy
462:Sam Hose
208:a series
206:Part of
2245:Georgia
2233:Florida
2228:Alabama
2120:Slavery
2111:Tobacco
1538:, p. 42
1089:Florida
886:Origins
422:Joe Coe
2096:Indigo
2079:Cotton
1989:Reveal
1980:(2012)
1920:
1905:
1890:
1864:
1835:
1807:
1607:(1893)
1478:. 1915
1390:, p. 4
1386:
1352:
1328:
1301:
1275:
1073:Munich
210:on the
1970:CLEWS
1706:(PDF)
1699:(PDF)
1102:Clara
1071:from
728:NAACP
2238:Leon
2101:Rice
2091:Hemp
1918:ISBN
1903:OCLC
1888:ISBN
1862:ISBN
1833:ISBN
1805:ISBN
1770:2013
1740:2024
1714:2007
1668:(4).
1569:2007
1484:2013
1451:2024
1384:ISBN
1350:ISBN
1326:ISBN
1299:ISBN
1273:ISSN
1081:1921
849:'s "
845:via
834:).
830:and
1263:doi
1083:in
918:at
2297::
1986:,
1748:^
1731:.
1701:.
1674:^
1666:97
1664:.
1660:.
1648:^
1638:.
1620:.
1586:.
1507:.
1492:^
1472:.
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1442:.
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1414:^
1404:.
1285:^
1271:.
1259:37
1257:.
1253:.
1241:^
1087:,
1075:,
1060:.
66:.
2019:e
2012:t
2005:v
1945:.
1924:.
1909:.
1894:.
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1868:.
1839:.
1813:.
1772:.
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1716:.
1624:.
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1571:.
1511:.
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1307:.
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1265::
800:e
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184:)
178:(
166:)
160:(
155:)
151:(
145:.
116:)
112:(
108:.
98:.
73:)
69:(
34:.
20:)
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