Fall of Constantinople

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many able-bodied men were in the city and whatever weapons each possessed for defense. George Sphrantzes, the faithful chancellor of the last emperor, recorded that "in spite of the great size of our city, our defenders amounted to 4,773 Greeks, as well as just 200 foreigners". In addition there were volunteers from outside, the "Genoese, Venetians and those who came secretly from Galata to help the defense", who numbered "hardly as many as three thousand", amounting to something under 8,000 men in total to defend a perimeter wall of twelve miles. At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area. Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople working for the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally

2970: 59: 2463:, pressed forward. Many Greek soldiers ran back home to protect their families, the Venetians retreated to their ships and a few of the Genoese escaped to Galata. The rest surrendered or committed suicide by jumping off the city walls. The Greek houses nearest to the walls were the first to suffer from the Ottomans. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple imperial regalia, led the final charge against the incoming Ottomans, perishing in the ensuing battle in the streets alongside his soldiers. The Venetian Nicolò Barbaro claimed in his diary that Constantine hanged himself at the moment when the Turks broke in at the San Romano gate. Ultimately, his fate remains unknown. 758: 2481:, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring in the slave markets. Ottoman casualties are unknown but they are believed by most historians to be severe due to several unsuccessful Ottoman attacks made during the siege and final assault. The Venetian Barbaro observed that blood flowed in the city "like rainwater in the gutters after a sudden storm" and that bodies of Turks and Christians floated in the sea "like melons along a canal". 9869: 1263: 683: 560: 271: 771: 711: 653: 471: 453: 437: 417: 236: 722: 522: 505: 487: 259: 220: 2890: 1905: 2046: 664: 578: 401: 391: 381: 364: 354: 338: 326: 305: 209: 673: 540: 283: 991: 2624:, was cut into four pieces and destroyed. The most monstrous events took place in the Church of Hagia Sophia. There, the morning service was already underway when the parishioners heard the maddened conquerors approaching. The huge bronze doors immediately slammed shut, but soon the Turks smashed them and entered the temple. The poorer and less attractive looking parishioners were killed on the spot, the rest were taken to a Turkish camp, where they remained to await the decision of their fate. Soldiers fought over the possession of some of the 2584:"Everywhere there was misfortune, everyone was touched by pain" when Mehmed entered the city. "There were lamentations and weeping in every house, screaming in the crossroads, and sorrow in all churches; the groaning of grown men and the shrieking of women accompanied looting, enslavement, separation, and rape." Mehmed entered the Hagia Sophia, "marveling at the sight" of the grand basilica. Witnessing a Ghazi wildly hammering at the marble floor, he asked what he was doing. "It is for the Faith!" the Ghazi said. Mehmed cut him down with his 1958: 6024:

Cordoban caliph 'Abdu'r-Rahman III when he refused the caliph's sexual advances." It is easy to see how it could have seemed meaningful and hopeful to a Greek mourning lost Byzantium to reference the cult of Saint Pelagius, which for centuries provided spiritual energy to the Spanish Reconquista. Thus, although it is likely that Doukas's tale owes more to Saint Pelagius and a long history of attempts to portray Muslims as morally inferior than to anything that actually happened during the conquest of Constantinople/Istanbul...

2338: 2499:"permitted an initial period of looting that saw the destruction of many Orthodox churches", but tried to prevent a complete sack of the city. The looting was extremely thorough in certain parts of the city. On 2 June, the Sultan found the city largely deserted and half in ruins; churches had been desecrated and stripped, houses were no longer habitable, and stores and shops were emptied. He is famously reported to have been moved to tears by this, saying, "What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction." 746: 692: 294: 2686: 1825: 2115: 587: 480: 446: 347: 2474:

raiding the city's houses, so they decided to attack the city instead. The Venetian captain ordered his men to break open the gate of the Golden Horn. Having done so, the Venetians left in ships filled with soldiers and refugees. Shortly after the Venetians left, a few Genoese ships and even the Emperor's ships followed them out of the Golden Horn. This fleet narrowly escaped prior to the Ottoman navy assuming control over the Golden Horn, which was accomplished by midday.

1817: 2404: 11813: 1883: 3046: 11803: 9818: 734: 2470:, which Mehmed II wanted to provide as a seat for his newly appointed patriarch to better control his Christian subjects. Mehmed II had sent an advance guard to protect these key buildings. The Catalans that maintained their position on the section of the wall that the emperor had assigned them, had the honor of being the last troops to fall. The sultan had Pere Julià, his sons and the consul Joan de la Via, amongst others, beheaded. 1633:

oldest of you were sharers in many of the exploits carried through by them—those at least of you who are of maturer years—and the younger of you have heard of these deeds from your fathers. They are not such very ancient events nor of such a sort as to be forgotten through the lapse of time. Still, the eyewitness of those who have seen testifies better than does the hearing of deeds that happened but yesterday or the day before.

247: 2272: 11823: 7848: 2034:. However, this was the only cannon that Orban built for the Ottoman forces at Constantinople, and it had several drawbacks: it took three hours to reload; cannonballs were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks. The account of the cannon's collapse is disputed, given that it was only reported in the letter of Archbishop 2604:

for us, died and arose"' and urged his horrified sons to reject the advances of Mehmed and not fear the outcome. Their father's words encouraged them, and they also "were ready to die". They are also said to have been executed. However, American researcher and professor Walter G. Andrew doubts the authenticity of this story, citing the similarities with the earlier story of Saint

2764:. Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461, the independent Byzantine state in 1388:, especially the Theodosian Walls, were some of the most advanced defensive systems in the world at the time. For 800 years, the Theodosian Walls, regarded by historians as the strongest and most fortified walls in the ancient and medieval era, protected Constantinople from attack. However, these fortifications were overcome with the use of 1984:) to besiege the city from the sea. Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span from 110 ships to 430 (Tedaldi: 110; Barbaro: 145; Ubertino Pusculo: 160, Isidore of Kiev and Leonardo di Chio: 200–250; (Sphrantzes): 430). A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 110 ships comprising 70 large 1536:. In fact, Europe celebrated Mehmed coming to the throne and hoped his inexperience would lead the Ottomans astray. This calculation was boosted by Mehmed's friendly overtures to the European envoys at his new court. But Mehmed's mild words were not matched by his actions. By early 1452, work began on the construction of a second 3138:. These émigrés were grammarians, humanists, poets, writers, printers, lecturers, musicians, astronomers, architects, academics, artists, scribes, philosophers, scientists, politicians and theologians. They brought to Western Europe the far greater preserved and accumulated knowledge of Byzantine civilization. According to the 2333:

crossbows, aiming at the Turk who was carrying away his dead countryman, and both of them would fall to the ground dead, and then there came other Turks and took them away, none fearing death, but being willing to let ten of themselves be killed rather than suffer the shame of leaving a single Turkish corpse by the walls.

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get in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan. Baltoghlu was most likely injured in the eye during the skirmish. Mehmed stripped Baltoghlu of his wealth and property and gave it to the janissaries and ordered him to be whipped 100 times.

1917:. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery pieces, which in the end proved ineffective. The rest of the citizens repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers. 2377:

safety of the population that might choose to remain in the city. Constantine XI only agreed to pay higher tributes to the sultan and recognized the status of all the conquered castles and lands in the hands of the Turks as Ottoman possessions. The Emperor was not willing to leave the city without a fight:

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Sources hostile towards the Genoese (such as the Venetian Nicolò Barbaro), however, report that Longo was only lightly wounded or not wounded at all, but, overwhelmed by fear, simulated the wound to abandon the battlefield, determining the fall of the city. These charges of cowardice and treason were

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Fellow soldiers, this one thing was lacking to make the glory of such a victory complete. Now, at this happy and joyful moment of time, we have the riches of the Greeks, we have won their empire, and their religion is completely extinguished. Our ancestors eagerly desired to achieve this; rejoice now

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With Giustiniani's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbour, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, continued to hold their ground against the Janissaries. Constantine's men eventually could not prevent the Ottomans from entering the city and the defenders were

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on stakes, in sight of the city's defenders on the sea walls across the Golden Horn. In retaliation, the defenders brought their Ottoman prisoners, 260 in all, to the walls, where they were executed, one by one, before the eyes of the Ottomans. With the failure of their attack on the Ottoman vessels,

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Despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the chain across the entrance. Although one of the fleet's main tasks was to prevent any foreign ships from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April, a small flotilla of four Christian ships managed to

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is a term used by modern historians to refer to the later Roman Empire. In its own time, the Empire ruled from Constantinople (or "New Rome" as some people call it, although this was a laudatory expression that was never an official title) and was simply considered as "the Roman Empire." The fall of

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had died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed Murad, became a personal favourite of Mehmed

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On the third day after the fall of our city, the Sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were to remain

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granted his soldiers three days to plunder the city, as he had promised them and in accordance with the custom of the time. By noon, the city streets were filled with blood. The Turks looted houses, raped and impaled women and children, destroyed churches, tore icons from their frames and books from

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Preparations for the final assault began in the evening of 26 May and continued to the next day. For 36 hours after the war council decided to attack, the Ottomans extensively mobilized their manpower for the general offensive. Prayer and resting was then granted to the soldiers on 28 May before the

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They found the Turks coming right up under the walls and seeking battle, particularly the Janissaries ... and when one or two of them were killed, at once more Turks came and took away the dead ones ... without caring how near they came to the city walls. Our men shot at them with guns and

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Edirne, in addition to the bombards cast on the spot. This train included Orban's enormous cannon, which was said to have been dragged from Edirne by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men. There was another large bombard, independently built by Turkish engineer Saruca, that was also used in the battle.

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The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totalling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners. The population decline also had a huge impact upon the Constantinople's defense capabilities. At the end of March 1453, emperor Constantine XI ordered a census of districts to record how

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did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western kings and princes, some of whom were wary of increasing papal control. Furthermore, these Western rulers did not have the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of the weakened state of France and England

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In the past we received our wounds in Asia and in Africa—in foreign countries. This time, however, we are being attacked in Europe, in our own land, in our own house. You will protest that the Turks moved from Asia to Greece a long time ago, that the Mongols established themselves in Europe and the

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to give his youngest son to him for his pleasure. He replied that "it would be far better for me to die than hand over my own child to be despoiled by him." Mehmed was enraged after hearing this and ordered Loukas to be executed. Before his death, Notaras supposedly said that "Him who was crucified

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A few civilians managed to escape. When the Venetians retreated over to their ships, the Ottomans had already taken the walls of the Golden Horn. Luckily for the occupants of the city, the Ottomans were not interested in killing potentially valuable slaves but rather in the loot they could get from

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At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmara were taken within a few days. The

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Having previously established a large foundry about 150 miles (240 km) away, Mehmed now had to undertake the painstaking process of transporting his massive artillery pieces. In preparation for the final assault, Mehmed had an artillery train of 70 large pieces dragged from his headquarters at

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Barbaro added the description of the emperor's heroic last moments to his diary based on information he received afterward. According to some Ottoman sources Constantine was killed in an accidental encounter with Turkish marines a little further to the south, presumably while making his way to the

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The news spread rapidly across the Islamic world. In Egypt "good tidings were proclaimed, and Cairo decorated" to celebrate "this greatest of conquests." The Sharif of Mecca wrote to Mehmed, calling the Sultan "the one who has aided Islam and the Muslims, the Sultan of all kings and sultans,". The

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On 21 May, Mehmed sent an ambassador to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. He promised he would allow the Emperor and any other inhabitants to leave with their possessions. He would recognize the Emperor as governor of the Peloponnese. Lastly, he guaranteed the

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be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help. This strategy was used

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decided upon sending a fleet in February 1453, but the fleet's departure was delayed until April, when it was already too late for ships to assist in battle. Further undermining Byzantine morale, seven Italian ships with around 700 men, despite having sworn to defend Constantinople, slipped out of

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After having completely overcome the enemy, the soldiers began to plunder the city. They enslaved boys and girls and took silver and gold vessels, precious stones and all sorts of valuable goods and fabrics from the imperial palace and the houses of the rich... Every tent was filled with handsome

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with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall. The sea walls were

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was forced to supply as part of his obligation to the Ottoman sultan — just a few months before, Branković had supplied the money for the reconstruction of the walls of Constantinople. Contemporaneous Western witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, provide

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My friends and men of my empire! You all know very well that our forefathers secured this kingdom that we now hold at the cost of many struggles and very great dangers and that, having passed it along in succession from their fathers, from father to son, they handed it down to me. For some of the

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called for an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade, however no European powers wished to participate, and the Pope resorted to sending a small fleet of 10 ships to defend the city. The short lived Crusade immediately came to an end and as Western Europe entered the 16th century, the

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All the valuables and other booty were taken to their camp, and as many as sixty thousand Christians who had been captured. The crosses which had been placed on the roofs or the walls of churches were torn down and trampled. Women were raped, virgins deflowered and youths forced to take part in

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Some people who are familiar with the history of stories about sex and love will recognize close parallels to the story of Saint Pelagius, the thirteen-year- old Christian martyr of the early tenth century, said to have been a beautiful and pious youth, who was tortured and dismembered by the

2424:, in which the Emperor with representatives and nobility of both the Latin and Greek churches partook. Up until this point, the Ottomans had fired 5,000 shots from their cannons using 55,000 pounds of gunpowder. Criers roamed the camp to the sound of the blasting horns, rousing the Ghazis. 2420:, reached the Capital on 27 May and reported to the Emperor that no large Venetian relief fleet was on its way. On 28 May, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, mass religious processions were held in the city. In the evening, a solemn last ceremony of Vespers was held in the 2156:

On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As Byzantine numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be guarded. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the

2365:, a German who came with the Genoese contingent, had counter-mines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the miners. The Byzantines intercepted the first tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunnels were interrupted on 21, 23 and 25 May, and destroyed with 1770:. As a specialist in defending walled cities, Giustiniani was immediately given the overall command of the defence of the land walls by the Emperor. The Byzantines knew him by the Latin spelling of his name, "John Justinian", named after the famous 6th century Byzantine emperor 2636:

to stop and issued a proclamation that all Christians who had avoided capture or who had been ransomed could return to their homes without further molestation, although many had no homes to return to, and many more had been taken captive and not ransomed. Byzantine historian

2296:'s fleet during this phase of the siege. Mehmed's massive cannons fired on the walls for weeks but due to their imprecision and extremely slow rate of fire, the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, mitigating the effect of the Ottoman artillery. 2061:

Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West and the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on 2 April 1453, the Monday after

2263:, despite many odds, the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is incorrect and the situation was not as one-sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest. It has also been claimed that Constantinople was "the best-defended city in Europe" at that time. 2646:

free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege. If they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed.

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fact that Constantinople, which was long "known for being indomitable in the eyes of all," as the Sharif of Mecca said, had fallen and that the Prophet Muhammad's prophecy came true shocked the Islamic world and filled it with a great jubilation and rapture.

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ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers

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on the north side of the Golden Horn and dragged his ships over the hill, directly into the Golden Horn on 22 April, bypassing the chain barrier. This action seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genoese ships from the nominally neutral colony of

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of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city-states in northern Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account.

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was completed and the threat of the Ottomans had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the union, which was declared valid by a half-hearted imperial court on 12 December 1452. Although he was eager for an advantage,

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The fall of Constantinople shocked many Europeans, who viewed it as a catastrophic event for their civilization. Many feared other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. Two possible responses emerged amongst the

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As soon as the Turks were inside the City, they began to seize and enslave every person who came their way; all those who tried to offer resistance were put to the sword. In many places the ground could not be seen, as it was covered by heaps of

2026:(1.6 km). Orban initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, but they were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. Orban then left Constantinople and approached Mehmed II, claiming that his weapon could blast "the walls of 2394:

argued against Halil Pasha and insisted on an immediate attack. Believing that the Byzantine defence was already weakened sufficiently, Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force and started preparations for a final all-out offensive.

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During the festivities, "and as he had promised his viziers and his other officers," Mehmed had the "wretched citizens of Constantinople" dragged before them and "ordered many of them to be hacked to pieces, for the sake of entertainment."

2161:, the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the 6010: 2608:, he states that, "it is likely that Doukas's tale owes more to Saint Pelagius and a long history of attempts to portray Muslims as morally inferior than to anything that actually happened during the conquest of Constantinople/Istanbul." 3229:, "to the City"), and it is claimed that it had already spread among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire before the conquest. However, Istanbul only became the official name of the city in 1930 by the revised Turkish Postal Law. 3024:

over the crowd disappeared into the cathedral's walls as the first Turkish soldiers entered. According to the legend, the priests will appear again on the day that Constantinople returns to Christian hands. Another legend refers to the

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Constantinople led competing factions to lay claim to being the inheritors of the Imperial mantle. Russian claims to Byzantine heritage clashed with those of the Ottoman Empire's own claim. In Mehmed's view, he was the successor to the

1396:, heralding a change in siege warfare. The Ottoman cannons repeatedly fired massive cannonballs weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) over 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) which created gaps in the Theodosian Walls for the Ottoman siege. 4936:

Rutheniae, Isidorus (6 July 1453). "Epistola reverendissimi patris domini Isidori cardinalis Ruteni scripta ad reverendissimum dominum Bisarionem episcopum Tusculanum ac cardinalem Nicenum Bononiaeque legatum " (in Latin). Letter to

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created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to

2133:) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived. In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from 3033:), holding that an angel rescued the emperor when the Ottomans entered the city, turning him into marble and placing him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again (a variant of the 2531:

During three days of pillaging, the Ottoman invaders captured children and took them away to their tents, and became rich by plundering the imperial palace and the houses of Constantinople. The Ottoman official Tursun Beg wrote:

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departing from the city. "This evidently indicated the departure of the Divine Presence, and its leaving the City in total abandonment and desertion, for the Divinity conceals itself in cloud and appears and again disappears."

2798:, and it exposed the Christian West to a vigorous and aggressive foe in the East. The Christian reconquest of Constantinople remained a goal in Western Europe for many years after its fall to the Ottoman Empire. Rumours of 3552:

According to Sphrantzes, whom Constantine had ordered to make a census, the Emperor was appalled when the number of native men capable of bearing arms turned out to be only 4,983. Leonardo di Chio gave a number of 6,000

2562:, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes. The vast majority of the citizens of Constantinople (30,000–50,000) were forced to become slaves. 2129:: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under 3575:

These were the three Genoese ships sent by the Pope, joined by a large Imperial transport ship which had been sent on a foraging mission to Sicily previous to the siege and was on its way back to Constantinople.

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made accounts of the atrocities that followed the fall of Constantinople stated the Ottoman invaders pillaged the city, murdered or enslaved tens of thousands of people, and raped nuns, women and children:

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The bulk of the Ottoman army was encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from

6694:(Press release). Pasadena, California: Public Information Office, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA). 1993. Archived from 2105:

The Ottomans were experts in laying siege to cities. They knew that in order to prevent diseases they had to burn corpses, sanitarily dispose of excrement, and carefully scrutinize their sources of water.

3949: 2506:, the ordinary people were treated better by their Ottoman conquerors than their ancestors had been by Crusaders back in 1204, stating that only about 4,000 Greeks died in the siege, while according to a 2568:

According to Nicolas de Nicolay, slaves were displayed naked at the city's slave market, and young girls could be purchased. The elder refugees in the Hagia Sophia were slaughtered and the women raped.

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As to surrendering the city to you, it is not for me to decide or for anyone else of its citizens; for all of us have reached the mutual decision to die of our own free will, without any regard for our

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legend). However, many of the myths surrounding the disappearance of Constantine were developed later and little evidence can be found to support them even in friendly primary accounts of the siege.

2007:(also called Urban). Most of the cannons at the siege were built by Turkish engineers, including a large bombard by Saruca, while one cannon was built by Orban, who also contributed a large bombard. 3017:

which occurred around the time of the siege. The "fire" seen may have been an optical illusion due to the reflection of intensely red twilight glow by clouds of volcanic ash high in the atmosphere.

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Looting was carried out on a massive scale by sailors and marines who entered the city via other walls before they had been suppressed by regular troops, who were beyond the main gate. According to

5994: 1995:, but the range of some pieces they were able to field far surpassed the defenders' expectations. The Ottomans deployed a number of cannons, anywhere from 12 to 62 cannons. They were built at 1870:

district's wall was the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications consisted of a 60 ft (18 m) wide moat fronting inner and outer

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With the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II had acquired the future capital of his kingdom, albeit one in decline due to years of war. The loss of the city was a crippling blow to

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When Constantine sent emissaries to remind Mehmed that he was breaking his oath and to implore him to at least spare the neighboring villages, Mehmed had the ambassadors executed.

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While Mehmed II had been steadily preparing for the siege of Constantinople, he had sent the old general Turakhan and the latter's two sons, Ahmed Beg and Omar Beg, to invade the

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but the Ottomans forced the Christians to retreat with many casualties. Forty Italians escaped their sinking ships and swam to the northern shore. On orders of Mehmed, they were

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Original text: Τὸ δὲ τὴν πόλιν σοῖ δοῦναι οὔτ' ἐμὸν ἐστίν οὔτ' ἄλλου τῶν κατοικούντων ἐν ταύτῃ• κοινῇ γὰρ γνώμῃ πάντες αὐτοπροαιρέτως ἀποθανοῦμεν καὶ οὐ φεισόμεθα τῆς ζωῆς ἡμῶν.

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mercenaries managed to breach this section of walls and entered the city but they were just as quickly pushed back by the defenders. Finally, the last wave consisting of elite

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The Pitiful George Frantzes Who was Protovestiaros, Now a Monk, Wrote This for the Βetterment of Others and as Recompense for Some Deeds in His Miserable Life, This Chronicle

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Silverburg, Sanford R. (26 January 2007). "The Middle East Online: Series 1: Arab-Israeli Relations, 1917–1970. Edited by Eugene Rogan. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale".

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The Ottomans had a much larger force. Recent studies and Ottoman archival data state that there were some 50,000–80,000 Ottoman soldiers, including between 5,000 and 10,000

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the capital the moment Giustiniani arrived. At the same time, Constantine's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended with the execution of the Emperor's ambassadors.

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to Constantinople so that bridges could cope with the massive cannons. Fifty carpenters and 200 artisans also strengthened the roads where necessary. The Greek historian

3144:: "Many modern scholars also agree that the exodus of Greeks to Italy as a result of this event marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance". 1794: 544: 2427:

Shortly after midnight on Tuesday 29 May, the offensive began. The Christian troops of the Ottoman Empire attacked first, followed by successive waves of the irregular

4914:Οικτρός Γεώργιος ο Φραντζής ο και Πρωτοβεσιαρίτης Γρηγόριος τάχα μοναχός ταύτα έγραψεν υπέρ των καθ' αυτών και τινων μερικών γεγονότων εν τώ της αθλίας ζωής αυτε χρόνω 3441: 6060:История Византийской империи : От основания Константинополя до кру- КоЛибри, Азбука-Аттикус, 2023. - 688 с. ; ил. шения государства / Джон Норвич: . - М.: 1528:

succeeded his father in 1451, he was 19 years old. Many European courts assumed that the young Ottoman ruler would not seriously challenge Christian hegemony in the

4042: 6209: 3945: 5796: 3985: 2581:

most of the elderly and the infirm/wounded and sick who were refugees inside the churches were killed, and the remainder were chained up and sold into slavery.

1473:

killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople. The city was further depopulated by the general economic and territorial decline of the empire, and by

11266: 11632: 8930: 2787:, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, 1284: 3152:

Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city's name "Qosṭanṭīniyye" (القسطنطينية) or "Kostantiniyye", as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents.

6717: 4359: 820: 9865: 11768: 3473: 3457: 3406: 3329: 4189: 2312:

and it demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using

11922: 3837: 2178: 4503: 4337: 11862: 7910: 1368:, a state which began in roughly 27 BC and had lasted nearly 1500 years. For many modern historians, the fall of Constantinople marks the end of the 6782: 2729:

Arabs occupied parts of Spain, having approached through the straits of Gibraltar. We have never lost a city or a place comparable to Constantinople

6804: 3293: 1277: 3881:, p. 104: "As always casualty figures varied widely; Neskor-Iskander gave the number of Ottoman dead at 18,000; Barbaro a more realistic 200" 2656:

Mehmed himself knocked over and trampled on the altar of the Hagia Sophia. He then ordered a muezzin to ascend the pulpit and sound a prayer. The

7864: 2997:, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the 813: 6468: 2510:

report, 50 Venetian noblemen and over 500 other Venetian civilians died during the siege. Many of the riches of the city were already looted in

2255:

commanded the ships in the harbour. Although the Byzantines also had cannons, the weapons were much smaller than those of the Ottomans, and the

11882: 11281: 9857: 9806: 8160: 8061: 7852: 7123: 3461: 3361:, a Byzantine Greek historian, one of the most important sources for the last decades and eventual fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans 1189: 1093: 990: 715: 239: 9873: 9494: 8071: 8004: 3382: 2390:, who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. 1103: 1052: 7602: 2565:"They made the people of the city slaves and killed their emperor, and the gazis embraced their pretty girls", confirm Ottoman Chroniclers. 2386:

Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran

2211:

To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, who led Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the

11887: 11358: 8019: 8014: 6497: 5388: 1067: 1062: 6355: 5772:

Fisher, Alan (2010). "The Sale of Slaves in the Ottoman Empire: Markets and State Taxes on Slave Sales, Some Preliminary Considerations".

4066:Εάλω η ΠόλιςΤ•ο χρονικό της άλωσης της Κωνσταντινούπολης: Συνοπτική ιστορία των γεγονότων στην Κωνσταντινούπολη κατά την περίοδο 1440–1453 3788: 2439:

walls in the north-west part of the city. This section of the walls had been built earlier, in the 11th century, and was much weaker. The

1708:

partisans in Constantinople; the population, as well as the laity and leadership of the Byzantine Church, became bitterly divided. Latent

9095: 8081: 8056: 7284: 7112:. Atti della Società Ligure di Storia Patria (Proceedings of the Ligurian Society for Homeland History) (in Italian). Vol. X. Genoa. 5723: 5114: 5070: 4622: 4583: 2102:

were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been destroyed over the marshy head of the Horn.

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After the initial assault, the Ottoman army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums and the

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The Ottoman army had made several frontal assaults on the land wall of Constantinople, but they were costly failures. Venetian surgeon

1808:

Meanwhile, in Venice, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The

1118: 1098: 3917:

Less excusable still is the treatment accorded to the statements of Kritopoulos, that 4,500 were killed at the fall of Constantinople.

9145: 8991: 8963: 8607: 8599: 8076: 8009: 2663: 1108: 1057: 7239:

Melissenos, Makarios (1980). "The Chronicle of the Siege of Constantinople, April 2 to May 29, 1453". In Philippides, Marios (ed.).

3241:

and Walter Hanak list 15 eyewitness accounts (13 Christian and 2 Turkish) and 20 contemporary non-eyewitness accounts (13 Italian).

11897: 10775: 10765: 9341: 8702: 973: 5646: 5283: 2934:, both made similar claims, regarding themselves as legitimate heirs to the Roman Empire . Other potential claimants, such as the 10277: 9960: 9190: 4070:

The City has Fallen: Chronicle of the Fall of Constantinople: Concise History of Events in Constantinople in the Period 1440–1453

1720:

in 1204 by the Latins, played a significant role. Ultimately, the attempted union between east and west failed, greatly annoying

922: 7762:

Philippides, Marios and Walter K. Hanak, The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ashgate, Farnham and Burlington 2011.

4094: 11857: 9670: 9195: 2761: 2671: 2455:, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders. 2232:; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. Finally, the sea walls at the southern shore of the 1427:

in and around Constantinople while the remainder of the Byzantine Empire splintered into a number of successor states, notably

5694:

The vast majority of the ordinary citizens – about 30,000 – were marched off to the slave markets of Edirne, Bursa and Ankara.

11236: 10003: 9594: 8354: 8347: 7903: 7689: 7674: 7471: 7430: 7311: 7278: 7180: 7140: 7086: 7051: 7030: 6954: 6568: 6529: 6388: 6303: 6273: 6174: 6136: 6065: 6004: 5970: 5932: 5882: 5844: 5717: 5687: 5145: 5108: 5064: 4742: 4706: 4658: 4616: 4577: 4294: 4036: 3135: 1336: 1235: 937: 917: 341: 7317: 7186: 7092: 7057: 6574: 6535: 6394: 6309: 6180: 6142: 5938: 5888: 5850: 5750: 5405:

Mehmed II the Conqueror and the Fall of the Franco-Byzantine Levant to the Ottoman Turks: Some Western Views and Testimonies

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because in 1204, the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople's land defences by breaching the

11057: 11005: 9346: 9205: 8493: 6883: 3710: 2865:

was found and presented to Mehmed and nailed onto a column. While standing before the head, the sultan in his speech said:

1484:

By 1450, the empire was exhausted and had shrunk to a few square kilometers outside the city of Constantinople itself, the

108: 17: 2243:

Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city: one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the

1693: 11852: 11692: 11667: 11607: 10231: 8337: 3818:"Fall of Constantinople". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020. 3082:, the recapture of Constantinople became an ever-distant dream. Even France, once a fervent participant in the Crusades, 2620:

their bindings. All that remained of the imperial palace in Blachernae were the walls; Byzantium's most sacred icon, the

474: 58: 10510: 6203: 3250: 1782:, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March. From the 11783: 9850: 9675: 9088: 7757: 6740: 4677:

The Byzantine emperor, then Constantine XI, sent his ambassadors in an attempt to conciliate: they were executed on ...

1862:, which faces the Horn. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall ( 10704: 10636: 3977: 2527:

shameful obscenities. The nuns left behind, even those who were obviously such, were disgraced with foul debaucheries.

2416:

final assault would be launched. On the Byzantine side, a small Venetian fleet of 12 ships, after having searched the

11902: 11892: 11826: 11788: 11318: 11160: 11106: 9776: 8342: 7799: 7781: 7730: 7708: 7659: 7641: 7490: 7452: 7399: 7371: 7349: 7257: 7211: 7159: 6985: 6862: 6656: 6452: 6240: 5788: 4881:

in Venice. Barbaro's diary has been translated into English by John Melville-Jones (New York: Exposition Press, 1969)

4077: 3109: 2839: 1439:. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne. 10131: 3521:, being a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, had to send 1,500 soldiers to help Mehmed II in his siege of Constantinople. 2212: 10032: 8839: 7896: 2162: 1412: 1343: 31: 7836: 4150: 3827:

Setton, Kenneth M. (1978). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571): The Fifteenth Century. Vol. 2. DJane Publishing.

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and to remain there all winter also to prevent the despots Thomas and Demetrius from giving aid to Constantine XI.

1805:, together with 200 Neapolitan archers, who died fighting for the defense of the capital of the Byzantine Empire. 11872: 11847: 11286: 10457: 9914: 9811: 9633: 8165: 7933: 7812: 2079: 1201: 982: 887: 6898: 6721: 3013:

who had come to relieve the city. It is possible that all these phenomena were local effects of the cataclysmic

1833: 11652: 11592: 11564: 11323: 11149: 10326: 9993: 9982: 9932: 9781: 9771: 9643: 9564: 9382: 9250: 8822: 8766: 8687: 8554: 3268:, the only Greek eyewitness who wrote about it, but his laconic account is almost entirely lacking in narrative 2229: 932: 927: 907: 872: 7826: 6231:

Braude, Benjamin (1982). "Foundation Myths of the Millet System". In Braude, Benjamin; Lewis, Bernard (eds.).

4434: 3074:

to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the

1572:, which means "strait-blocker" or "throat-cutter". The wordplay emphasizes its strategic position: in Turkish 11877: 11738: 11569: 9843: 9638: 9628: 9543: 9298: 9083: 7873: 4181: 1450:. Thereafter, there was little peace for the much-weakened empire as it fended off successive attacks by the 948: 180: 8518: 7522:"One among many renegades: the Serb janissary Konstantin Mihailović and the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans" 4713:

It became obvious that Mehmed's messages of peace were false, when he had the Byzantine ambassador executed.

3845: 2345:

After these inconclusive attacks, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing tunnels to

10797: 9712: 9680: 9584: 9293: 9265: 9073: 8612: 4495: 4064:

Frantzes, Georgios; Melisseidis (Melisseides), Ioannis (Ioannes) A.; Zavolea-Melissidi, Pulcheria (2004).

1443: 3089:

Nonetheless, depictions of Christian coalitions taking the city and of the late Emperor's resurrection by

2321:

the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to defend the sea walls along the Golden Horn.

11748: 11038: 10693: 10201: 9436: 9078: 8925: 8682: 8433: 6774: 2467: 2244: 2030:

itself". Given abundant funds and materials, the Hungarian engineer built the gun within three months at

1854: 1829: 10828: 10467: 6812: 1991:

Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized

11917: 11867: 11743: 11733: 11697: 11539: 11441: 11048: 11027: 10880: 10736: 10152: 10099: 9756: 9702: 9441: 9313: 9303: 9003: 8883: 8761: 8692: 8580: 8549: 8392: 8332: 3563: 3400: 3030: 3014: 2862: 1642: 1601: 1350: 1347: 837: 490: 421: 50: 7858: 3140: 2558:

The women of Constantinople suffered from rape at the hands of Ottoman forces. According to historian

2545:, "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to 2491: 1477:, it consisted of a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled by the fifth-century 11466: 11229: 10645: 10627: 10411: 10344: 10090: 10041: 9616: 9140: 8996: 8781: 8672: 8559: 6464: 4650:

The Train that Disappeared into History: The Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway and how it Led to the Great War

2387: 1928:, and an elite infantry corps, and thousands of Christian troops, notably 1,500 Serbian cavalry that 1215: 953: 184: 404: 11717: 10985: 10912: 10839: 10756: 10746: 10549: 10447: 10335: 10250: 10080: 10022: 8915: 8667: 8154: 8033: 2958: 2049:

Modern painting of Mehmed and the Ottoman Army approaching Constantinople with a giant bombard, by

2003:

founders and technicians, most notably Saruca, in addition to at least one foreign cannon founder,

1673: 1182: 1072: 168: 10567: 10172: 10142: 10051: 5996:

The Age of Beloveds: Love and the Beloved in Early-Modern Ottoman and European Culture and Society

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two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were destroyed.

1550:, several miles north of Constantinople. The new fortress sat directly across the strait from the 11421: 11391: 10890: 10870: 10849: 10807: 10617: 10438: 10316: 10241: 10162: 9821: 9245: 8971: 8791: 8677: 3364: 3119: 3083: 2931: 2799: 2675: 1669: 1385: 1381: 1267: 1014: 7303:

The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans

6493: 5386: 3518: 1929: 11778: 11308: 10995: 10901: 10420: 10287: 10268: 10210: 10191: 9746: 9336: 9178: 8622: 8428: 8402: 8397: 8146: 8142: 8109: 6648: 6335: 6265: 3784: 3075: 3009:

For others, there was still a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of

2987: 2827: 2511: 2408: 2225: 2119: 1850: 1717: 1713: 1677: 1416: 1335:, which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old 1194: 1172: 1148: 456: 160: 7268: 5707: 5677: 5098: 5054: 4734: 4606: 4567: 3760:

La Caduta di Costantinopoli, I: Le testimonianze dei contemporanei. (Scrittori greci e latini)

3530:

Some contemporaneous Western sources gave exaggerated figures ranging from 160,000 to 300,000.

2974: 2605: 1774:. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships that happened to be present in the 1353:. After conquering the city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing 11597: 11489: 11446: 11171: 10859: 10817: 10363: 10120: 10070: 9896: 9464: 9318: 8508: 8418: 8382: 8267: 7997: 7992: 7831: 6944: 6695: 4429: 4026: 3376: 3071: 2757: 2752: 2130: 1738: 1705: 1685: 1589: 1408: 1046: 1042: 852: 10531: 6257: 3122:

and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered by many scholars key to the revival of

2682:; however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century. 1700:. The imperial efforts to impose union were met with strong resistance in Constantinople. A 11912: 11816: 11758: 11554: 11461: 11431: 11416: 11222: 11067: 10955: 10715: 10683: 10607: 10587: 10521: 10488: 10477: 10393: 10384: 9707: 9690: 9511: 9270: 9235: 9118: 9055: 9050: 8585: 8528: 3451: 3412: 3131: 3049: 2835: 2709: 2667: 2452: 1763: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1451: 1339: 912: 857: 4698: 2990:

that occurred on 22 May 1453 represented a fulfilment of a prophecy of the city's demise.

2986:

There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. It was said that

2588:: "Be satisfied with the booty and the captives; the buildings of the city belong to me." 1988:, 5 ordinary galleys, 10 smaller galleys, 25 large rowing boats, and 75 horse-transports. 8: 11702: 11682: 11662: 11627: 11559: 11471: 11338: 11016: 10558: 10429: 10374: 10297: 8617: 8533: 8523: 8387: 8150: 8138: 8025: 7647: 7359: 6292:

Hyslop, Stephen Garrison; Daniels, Patricia; Society (U.S.), National Geographic (2011).

5747:"Islam, from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople: Religion and society" 4878: 3840:[In the Conquest of Istanbul 600 Turkish Military Fought Against the Conqueror]. 3079: 2815: 2765: 2546: 2440: 2289: 2195: 2191: 2187: 1501: 1485: 1447: 1436: 1432: 1373: 1177: 1168: 882: 721: 521: 504: 486: 258: 172: 164: 3764:

The Fall of Constantinople, I: The Testimony of the Contemporary Greek and Latin Writers

3566:

claims there were ' 60,000 Turkish households, 40,000 Greek and Armenian, 10,000 Jewish.

1153: 710: 652: 470: 452: 436: 416: 235: 219: 11806: 11642: 11617: 11519: 11396: 11348: 11343: 11333: 11271: 10540: 9923: 9695: 9685: 9559: 9230: 9113: 9030: 8893: 8245: 8225: 8205: 8195: 7961: 7696: 7580: 7551: 7117: 6641: 5275: 4236: 3908: 3389: 3370: 3358: 3238: 2935: 2823: 2748: 2599:

claims that, while drunk during his victory banquet, the Sultan ordered the Grand Duke

2596: 2541:

If any citizens of Constantinople tried to resist, they were slaughtered. According to

2293: 2237: 1621: 1585: 892: 763: 726: 508: 367: 262: 10306: 7563:

Ivanović, Miloš (2019). "Militarization of the Serbian State under Ottoman Pressure".

3096:

29 May 1453, the day of the fall of Constantinople, fell on a Tuesday, and since then

2889: 2542: 2517:

Other sources claim far more brutal and successful pillaging by the Ottoman invaders.

2325: 1934: 1904: 297: 11802: 11544: 11514: 11504: 11494: 11411: 11401: 11386: 11253: 11097: 10934: 10663: 9817: 9751: 9656: 9589: 9569: 9537: 9469: 9456: 9377: 9372: 9123: 8888: 8738: 8257: 8210: 8200: 8190: 7795: 7777: 7753: 7726: 7704: 7685: 7670: 7655: 7637: 7572: 7555: 7543: 7486: 7467: 7448: 7426: 7395: 7367: 7345: 7341: 7307: 7274: 7253: 7207: 7176: 7155: 7136: 7082: 7047: 7026: 7009: 6981: 6950: 6858: 6652: 6564: 6525: 6448: 6384: 6347: 6299: 6269: 6258: 6236: 6170: 6132: 6061: 6051:, History Makers magazine No. 5, Marshall Cavendish, Sidgwick & Jackson (London). 6000: 5966: 5928: 5878: 5840: 5713: 5683: 5141: 5104: 5060: 4966: 4909: 4738: 4727: 4702: 4654: 4612: 4573: 4353: 4290: 4240: 4228: 4102: 4073: 4032: 3900: 3619: 3607: 3432: 3409:, wrote a letter dated 11 September 1453 in which he cites his sources of information 3265: 3207: 2939: 2831: 2819: 2638: 2570: 2432: 2346: 2201: 2045: 2018:), was a somewhat mysterious figure. His 27-foot-long (8.2 m) cannon was named " 1957: 1938: 1787: 1783: 1758:, funded by the Pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archers. An accomplished soldier from 1746: 1240: 897: 862: 739: 733: 672: 539: 529: 371: 287: 282: 251: 223: 6826:

Sakaoğlu, Necdet (1993–1994). "İstanbul'un adları" [The names of Istanbul].

5056:

The Heirs of Archimedes: Science and the Art of War Through the Age of Enlightenment

3277: 2460: 11763: 11712: 11707: 11647: 11612: 11524: 11481: 11451: 11373: 11291: 11261: 11088: 10673: 10499: 10181: 10012: 9950: 9621: 9414: 9362: 9308: 9275: 9225: 9018: 9008: 8786: 8474: 8366: 8289: 8272: 8250: 8235: 8220: 8134: 7919: 7533: 4278: 4220: 3379:, 16th-century historian who augmented the account of Sphrantzes, not very reliably 3311: 3271: 3187: 3181: 3063: 2721: 2518: 2205: 2126: 2035: 2019: 1966: 1891: 1863: 1859: 1568:

colonies on the Black Sea coast to the north. In fact, the new fortress was called

1478: 1428: 1393: 1377: 1361: 1317: 1163: 902: 867: 617: 548: 494: 460: 426: 93: 10726: 7538: 7521: 4729:

Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization

4063: 3498: 2840:

bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco-Roman tradition to Italy

2337: 1552: 663: 577: 400: 390: 380: 363: 353: 337: 325: 304: 208: 11773: 11687: 11657: 11381: 11298: 11191: 11127: 10923: 10654: 10577: 9766: 9599: 9579: 9574: 9529: 9519: 9479: 9474: 9424: 9419: 9200: 8806: 8723: 8718: 8458: 8448: 8284: 8278: 8262: 8240: 8230: 8215: 7868: 7718: 7506:. Vol. II. Translated by Ragozin, S. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 7466:. Translated by Philippides, Marios. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. 7418: 7301: 7170: 7076: 7041: 6558: 6519: 6378: 6293: 6164: 6126: 5960: 5922: 5872: 5834: 5746: 5392: 4960: 4691: 4648: 4120: 3584: 3323: 3299: 3223: 3067: 3059: 2894: 2803: 2578: 2507: 2150: 2039: 1970: 1962: 1942: 1809: 1755: 1750: 1733: 1721: 1505: 612:

40,000–50,000 in total (Turkish sources) 60,000–80,000 in total (Modern sources)

568: 564: 512: 7006:

Les 'Informations' de Jacques Tedaldi sur le siège et la prise de Constantinople

6875: 3706: 2919: 2221: 1728: 1542: 581: 11677: 11622: 11576: 11529: 11509: 11353: 11276: 11078: 10975: 10945: 10109: 9941: 9905: 9877: 9868: 9604: 9484: 9217: 8976: 8870: 8856: 8655: 8359: 8114: 7629: 7440: 6921: 3483: 3215: 3191: 3123: 3021: 2954: 2927: 2923: 2913: 2771: 2641:, an eyewitness to the fall of Constantinople, described the Sultan's actions: 2600: 2362: 2248: 2083: 1832:

that closed off the entrance to the Golden Horn in 1453, now on display in the

1689: 1649: 1645: 1613: 1509: 1489: 1420: 1407:

had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman emperor

1404: 1321: 1313: 1250: 1245: 1134: 877: 440: 212: 89: 7881:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Roger Crowley, Judith Herrin & Colin Imber ( 6999:. Translated by Inalcik, Halil; Murphey, Rhoads. Chicago: Biblioteca Islamica. 3320:, two refugees whose accounts has become garbled through multiple translations 2916:", that is, of the Roman Empire, though he was remembered as "the Conqueror". 1360:

The fall of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire was a watershed of the

1324:. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 53-day 745: 691: 293: 11841: 11436: 11116: 10402: 10353: 10259: 9524: 9401: 9367: 9105: 9040: 9013: 8898: 8513: 8453: 7787: 7769:

No. 5 (London, Marshall Cavendish, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1969) p. 192.

7576: 7547: 7333: 7241:

The Fall of the Byzantine Empire, A Chronicle by George Sphrantzes, 1401–1477

7013: 6351: 6331: 4283: 4232: 3904: 3454:, read a report before the Venetian Senate, the Pope and the Neapolitan court 3394: 3053: 3034: 2905: 2858:, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman rulers. 2685: 2559: 2503: 2276: 2260: 2050: 1908:

Map of Constantinople and the dispositions of the defenders and the besiegers

1709: 1463: 1230: 586: 479: 445: 346: 123: 110: 7878: 6736: 4635:

Constantine made one last effort: his ambassadors were executed on the spot.

2114: 11602: 11499: 11303: 11181: 9285: 9260: 9240: 9045: 9023: 8878: 8126: 8121: 7955: 6597:"Saving the Third Rome. "Fall of the Empire", Byzantium and Putin's Russia" 3127: 3090: 3010: 2998: 2950: 2717: 2695: 2658: 2574: 2421: 2411:

showing the battle inside the city, Constantine is visible on a white horse

2252: 2095: 1766:, arrived in January 1453 with 400 men from Genoa and 300 men from Genoese 1681: 1605: 1577: 1424: 1365: 1143: 1138: 1008: 682: 559: 525: 384: 275: 270: 7888: 7483:

Battles That Changed History: Key Battles That Decided the Fate of Nations

6946:

The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity

6256:

Masters, Bruce (2009). "Millet". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.).

1937:: 160,000; the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi and the Great Logothete 1816: 11753: 11456: 11363: 11245: 9786: 9761: 9255: 9065: 8832: 8438: 8423: 7043:

1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West

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1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West

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De Constantinopolitano excidio ad nobilissimum iuvenem Melladucam Cicadam

3345: 3062:

composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, and the

3002: 2855: 2843: 2795: 2784: 2690: 2625: 2391: 2358: 2328:, describing in his diary one such land attack by the Janissaries, wrote 2280: 2233: 2099: 2075: 1846: 1824: 1791: 1775: 1771: 1742: 1680:, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors had since been received into the 1581: 1560:. This pair of fortresses ensured complete control of sea traffic on the 1493: 1470: 1369: 805: 357: 7584: 7175:. Translated by Riggs, C. T. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5407:, (ACMRS/Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2007), 83. 2802:

led many to hope that the city would one day return to Christian hands.

2403: 11328: 11214: 9060: 8920: 8910: 8743: 8733: 8443: 4158: 3610:

had to deny them by sending diplomatic letters to the Chancelleries of

3501:, 17th-century traveller who collected local traditions of the conquest 3256: 2884: 2846:. Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople mostly lived in the 2788: 2621: 2436: 2417: 2366: 2317: 2279:

depicting the Ottoman Turks transporting their fleet overland into the

2011: 1871: 1867: 1701: 1652:

for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the

1533: 1446:

from the Latins in 1261, reestablishing the Byzantine Empire under the

176: 3912: 3045: 2309: 11637: 11406: 9609: 9489: 8981: 8849: 8796: 8728: 7204:

The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History's Most Influential Battles

4856:]. Translated by Itzkouritz, Norman; Imber, Colin. London: Orion. 4425:"Bosphorus (i.e. Bosporus), View from Kuleli, Constantinople, Turkey" 3333: 3200: 3115: 2900: 2776: 2629: 2616: 2496: 2478: 2444: 2354: 2313: 2091: 1996: 1981: 1977: 1921: 1625: 1609: 1557: 1547: 1525: 1513: 1389: 1033: 394: 330: 6926:

The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans: Context and Consequences

4072:] (in Greek) (5th ed.). Athens: Vergina Asimakopouli Bros. 4012:, p. 86: "Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold." 3437:

Excidium Constantinopolitanae urbis quae quondam Bizantium ferebatur

3397:, wrote a report to Pope Nicholas V from Crete based on oral reports 3332:, bishop who, like Eparkhos and Diplovatatzes, fled as a refugee to 1778:

offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from

11672: 11549: 11426: 9135: 9035: 8986: 8844: 8776: 8564: 7748:] (in Italian). Vol. II. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. 6488: 6486: 4424: 3385:, Venetian official on Crete whose account is based on oral reports 2808: 2217: 2071: 2022:" and was able to hurl a 600-pound (270 kg) stone ball over a 1946: 1593: 1561: 1537: 1459: 776: 97: 7774:

The Infidels: The Conflict Between Christendom and Islam, 638–2002

7425:(Canto ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 4565: 3766:] (in Italian). Vol. I. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. 2459:

overwhelmed at several points along the wall. Janissaries, led by

1894:

The Ottoman Sultanate and the Eastern Roman Empire in April 1453.

1576:

means both "strait" and "throat". In October 1452, Mehmed ordered

11313: 9501: 9387: 9328: 8827: 8801: 8479: 6445:

From Byzantium to Italy. Greek Studies in the Italian Renaissance

3611: 3157: 3097: 2744: 2713: 2633: 2370: 2303:

Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across

2271: 2220:, a makeshift defence force of Greek monks to his left hand, and 2027: 2015: 1969:

used by the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople in 1453 (British

1529: 1497: 7752:

Novo, Andrew, Queen of Cities, Seattle, Coffeetown Press, 2010.

7152:

Fetih ve kıyamet, 1453: İstanbul'un fethi ve kıyamet senaryoları

6842:

The First Turkish Republic: A Case Study in National Development

6483: 9130: 8905: 8771: 7847: 6907:, pp. 10–46 (eyewitnesses), 46 (Greeks) and 88–91 (Turks). 5363: 3615: 3492: 2861:

A severed head that was claimed to belong to Byzantine Emperor

2851: 2847: 2780: 2700: 2350: 2304: 2256: 2146: 2138: 2063: 2031: 2000: 1992: 1985: 1925: 1802: 1798: 1779: 1617: 1597: 1354: 750: 634: 101: 1933:

disparate and higher numbers ranging from 160,000 to 300,000 (

1866:). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the 7874:

World History Encyclopedia – 1453: The Fall of Constantinople

7603:"29 maggio 1453 – Una cronaca della caduta di Costantinopoli" 7250:

The Siege of Constantinople 1453: Seven Contemporary Accounts

6521:

The Siege of Constantinople 1453: Seven Contemporary Accounts

6235:. Vol. 1. New York: Holmes & Meier. pp. 69–90. 6166:

The Siege of Constantinople 1453: Seven Contemporary Accounts

5874:

The Siege of Constantinople 1453: Seven Contemporary Accounts

5602: 3838:"İstanbul'un fethinde 600 Türk askeri, Fatih'e karşı savaştı" 3623: 3540: 3495:, included a chapter on the conquest in his universal history 3314:, Italian poet learning Greek in the city, wrote an epic poem 2740: 2585: 2448: 2142: 2134: 2038:

and in the later, and often unreliable, Russian chronicle of

2004: 1914: 1767: 1759: 1712:

between Greeks and Italians, stemming from the events of the

1565: 1455: 1325: 7445:

The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571): The Fifteenth Century

6082: 5527: 5491: 5159: 5157: 2369:

and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and

2204:, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and 1380:. Since ancient times, cities and castles had depended upon 9409: 7765:

Smith, Michael Llewellyn, "The Fall of Constantinople", in

6857:, (Metuchen, NJ, & London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.), 6291: 5903: 5816: 5814: 2993:

Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick

2870:

since it is your bravery which has won this kingdom for us.

2800:

Constantine XI's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel

2428: 2098:

were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under

2023: 1665: 1474: 6672: 6414: 6412: 5626: 4814: 4790: 1882: 1648:

swiftly understood Mehmed's true intentions and turned to

994:

Territorial development of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)

6643:

Total Eclipses: Science, Observations, Myths, and Legends

5578: 5469: 5467: 5317: 5315: 5313: 5298: 5222: 5220: 5181: 5154: 5031: 5029: 5027: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4473: 4461: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4401: 3689: 3687: 3460:, whose account is embedded in the Venetian chronicle of 3419:

written in the autumn of 1453 contains unique information

3403:(Pope Pius II), wrote an account based on written sources 2994: 2720:

strongly advocated for another Crusade, while the German

2341:

Siege of Constantinople as depicted between 1470 and 1479

66:(1453), French miniature by Jean Le Tavernier after 1455. 6106: 6029: 5811: 5566: 5544: 5542: 3927: 3925: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3100:

has been considered an unlucky day by Greeks generally.

2086:. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the 1980:

built a fleet (crewed partially by Spanish sailors from

1845:

Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the

7273:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6409: 6094: 6070: 5339: 5327: 4889: 4887: 4778: 3872: 2251:

and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Venetian

1411:. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been 6128:

Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The battle of Mazikert

5554: 5515: 5479: 5464: 5410: 5310: 5244: 5232: 5217: 5024: 4831: 4829: 4754: 4646: 4542: 4518: 4398: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4367: 4247: 4095:"The Conquest of Constantinople and the end of empire" 3978:"Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924" 3732: 3730: 3728: 3684: 3674: 3672: 3670: 2153:, 1 from France, and about 10 from the empire itself. 1952: 7746:

The Fall of Constantinople, II: The Echo in the World

7133:

The Reformation: The Story of Civilization, Volume VI

6755: 6556: 5539: 5503: 5256: 5205: 5193: 5169: 5012: 4802: 4559: 4449: 3922: 3770: 3302:, Orthodox churchman who wrote eight letters to Italy 2109: 1840: 7338:

Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium (Campaign)

4884: 4766: 3626:, where he succumbed to his wounds a few days later. 2957:

Christians and advocated for another crusade at the

2838:, fled the city and found refuge in the Latin West, 2724:

supported engaging in a dialogue with the Ottomans.

2236:

were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under

7695: 6638: 4826: 4640: 4604: 4379: 4259: 4028:

Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo

3860: 3725: 3667: 3280:, physician on a Venetian galley who kept a journal 2573:says that people of both genders were raped inside 2228:. Genoese and Catalan troops were stationed at the 1512:, was also present at the time on the coast of the 1376:. The city's fall also stood as a turning point in 798:

4,500 killed in action (both military and civilian)

6640: 6202:Freeman, Evan (2021). "Hagia Sophia in Istanbul". 5962:Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks 5832: 5614: 4726: 4690: 4282: 3830: 3326:, youthful eyewitness who wrote a Slavonic account 6830:(in Turkish). Istanbul: Türkiye Kültür Bakanlığı. 6819: 6336:"Body counts: the dark side of Christian history" 5434: 4841: 4530: 4318: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3118:scholars and émigrés in the period following the 2689:Following the city's conquest, the Church of the 2169:); later during the siege, he was shifted to the 1668:in Rome was committed to establishing unity with 11839: 7742:La Caduta di Costantinopoli, II: L'eco nel mondo 7392:The siege and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 7389: 6904: 5369: 4904: 4902: 4854:The Ottoman Empire, The Classical Age, 1300–1600 4358:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 4303: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3253:, Sufi holy man who gives an account in a letter 2674:. This was once thought to be the origin of the 2216:guarded more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at 1672:. The union was agreed by the Byzantine Emperor 5992: 4964:, dated 16 August 1453, edited by J.-P. Migne, 4950: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4877:, 1453. The autograph copy is conserved in the 4724: 3210:is thought to be derived from the Greek phrase 2435:forces who focused on a section of the damaged 2259:tended to damage their own walls. According to 1423:in 1204. The crusaders established an unstable 8279:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) 7390:Philippides, Marios; Hanak, Walter K. (2011). 7247: 5909: 5789:"The Hagia Sophia and Turkey's Neo-Ottomanism" 5608: 5444:[29 May 1453: When the City Fell...]. 4718: 3650: 1604:during the impending siege of Constantinople. 1556:fortress, built by Mehmed's great-grandfather 11230: 9851: 7904: 7464:The fall of the Byzantine Empire: a chronicle 7243:. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. 6825: 6639:Guillermier, Pierre; Koutchmy, Serge (1999). 6376: 5836:The Fall of the Byzantine Empire: A Chronicle 5776:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. p. 151. 5699: 5675: 4899: 4693:Civilization: The emergence of man in society 4566:Frank W. Thackeray; John E. Findling (2012). 3742: 3290:of Pera who wrote a report dated 24 June 1453 3020:Another legend holds that two priests saying 2842:and other regions that further propelled the 2514:, leaving only limited loot to the Ottomans. 1342:(later nicknamed "the Conqueror"), while the 1285: 821: 6728: 5705: 5669: 4941: 4924: 4850:Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Klasik Çağ (1300–1600) 4688: 4340:. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008 4005: 4003: 3486:, included a chapter on the conquest in his 3103: 2451:general in charge of the defenders on land, 1628:'s speech to his soldiers before the siege: 80:(1 month, 3 weeks and 2 days) 7918: 7600: 7168: 6678: 6124: 6112: 5765: 4682: 4598: 4467: 3693: 3130:studies that led to the development of the 2953:believed that the Ottomans would persecute 2431:, who were poorly trained and equipped and 2292:in the Sea of Marmara were likely taken by 2118:Painting of the Fall of Constantinople, by 1965:, cast by Munir Ali in 1464, is similar to 11237: 11223: 9858: 9844: 7911: 7897: 7717: 7504:A History of the Byzantine Empire, Vol. II 7461: 7270:The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 7238: 7122:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6917: 6915: 6913: 6684: 6377:Jones, Erik; Genugten, Saskia van (2018). 6298:. National Geographic Books. p. 284. 6100: 5993:Andrews, Walter; Kalpakli, Mehmet (2005). 5924:Diary of the Siege of Constantinople, 1453 5679:Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453 5632: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4210: 4057: 3587:speculates that he may have been Scottish. 3470:, wrote a poem in honour of Loukas Notaras 3352: 3348:prisoners of war who later came to Bologna 2973:Siege of Constantinople on a mural at the 2830:. After the conquest many Greeks, such as 2822:, chancellor of Florence, who had invited 2177:to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. 1292: 1278: 835: 828: 814: 608:100,000–130,000 in total (Western sources) 11923:Massacres committed by the Ottoman Empire 7537: 6233:Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire 5092: 5090: 5088: 5048: 5046: 5044: 4983:,927B: "three hundred thousand and more". 4935: 4490: 4488: 4000: 3636:Sea of Marmara in order to escape by sea. 2945: 2814:For some time Greek scholars had gone to 2349:them from mid-May to 25 May. Many of the 1749:, and Hungary and Poland's defeat at the 1580:to station a large garrison force in the 530: 372: 11244: 7562: 7501: 7480: 7417: 7394:. Farnham Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate. 7107: 7074: 7039: 7003: 6125:Hillenbrand, Carole (21 November 2007). 6088: 6035: 5820: 5596: 5572: 5533: 5509: 5497: 5416: 5383:Chronicle of Charles VII, king of France 5345: 5333: 5304: 5250: 5238: 5226: 5187: 5163: 5100:Warfare in Early Modern Europe 1450–1660 4893: 4847: 4796: 4784: 4553: 4524: 4479: 4373: 4020: 4018: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3878: 3678: 3448:, part of a letter to the duke of Urbino 3341:, Serbian who fought on the Ottoman side 3044: 2968: 2888: 2783:(the Balkans). The younger son, renamed 2684: 2402: 2353:were miners of Serbian origin sent from 2336: 2270: 2200:and his Venetians were stationed in the 2125:The city had about 20 km of walls ( 2113: 2044: 1956: 1903: 1874:studded with towers every 45–55 metres. 1841:The Great Chain of the Golden Horn 1823: 1815: 1688:had also recently negotiated union with 1392:, specifically from Ottoman cannons and 157:Constantinople conquered by the Ottomans 27:Ottoman capture of the Byzantine capital 9167: 7739: 7408: 7380: 7358: 7332: 7201: 7020: 6910: 6844:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 6734: 6418: 6255: 6201: 6076: 5787:Calian, Florin George (25 March 2021). 5584: 5560: 5485: 5473: 5428: 5357: 5321: 5262: 5211: 5199: 5035: 5018: 4986: 4875:Giornale dell'Assedio di Costantinopoli 4860: 4835: 4820: 4808: 4760: 4411: 4392: 4265: 4253: 4031:. Oxford University Press. p. 84. 3931: 3757: 3622:and others. Giustiniani was carried to 3147: 2818:, a cultural exchange begun in 1396 by 1724:and the hierarchy of the Roman church. 1415:but was captured only once before: the 1399: 569: 513: 14: 11840: 7439: 7149: 7130: 6975: 6868: 6847: 6834: 6797: 6767: 6710: 6632: 6589: 6500:from the original on 30 September 2003 6457: 6437: 6434:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 115–116. 6424: 6324: 6287: 6285: 6249: 6230: 6224: 6041: 5965:. Wayne State University Press. 1975. 5786: 5771: 5638: 5521: 5442:"29 Μαϊου 1453: Όταν "η Πόλις εάλω..." 5175: 5096: 5085: 5052: 5041: 4908: 4611:. Penguin Books Limited. p. 453. 4496:"Σαν σήμερα "έπεσε" η Κωσταντινούπολη" 4485: 4455: 4309: 4277: 4179: 4118: 4092: 3943: 3244: 1600:) from providing aid to their brother 11883:Sieges involving the Byzantine Empire 11218: 9839: 9735: 9166: 8951: 8643: 8310: 7931: 7892: 7299: 7266: 7229: 7220: 7060:from the original on 10 December 2023 6942: 6761: 6512: 6432:The Nature of the Early Ottoman State 6212:from the original on 30 December 2023 5839:. University of Massachusetts Press. 5744: 5712:. Boydell & Brewer. p. 322. 5644: 5548: 5422: 5375: 5351: 5268: 5135: 5129: 5117:from the original on 29 December 2019 5073:from the original on 22 December 2019 4999: 4973: 4772: 4536: 4330: 4324: 4289:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 4271: 4093:Foster, Charles (22 September 2006). 4086: 4024: 4015: 4009: 3964: 3866: 3809:Feridun Emecen, Fetih ve Kıyamet 1453 3736: 2662:was converted into a mosque, but the 1616:, sent men to prepare the roads from 809: 11863:Sieges of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars 8952: 7723:1453: The Conquest of Constantinople 7667:Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium 7601:Giardinetto, Armando (29 May 2022). 7234:. New York: Oxford University Press. 6963:from the original on 12 October 2020 6928:(Routledge, 2012), pp. 150–152, 163. 6828:Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi 6330: 5999:. Duke University Press. p. 2. 5799:from the original on 5 November 2021 5726:from the original on 15 January 2023 4437:from the original on 20 October 2013 3388:Fra Girolamo's letter from Crete to 3308:, Anconitan consul in Constantinople 3158: 2628:. On the third day of the conquest, 1508:that formed in the aftermath of the 11888:Sieges involving the Ottoman Empire 11822: 11267:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 8654: 7519: 7512: 7287:from the original on 3 October 2022 7095:from the original on 6 January 2024 6997:The History of Mehmed the Conqueror 6994: 6577:from the original on 6 January 2024 6538:from the original on 6 January 2024 6295:Great Empires: An Illustrated Atlas 6282: 6205:Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art 6183:from the original on 6 January 2024 6169:. Hakkert. 1973. pp. 103–112. 5891:from the original on 6 January 2024 5620: 4569:Events That Formed the Modern World 4417: 4045:from the original on 6 January 2024 3791:from the original on 19 August 2020 3661: 3480:, which contains unique information 3274:, wrote a report to Pope Nicholas V 3052:enters Constantinople, painting by 2407:Painting by the Greek folk painter 1953:Ottoman dispositions and strategies 1637: 1564:and defended against attack by the 1364:, marking the effective end of the 24: 11359:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 7623: 7189:from the original on 1 August 2020 6471:from the original on 26 April 2008 6397:from the original on 26 March 2023 6312:from the original on 1 August 2020 6260:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire 6145:from the original on 26 March 2023 6013:from the original on 23 April 2023 5941:from the original on 26 March 2023 5853:from the original on 26 March 2023 5753:from the original on 26 March 2023 5682:. Faber & Faber. p. 226. 5657:from the original on 26 April 2020 4667:from the original on 26 April 2020 4653:. Uitgeverij Aspekt. p. 117. 4625:from the original on 26 April 2020 4586:from the original on 26 April 2020 4506:from the original on 26 March 2023 4182:"1453: The Fall of Constantinople" 4131:from the original on 30 April 2023 3975: 3232: 3040: 2110:Byzantine dispositions and tactics 1745:, the internecine fighting in the 989: 656:7,000–10,000 professional soldiers 30:For other sieges of the city, see 25: 11934: 11908:Massacres in the Byzantine Empire 11789:Historiography in the Middle Ages 9777:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 7806: 7634:Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time 7447:. Vol. 2. DJane Publishing. 6785:from the original on 6 March 2019 6743:from the original on 4 March 2009 6607:from the original on 27 July 2014 6494:"Byzantines in Renaissance Italy" 6358:from the original on 27 July 2020 4285:Crusades: The Illustrated History 3988:from the original on 24 July 2019 3952:from the original on 30 June 2022 3713:from the original on 26 June 2023 3110:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 2942:have disintegrated into history. 2666:was allowed to remain intact and 2173:to join Constantine, leaving the 1384:and walls to repel invaders. The 11821: 11812: 11811: 11801: 9867: 9816: 7846: 7792:The Rough Guide History of Islam 7609:from the original on 17 May 2023 7423:The Fall of Constantinople, 1453 7320:from the original on 2 July 2019 7248:Melville-Jones, John R. (1972). 6886:from the original on 4 June 2010 6619: 6550: 6370: 6195: 6157: 6118: 6054: 5986: 5953: 5915: 5865: 5826: 5780: 5738: 5590: 5452:from the original on 25 May 2017 5385:, MS Bnf Français 2691, f. 246v 5286:from the original on 4 June 2011 4192:from the original on 2 June 2023 4107:It is the end of the Middle Ages 3629: 3599: 3237:For the fall of Constantinople, 3001:, which some interpreted as the 2398: 1881: 1820:Restored Walls of Constantinople 1704:was stimulated by anti-unionist 1261: 800:30,000–50,000 civilians enslaved 769: 756: 744: 732: 720: 709: 690: 681: 671: 662: 651: 585: 576: 558: 538: 520: 503: 485: 478: 469: 451: 444: 435: 415: 399: 389: 379: 362: 352: 345: 336: 324: 303: 292: 281: 269: 257: 245: 234: 218: 207: 57: 32:List of sieges of Constantinople 11898:Battles of Mehmed the Conqueror 11287:Christianity in the Middle Ages 11282:Decline of Hellenistic religion 8166:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 7988:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 7879:Constantinople Siege & Fall 7740:Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). 7565:The Hungarian Historical Review 7520:Buc, Philippe (14 March 2020). 7481:Spilling, Michael, ed. (2010). 7411:The Oxford History of Byzantium 7364:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 7252:. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. 7232:The Oxford History of Byzantium 7172:History of Mehmed the Conqueror 7004:Concasty, Marie-Louise (1955). 5647:"History of Rape and Rape Laws" 5397: 4647:Kathie Somerwil-Ayrton (2007). 4204: 4173: 4143: 4112: 3937: 3884: 3821: 3812: 3803: 3758:Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). 3590: 3578: 3569: 3556: 3546: 3533: 2747:, where Constantine's brothers 2447:, attacked the city walls. The 2094:regiments were positioned. The 2090:, where the guns and the elite 1519: 1202:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 1039:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 983:History of the Byzantine Empire 11565:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 9251:Great Palace of Constantinople 8992:Patriarchate of Constantinople 8311: 7703:(in Italian). Turin: Einaudi. 7636:. Princeton University Press. 7306:. Cambridge University Press. 7221:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (2005). 6905:Philippides & Hanak (2011) 6739:. Hellenic Electronic Center. 6737:"Fall of Constantinople, 1453" 6557:Nadia Maria El-Cheikh (2004). 5370:Philippides & Hanak (2011) 4213:Microform & Imaging Review 4157:. 18 June 2017. Archived from 3944:Labatt, Annie (October 2004). 3699: 3524: 3512: 3446:Expugnatio Constantinopolitana 3429:, part of a letter to a friend 3427:Expugnatio Constantinopolitana 3084:became an ally of the Ottomans 1790:arrived in Constantinople the 1716:in 1182 by the Greeks and the 1546:) on the European side of the 13: 1: 11858:1450s in the Byzantine Empire 11739:Disability in the Middle Ages 11412:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 11344:Rise of the Venetian Republic 7853:Fall of Constantinople (1453) 7539:10.1080/03044181.2020.1719188 7381:Norwich, John Julius (1997). 7366:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 7202:Lanning, Michael Lee (2005). 7169:Kritovoulos, Michael (1954). 6840:Robinson, Richard D. (1965). 6809:how-to-learn-any-language.com 6560:Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs 3643: 3373:, a Byzantine Greek historian 3367:, a Byzantine Greek historian 3251:Mehmed Şems el-Mille ve'd Din 2878: 2484: 1741:, Spain's involvement in the 9713:University of Constantinople 9294:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda 8644: 8444:Chartoularios tou vestiariou 8133:Byzantine successor states ( 7862:As The Islamic World Sees it 7837:Resources in other libraries 7502:Vasiliev, Alexander (1928). 7383:A Short History of Byzantium 6855:Place Name changes 1900–1991 6775:"The fall of Constantinople" 6524:. Hakkert. 15 January 1973. 5653:. No. 60. p. 188. 5276:"The fall of Constantinople" 4608:A Short History of Byzantium 4605:John Julius Norwich (1998). 4151:"The fall of Constantinople" 3844:(in Turkish). Archived from 3464:, had access to eyewitnesses 2743:(Peloponnesian) fortress of 2611: 2477:The army converged upon the 2206:Archbishop Leonardo of Chios 2078:were stationed south of the 2014:(though some suggest he was 1949:Leonardo di Chio: 300,000). 1834:İstanbul Archaeology Museums 1727:In the summer of 1452, when 1496:with its cultural center at 1328:which had begun on 6 April. 7: 9383:Saint Catherine's Monastery 8439:Chartoularios tou sakelliou 8434:Logothetes tou stratiotikou 7932: 7860:The Siege of Constantinople 7772:Wheatcroft, Andrew (2003): 7593: 7526:Journal of Medieval History 7485:. London: Amber Books Ltd. 7462:Sphrantzes, George (1980). 7150:Emecen, Feridun M. (2012). 5833:Geōrgios Phrantzēs (1980). 5097:Hammer, Paul E. J. (2017). 3946:"Constantinople after 1261" 3787:. Encyclopædia Britannica. 3284:Angelino Giovanni Lomellini 3259:, wrote a history entitled 2977:in Romania, painted in 1537 2854:districts of the city. The 2712:and churchmen of that era: 2672:Patriarch of Constantinople 2468:Church of the Holy Apostles 2245:Church of the Holy Apostles 1899: 1469:Between 1346 and 1349, the 1268:Byzantine Empire portal 1160:Byzantine successor states 64:The siege of Constantinople 10: 11939: 11853:1453 in the Ottoman Empire 11540:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 9772:Neo-Byzantine architecture 9736: 8393:Comes sacrarum largitionum 7699:; Schiavone, Aldo (1997). 7652:The Cross and the Crescent 7385:. New York: Vintage Books. 6264:. Facts On File. pp. 6049:The Fall of Constantinople 6047:Smith, Michael Llewellyn, 5927:. Exposition Press. 1969. 5103:. Routledge. p. 511. 5059:. MIT Press. p. 106. 4186:World History Encyclopedia 4125:World History Encyclopedia 3423:Niccolò Tignosi da Foligno 3401:Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini 3318:Eparkhos and Diplovatatzes 3107: 3015:1452/1453 mystery eruption 2981: 2882: 2863:Constantine XI Palaiologos 1660:had to be paid. Since the 1602:Constantine XI Palaiologos 1444:reconquered Constantinople 1351:Constantine XI Palaiologos 1310:conquest of Constantinople 667:600 Orhan Çelebi loyalists 29: 11797: 11726: 11585: 11480: 11467:Mongol invasion of Europe 11372: 11252: 11203:Ottoman defeats shown in 11201: 11137: 10964: 10785: 10596: 10219: 9970: 9885: 9799: 9742: 9731: 9652: 9552: 9510: 9455: 9400: 9355: 9342:Sant'Apollinare in Classe 9327: 9284: 9216: 9186: 9177: 9173: 9162: 9104: 8962: 8958: 8947: 8869: 8815: 8754: 8711: 8663: 8650: 8639: 8598: 8573: 8542: 8501: 8492: 8467: 8411: 8375: 8328: 8321: 8317: 8306: 8179: 8095: 8042: 7973: 7944: 7940: 7927: 7832:Resources in your library 7684:. Yale University Press. 7680:Harris, Jonathan (2010): 7665:Harris, Jonathan (2007): 7409:Reinert, Stephen (2002). 7300:Nicol, Donald M. (2002). 7267:Nicol, Donald M. (1993). 6585:– via Google Books. 6546:– via Google Books. 6405:– via Google Books. 6191:– via Google Books. 5982:– via Google Books. 5899:– via Google Books. 5861:– via Google Books. 5761:– via Google Books. 5448:(in Greek). 29 May 2012. 5053:Steele, Brett D. (2005). 4572:. ABC-CLIO. p. 213. 4312:Byzantium at War 600–1453 3219: 3120:sacking of Constantinople 3104:Impact on the Renaissance 2988:the partial lunar eclipse 2964: 2811:began to come to an end. 2537:boys and beautiful girls. 1795:Gabriele Orsini del Balzo 1372:and the beginning of the 847: 785: 596: 545:Gabriele Orsini del Balzo 315: 198: 179:until their conquests in 70: 56: 48: 43: 11903:15th century in Istanbul 11893:Sieges of Constantinople 8916:Droungarios of the Fleet 7340:. Vol. 78. Oxford: 7223:Bisanzio la seconda Roma 7075:Crowley, Roger (2013a). 7040:Crowley, Roger (2013b). 6935: 6735:Hatzopoulos, Dionysios. 6430:Lowry, Heath W. (2003). 6346:(Journal Article): 11–. 5645:Smith, Cyril J. (1974). 4913: 4848:İnalcıkt, Halil (2001). 4725:Lars Brownworth (2009). 4065: 3785:"Fall of Constantinople" 3505: 3442:Antonio Ivani da Sarzana 2433:Anatolian Turkmen beylik 2266: 1941:: 200,000; the Cardinal 1674:Michael VIII Palaiologos 1442:The Nicaeans eventually 1081:Middle period (717–1204) 795:15,000–50,000 (disputed) 11422:Investiture Controversy 11392:Second Bulgarian Empire 9430:Early Byzantine mosaics 8792:Domestic of the Schools 7767:History Makers magazine 7669:. Hambledon/Continuum. 7225:. Rome: Newton Compton. 7021:Crowley, Roger (2005). 6976:Arnold, Thomas (2001). 5745:Lewis, Bernard (1976). 5140:. Oxford. p. 166. 4025:Davis, Paul K. (2003). 3891:"Geographical Record". 3842:Osmanlı Arauştırmalarlı 3606:so widespread that the 3365:Laonikos Chalkokondyles 3353:Non-eyewitness accounts 3141:Encyclopædia Britannica 3114:The migration waves of 2699:) was converted into a 2492:Encyclopædia Britannica 2247:, under the command of 1662:mutual excommunications 1386:Walls of Constantinople 1127:Late period (1204–1453) 475:Demetrios Kantakouzenos 11873:15th-century massacres 11848:Fall of Constantinople 11779:Post-classical history 11535:Fall of Constantinople 11442:Capet–Plantagenet feud 11309:First Bulgarian Empire 9747:Byzantine commonwealth 8509:Praetorian prefectures 8429:Logothetes tou genikou 8403:Quaestor sacri palatii 8398:Comes rerum privatarum 8171:Fall of Constantinople 8110:Sack of Constantinople 7818:Fall of Constantinople 7413:. New York: Oxford UP. 7135:. Simon and Schuster. 6978:The Renaissance at War 6853:Room, Adrian, (1993), 5676:Roger Crowley (2009). 4364:, Channel 4 – History. 3076:Protestant Reformation 3056: 2978: 2946:Impact on the Churches 2897: 2872: 2828:University of Florence 2779:(Governor-General) of 2737: 2704: 2654: 2556: 2539: 2529: 2412: 2409:Theophilos Hatzimihail 2384: 2342: 2335: 2284: 2226:Harbour of Eleutherios 2122: 2120:Theophilos Hatzimihail 2054: 1999:that employed Turkish 1974: 1945:and the Archbishop of 1909: 1851:Emperor Constantine XI 1837: 1821: 1718:Sack of Constantinople 1714:Massacre of the Latins 1696:of 1439 proclaiming a 1678:Second Council of Lyon 1635: 1417:Sack of Constantinople 1306:fall of Constantinople 1207:Fall of Constantinople 1195:Despotate of the Morea 1149:Principality of Achaea 1026:Early period (330–717) 995: 839:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 791:200–18,000 (first day) 457:Theophilos Palaiologos 316:Commanders and leaders 308:Orhan Çelebi loyalists 175:continue as Byzantine 51:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 44:Fall of Constantinople 9447:Komnenian renaissance 9442:Macedonian period art 9347:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo 9319:Walls of Thessaloniki 8419:Logothetes tou dromou 8034:Twenty Years' Anarchy 7998:Valentinianic dynasty 7993:Constantinian dynasty 7867:22 April 2021 at the 7654:(2005) Penguin Group 7230:Mango, Cyril (2002). 7131:Durant, Will (2011). 7108:Desimoni, C. (1874). 7081:. Faber & Faber. 6943:Akbar, M. J. (2002). 6340:The Christian Century 5910:Melville-Jones (1972) 5706:Jim Bradbury (1992). 5609:Melville-Jones (1972) 5391:17 April 2016 at the 4697:. CRM Books. p. 4689:John Roberts (1973). 4430:World Digital Library 4310:Haldon, John (2000). 3564:Cristóbal de Villalón 3377:Makarios Melissourgos 3339:Konstantin Mihailović 3296:, Florentine merchant 3048: 2972: 2892: 2867: 2726: 2688: 2664:Greek Orthodox Church 2643: 2551: 2534: 2524: 2406: 2379: 2357:under the command of 2340: 2330: 2274: 2117: 2048: 1960: 1907: 1827: 1819: 1702:propaganda initiative 1686:John VIII Palaiologos 1630: 1409:Constantine the Great 1312:, was the capture of 1073:Twenty Years' Anarchy 1047:Valentinianic dynasty 1043:Constantinian dynasty 993: 786:Casualties and losses 78:6 April – 29 May 1453 11759:Medieval reenactment 11555:Renaissance Humanism 11462:Medieval Warm Period 11432:Republic of Florence 11246:European Middle Ages 9644:Units of measurement 9378:Panagia Gorgoepikoos 9271:Pammakaristos Church 9119:Corpus Juris Civilis 9070:Missionary activity 8529:Exarchate of Ravenna 8355:Imperial bureaucracy 7885:, 28 December 2006). 7855:at Wikimedia Commons 7776:. Viking Publishing 7682:The End of Byzantium 7648:Fletcher, Richard A. 7360:Norwich, John Julius 7206:. Sourcebooks, Inc. 6995:Beg, Tursun (1978). 6980:. Cassell & Co. 6882:. 10 December 2009. 6781:. 23 December 1999. 6724:on 13 December 2012. 6647:. Springer. p. 5774:A Precarious Balance 5403:Marios Philippides, 5381:From Jean Chartier, 5282:. 23 December 1999. 5138:100 Decisive Battles 5136:Davis, Paul (1999). 4225:10.1515/mfir.2007.75 3899:(4): 611–629. 1921. 3452:Nikolaos Sekoundinos 3413:Niccola della Tuccia 3148:Renaming of the city 3132:Renaissance humanism 3050:Mehmed the Conqueror 2914:Caesar of the Romans 2908:, declaring himself 2836:Constantine Lascaris 2826:, to lecture at the 2668:Gennadius Scholarius 2595:Byzantine historian 2453:Giovanni Giustiniani 2361:. An engineer named 1764:Giovanni Giustiniani 1400:The Byzantine Empire 1308:, also known as the 491:Giovanni Giustiniani 18:Conquest of Istanbul 11472:Kingdom of Portugal 11339:Old Church Slavonic 11324:Anglo-Saxon England 9168:Culture and society 9031:Ecumenical councils 8534:Exarchate of Africa 8524:Quaestura exercitus 8388:Magister officiorum 8383:Praetorian prefects 8026:Byzantine Dark Ages 7697:Momigliano, Arnaldo 7154:. İstanbul: Timaş. 6698:on 14 December 2016 6625:Florescu, McNally, 6603:. 9 November 2009. 6465:"John Argyropoulos" 6091:, pp. 150–151. 5793:The Armenian Weekly 5536:, pp. 296–297. 5500:, pp. 651–652. 4879:Biblioteca Marciana 4823:, pp. 139–140. 4314:. New York: Osprey. 4099:Contemporary Review 3893:Geographical Review 3371:Michael Kritoboulos 3245:Eyewitness accounts 3080:Counter-Reformation 2975:Moldovița Monastery 2816:Italian city-states 2547:Makarios Melissenos 1772:Justinian the Great 1694:Council of Florence 1502:Empire of Trebizond 1448:Palaiologos dynasty 1413:besieged many times 1374:early modern period 695:200 Catalan retinue 659:30,000–35,000 armed 616:Various cannon and 120: / 11653:In popular culture 11618:Crusading movement 11490:Hundred Years' War 11349:Civitas Schinesghe 11334:Carolingian Empire 11319:Kingdom of Croatia 11272:Barbarian kingdoms 9585:Flags and insignia 9231:Baths of Zeuxippus 9114:Codex Theodosianus 9004:Oriental Orthodoxy 7962:Later Roman Empire 7441:Setton, Kenneth M. 7046:. Hachette Books. 6876:"Timeline: Turkey" 6679:Kritovoulos (1954) 6467:. britannica.com. 6113:Kritovoulos (1954) 5709:The Medieval Siege 5431:, pp. 168–171 5360:, pp. 150–154 5005:Leonardo di Chio, 4992:Ubertino Pusculo, 4979:Leonardo di Chio, 4957:Leonardo di Chio, 4910:Sphrantzes, George 4799:, pp. 95–110. 4468:Kritovoulos (1954) 4180:Cartwright, Mark. 4121:"Theodosian Walls" 4119:Cartwright, Mark. 3694:Giardinetto (2022) 3488:Tarih-i al-i Osman 3417:Cronaca di Viterbo 3390:Domenico Capranica 3261:Tarih-i Abu'l Fath 3239:Marios Philippides 3057: 2979: 2936:Republic of Venice 2898: 2824:Manuel Chrysoloras 2705: 2413: 2343: 2285: 2238:Gabriele Trevisano 2141:, 3 from Venetian 2123: 2055: 1975: 1910: 1838: 1822: 1784:Kingdoms of Naples 1739:Hundred Years' War 1670:the eastern church 1622:Michael Critobulus 996: 944:4th Constantinople 933:3rd Constantinople 928:2nd Constantinople 923:1st Constantinople 639:95 large row boats 509:Gabriele Trevisano 368:Suleiman Baltoghlu 11918:Looting in Turkey 11868:Conflicts in 1453 11835: 11834: 11744:Basic topics list 11545:Swiss mercenaries 11495:Wars of the Roses 11402:Kingdom of Poland 11387:Holy Roman Empire 11254:Early Middle Ages 11212: 11211: 9833: 9832: 9795: 9794: 9752:Byzantine studies 9727: 9726: 9723: 9722: 9538:Alexander Romance 9396: 9395: 9373:Nea Moni of Chios 9236:Blachernae Palace 9158: 9157: 9154: 9153: 9124:Code of Justinian 8972:Eastern Orthodoxy 8943: 8942: 8939: 8938: 8865: 8864: 8739:Scholae Palatinae 8635: 8634: 8631: 8630: 8600:Foreign relations 8594: 8593: 8488: 8487: 8302: 8301: 8298: 8297: 8101:(1204–1453) 7851:Media related to 7813:Library resources 7701:Storia di Roma, 1 7690:978-0-300-11786-8 7675:978-1-84725-179-4 7473:978-0-87023-290-9 7432:978-0-521-39832-9 7342:Osprey Publishing 7313:978-0-521-89409-8 7280:978-0-521-43991-6 7182:978-0-691-19790-6 7142:978-1-4516-4763-1 7110:Adamo di Montaldo 7088:978-0-571-29820-4 7053:978-1-4013-0558-1 7032:978-1-4013-0558-1 6956:978-1-134-45259-0 6805:"Greeks in Italy" 6718:"The Marble King" 6570:978-0-932885-30-2 6531:978-90-256-0626-8 6390:978-1-317-20724-5 6305:978-1-4262-0829-4 6275:978-0-8160-6259-1 6176:978-90-256-0626-8 6138:978-0-7486-3115-5 6101:Sphrantzes (1980) 6066:978-5-389-19591-2 6006:978-0-8223-3424-8 5972:978-0-8143-1540-8 5934:978-0-682-46972-2 5884:978-90-256-0626-8 5877:. Hakkert. 1973. 5846:978-0-87023-290-9 5719:978-0-85115-312-4 5689:978-0-571-25079-0 5651:Women Law Journal 5633:Melissenos (1980) 5587:, pp. 81–84. 5307:, pp. 96–97. 5190:, pp. 94–95. 5166:, pp. 77–78. 5147:978-0-19-514366-9 5110:978-1-351-87376-5 5066:978-0-262-19516-4 4970:, 159, 923A–944B. 4967:Patrologia Graeca 4920:] (in Greek). 4744:978-0-307-46241-1 4733:. Crown. p. 4708:978-0-87665-156-8 4660:978-90-5911-573-6 4618:978-0-14-192859-3 4579:978-1-59884-901-1 4482:, pp. 83–84. 4338:"The Black Death" 4296:978-0-472-11463-4 4105:on 11 June 2009. 4038:978-0-19-521930-2 3620:Duchy of Burgundy 3608:Republic of Genoa 3474:Adamo di Montaldo 3458:Giacomo Languschi 3433:Filippo da Rimini 3407:Henry of Soemmern 3344:a report by some 3330:Samile the Vladik 3266:George Sphrantzes 3192:folk-etymological 2959:Council of Mantua 2940:Holy Roman Empire 2832:John Argyropoulos 2820:Coluccio Salutati 2651:George Sphrantzes 2639:George Sphrantzes 2571:George Sphrantzes 2489:According to the 2294:Admiral Baltoghlu 2202:Blachernae Palace 1939:George Sphrantzes 1872:crenellated walls 1747:Holy Roman Empire 1643:Byzantine Emperor 1504:, an independent 1302: 1301: 963: 962: 804: 803: 300:(Catalan retinue) 288:Kingdom of Sicily 224:Serbian Despotate 194: 193: 124:41.030°N 28.935°E 16:(Redirected from 11930: 11878:East–West Schism 11825: 11824: 11815: 11814: 11805: 11764:Medieval studies 11608:Church and State 11482:Late Middle Ages 11374:High Middle Ages 11292:Christianization 11262:Migration Period 11239: 11232: 11225: 11216: 11215: 11188: 11179: 11168: 11157: 11146: 11124: 11113: 11104: 11095: 11086: 11075: 11064: 11055: 11046: 11035: 11024: 11013: 11002: 10993: 10982: 10973: 10953: 10942: 10931: 10920: 10909: 10898: 10887: 10878: 10867: 10856: 10847: 10836: 10825: 10814: 10805: 10794: 10772: 10763: 10754: 10743: 10734: 10723: 10712: 10701: 10690: 10681: 10670: 10661: 10652: 10643: 10634: 10625: 10614: 10605: 10585: 10574: 10565: 10556: 10547: 10538: 10529: 10518: 10507: 10496: 10485: 10474: 10465: 10454: 10445: 10436: 10427: 10418: 10409: 10400: 10391: 10382: 10371: 10360: 10351: 10342: 10333: 10324: 10313: 10304: 10295: 10284: 10278:Peñón of Algiers 10275: 10266: 10257: 10248: 10239: 10228: 10208: 10199: 10188: 10179: 10170: 10159: 10150: 10139: 10128: 10117: 10106: 10097: 10088: 10077: 10068: 10059: 10048: 10039: 10030: 10019: 10010: 10001: 9990: 9979: 9957: 9948: 9939: 9930: 9921: 9912: 9903: 9894: 9872: 9871: 9860: 9853: 9846: 9837: 9836: 9820: 9733: 9732: 9676:Imperial Library 9622:Byzantine Greeks 9363:Daphni Monastery 9314:Panagia Chalkeon 9309:Hagios Demetrios 9276:Prison of Anemas 9226:Basilica Cistern 9184: 9183: 9175: 9174: 9164: 9163: 9019:West Syriac Rite 9009:Alexandrian Rite 8960: 8959: 8953:Religion and law 8949: 8948: 8884:Maritime themata 8840:Palaiologan army 8693:Military manuals 8661: 8660: 8652: 8651: 8641: 8640: 8499: 8498: 8475:Megas logothetes 8326: 8325: 8319: 8318: 8308: 8307: 8181:By modern region 8102: 8049: 8048:(717–1204) 7980: 7942: 7941: 7929: 7928: 7920:Byzantine Empire 7913: 7906: 7899: 7890: 7889: 7850: 7794:. Rough Guides. 7749: 7736: 7725:. Aleph Et Taw. 7719:Murr Nehme, Lina 7714: 7618: 7616: 7614: 7588: 7559: 7541: 7513:Journal articles 7507: 7496: 7477: 7458: 7436: 7419:Runciman, Steven 7414: 7405: 7386: 7377: 7355: 7329: 7327: 7325: 7296: 7294: 7292: 7263: 7244: 7235: 7226: 7217: 7198: 7196: 7194: 7165: 7146: 7127: 7121: 7113: 7104: 7102: 7100: 7069: 7067: 7065: 7036: 7017: 7000: 6991: 6972: 6970: 6968: 6929: 6919: 6908: 6902: 6896: 6895: 6893: 6891: 6872: 6866: 6851: 6845: 6838: 6832: 6831: 6823: 6817: 6816: 6811:. Archived from 6801: 6795: 6794: 6792: 6790: 6771: 6765: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6732: 6726: 6725: 6720:. Archived from 6714: 6708: 6707: 6705: 6703: 6688: 6682: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6665: 6646: 6636: 6630: 6623: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6612: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6582: 6563:. Harvard CMES. 6554: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6543: 6516: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6505: 6490: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6461: 6455: 6447:, London, 1992. 6441: 6435: 6428: 6422: 6416: 6407: 6406: 6404: 6402: 6380:Europe and Islam 6374: 6368: 6367: 6365: 6363: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6317: 6289: 6280: 6279: 6263: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6228: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6150: 6122: 6116: 6110: 6104: 6098: 6092: 6086: 6080: 6074: 6068: 6058: 6052: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6020: 6018: 5990: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5979: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5896: 5869: 5863: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5809: 5808: 5806: 5804: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5642: 5636: 5630: 5624: 5618: 5612: 5606: 5600: 5594: 5588: 5582: 5576: 5570: 5564: 5558: 5552: 5546: 5537: 5531: 5525: 5519: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5457: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5401: 5395: 5379: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5325: 5319: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5254: 5248: 5242: 5236: 5230: 5224: 5215: 5209: 5203: 5197: 5191: 5185: 5179: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5152: 5151: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5094: 5083: 5082: 5080: 5078: 5050: 5039: 5033: 5022: 5016: 5010: 5003: 4997: 4994:Constantinopolis 4990: 4984: 4977: 4971: 4956: 4952: 4939: 4938: 4933: 4922: 4921: 4906: 4897: 4891: 4882: 4873:Nicolò Barbaro, 4871: 4858: 4857: 4845: 4839: 4833: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4776: 4770: 4764: 4758: 4752: 4751: 4732: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4696: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4672: 4644: 4638: 4637: 4632: 4630: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4563: 4557: 4551: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4522: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4492: 4483: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4396: 4390: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4363: 4357: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4334: 4328: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4288: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4244: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4199: 4197: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4101:. Archived from 4090: 4084: 4083: 4061: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4022: 4013: 4007: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3976:Mansel, Philip. 3973: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3920: 3919: 3888: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3848:on 15 April 2015 3834: 3828: 3825: 3819: 3816: 3810: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3781: 3768: 3767: 3755: 3740: 3734: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3682: 3676: 3665: 3659: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3603: 3597: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3576: 3573: 3567: 3560: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3312:Ubertino Puscolo 3272:Leonard of Chios 3221: 3208:name of Istanbul 3161: 3160: 3064:duke of Burgundy 2809:age of Crusading 2768:fell to Mehmed. 2735: 2722:Nicholas of Cusa 2652: 2519:Leonard of Chios 2290:Princes' Islands 2199: 2179:Girolamo Minotto 2036:Leonardo di Chio 1885: 1864:Theodosian Walls 1860:Golden Horn Wall 1756:Cardinal Isidore 1676:in 1274, at the 1658:western churches 1638:European support 1486:Princes' Islands 1479:Theodosian Walls 1378:military history 1362:Late Middle Ages 1318:Byzantine Empire 1294: 1287: 1280: 1266: 1265: 1264: 968: 967: 938:2nd Thessalonica 918:1st Thessalonica 903:Savoyard crusade 873:Catalan campaign 842: 840: 830: 823: 816: 807: 806: 774: 773: 772: 761: 760: 759: 748: 737: 736: 724: 713: 694: 686: 685: 676: 675: 666: 655: 589: 580: 571: 565:Cardinal Isidore 563: 562: 553: 543: 542: 532: 524: 515: 507: 499: 489: 482: 473: 465: 455: 448: 439: 431: 419: 403: 393: 383: 374: 366: 356: 349: 340: 328: 307: 296: 286: 285: 274: 273: 261: 250: 249: 248: 240:Byzantine Empire 238: 222: 211: 135: 134: 132: 131: 130: 125: 121: 118: 117: 116: 113: 94:Byzantine Empire 72: 71: 61: 41: 40: 21: 11938: 11937: 11933: 11932: 11931: 11929: 11928: 11927: 11838: 11837: 11836: 11831: 11793: 11774:Neo-medievalism 11722: 11658:Itinerant court 11581: 11476: 11397:Georgian Empire 11382:Norman Conquest 11368: 11314:Frankish Empire 11248: 11243: 11213: 11208: 11197: 11186: 11177: 11166: 11155: 11144: 11133: 11122: 11111: 11102: 11093: 11084: 11073: 11062: 11053: 11044: 11033: 11022: 11011: 11000: 10991: 10980: 10971: 10960: 10951: 10940: 10929: 10918: 10907: 10896: 10885: 10876: 10865: 10854: 10845: 10834: 10823: 10812: 10803: 10792: 10781: 10770: 10761: 10752: 10741: 10732: 10721: 10710: 10699: 10688: 10679: 10668: 10659: 10650: 10641: 10632: 10623: 10612: 10603: 10592: 10583: 10572: 10563: 10554: 10545: 10536: 10527: 10516: 10505: 10494: 10483: 10472: 10463: 10452: 10443: 10434: 10425: 10416: 10407: 10398: 10389: 10380: 10369: 10358: 10349: 10340: 10331: 10322: 10311: 10302: 10293: 10282: 10273: 10264: 10255: 10246: 10237: 10226: 10215: 10206: 10197: 10186: 10177: 10168: 10157: 10148: 10137: 10126: 10115: 10104: 10095: 10086: 10075: 10066: 10057: 10046: 10037: 10028: 10017: 10008: 9999: 9988: 9977: 9966: 9955: 9946: 9937: 9928: 9919: 9910: 9901: 9892: 9881: 9866: 9864: 9834: 9829: 9826: 9791: 9767:Cyrillic script 9738: 9719: 9664: 9648: 9548: 9530:Digenes Akritas 9506: 9451: 9392: 9356:Other locations 9351: 9323: 9280: 9212: 9201:Cross-in-square 9169: 9150: 9100: 8954: 8935: 8861: 8811: 8807:Varangian Guard 8750: 8724:East Roman army 8719:Late Roman army 8707: 8646: 8627: 8590: 8569: 8538: 8484: 8463: 8459:Epi ton deeseon 8449:Epi tou eidikou 8407: 8371: 8313: 8294: 8281: 8184: 8182: 8175: 8161:Palaiologan era 8103: 8100: 8091: 8062:Nikephorian era 8050: 8047: 8038: 7981: 7979:(330–717) 7978: 7969: 7949: 7936: 7923: 7917: 7869:Wayback Machine 7843: 7842: 7841: 7821: 7820: 7816: 7809: 7733: 7711: 7630:Babinger, Franz 7626: 7624:Further reading 7621: 7612: 7610: 7596: 7591: 7515: 7510: 7493: 7474: 7455: 7433: 7402: 7374: 7352: 7323: 7321: 7314: 7290: 7288: 7281: 7260: 7214: 7192: 7190: 7183: 7162: 7143: 7115: 7114: 7098: 7096: 7089: 7063: 7061: 7054: 7033: 6988: 6966: 6964: 6957: 6938: 6933: 6932: 6920: 6911: 6903: 6899: 6889: 6887: 6874: 6873: 6869: 6852: 6848: 6839: 6835: 6824: 6820: 6815:on 7 June 2013. 6803: 6802: 6798: 6788: 6786: 6773: 6772: 6768: 6760: 6756: 6746: 6744: 6733: 6729: 6716: 6715: 6711: 6701: 6699: 6690: 6689: 6685: 6677: 6673: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6637: 6633: 6624: 6620: 6610: 6608: 6595: 6594: 6590: 6580: 6578: 6571: 6555: 6551: 6541: 6539: 6532: 6518: 6517: 6513: 6503: 6501: 6492: 6491: 6484: 6474: 6472: 6463: 6462: 6458: 6442: 6438: 6429: 6425: 6417: 6410: 6400: 6398: 6391: 6375: 6371: 6361: 6359: 6329: 6325: 6315: 6313: 6306: 6290: 6283: 6276: 6254: 6250: 6243: 6229: 6225: 6215: 6213: 6200: 6196: 6186: 6184: 6177: 6163: 6162: 6158: 6148: 6146: 6139: 6131:. p. 175. 6123: 6119: 6111: 6107: 6099: 6095: 6089:Runciman (1965) 6087: 6083: 6075: 6071: 6059: 6055: 6046: 6042: 6036:Runciman (1965) 6034: 6030: 6016: 6014: 6007: 5991: 5987: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5959: 5958: 5954: 5944: 5942: 5935: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5908: 5904: 5894: 5892: 5885: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5856: 5854: 5847: 5831: 5827: 5821:Runciman (1965) 5819: 5812: 5802: 5800: 5785: 5781: 5770: 5766: 5756: 5754: 5743: 5739: 5729: 5727: 5720: 5704: 5700: 5690: 5674: 5670: 5660: 5658: 5643: 5639: 5631: 5627: 5619: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5597:Crowley (2013a) 5595: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5573:Runciman (1965) 5571: 5567: 5559: 5555: 5547: 5540: 5534:Desimoni (1874) 5532: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5510:Crowley (2013b) 5508: 5504: 5498:Vasiliev (1928) 5496: 5492: 5484: 5480: 5472: 5465: 5455: 5453: 5440: 5439: 5435: 5427: 5423: 5417:Runciman (1965) 5415: 5411: 5402: 5398: 5393:Wayback Machine 5380: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5346:Runciman (1965) 5344: 5340: 5334:Runciman (1965) 5332: 5328: 5320: 5311: 5305:Runciman (1965) 5303: 5299: 5289: 5287: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5261: 5257: 5251:Runciman (1965) 5249: 5245: 5239:Runciman (1965) 5237: 5233: 5227:Runciman (1965) 5225: 5218: 5210: 5206: 5198: 5194: 5188:Runciman (1965) 5186: 5182: 5174: 5170: 5164:Runciman (1965) 5162: 5155: 5148: 5134: 5130: 5120: 5118: 5111: 5095: 5086: 5076: 5074: 5067: 5051: 5042: 5034: 5025: 5017: 5013: 5004: 5000: 4991: 4987: 4978: 4974: 4961:Pope Nicholas V 4954: 4953: 4942: 4934: 4925: 4915: 4907: 4900: 4894:Concasty (1955) 4892: 4885: 4872: 4861: 4846: 4842: 4834: 4827: 4819: 4815: 4807: 4803: 4797:Crowley (2013a) 4795: 4791: 4785:Spilling (2010) 4783: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4745: 4723: 4719: 4709: 4687: 4683: 4670: 4668: 4661: 4645: 4641: 4628: 4626: 4619: 4603: 4599: 4589: 4587: 4580: 4564: 4560: 4554:Runciman (1965) 4552: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4525:Runciman (1965) 4523: 4519: 4509: 4507: 4502:. 29 May 2011. 4494: 4493: 4486: 4480:Runciman (1965) 4478: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4440: 4438: 4423: 4422: 4418: 4410: 4399: 4391: 4380: 4374:Runciman (1965) 4372: 4368: 4351: 4350: 4343: 4341: 4336: 4335: 4331: 4323: 4319: 4308: 4304: 4297: 4276: 4272: 4264: 4260: 4252: 4248: 4209: 4205: 4195: 4193: 4178: 4174: 4164: 4162: 4161:on 18 June 2017 4149: 4148: 4144: 4134: 4132: 4117: 4113: 4091: 4087: 4080: 4067: 4062: 4058: 4048: 4046: 4039: 4023: 4016: 4008: 4001: 3991: 3989: 3982:Washington Post 3974: 3965: 3955: 3953: 3942: 3938: 3930: 3923: 3890: 3889: 3885: 3879:Crowley (2013b) 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3851: 3849: 3836: 3835: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3794: 3792: 3783: 3782: 3771: 3756: 3743: 3735: 3726: 3716: 3714: 3705: 3704: 3700: 3692: 3685: 3679:Ivanović (2019) 3677: 3668: 3660: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3640: 3634: 3630: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3561: 3557: 3551: 3547: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3519:Đurađ Branković 3517: 3513: 3508: 3355: 3324:Nestor Iskander 3300:Isidore of Kiev 3247: 3235: 3233:Primary sources 3194:adaptations of 3150: 3112: 3106: 3078:and subsequent 3068:Philip the Good 3060:Guillaume Dufay 3043: 3041:Cultural impact 2984: 2967: 2948: 2895:Gentile Bellini 2887: 2881: 2804:Pope Nicholas V 2736: 2733: 2653: 2650: 2614: 2579:Steven Runciman 2577:. According to 2543:Niccolò Barbaro 2508:Venetian Senate 2487: 2401: 2326:Niccolò Barbaro 2269: 2181: 2112: 2040:Nestor Iskander 1971:Royal Armouries 1963:Dardanelles Gun 1955: 1943:Isidore of Kiev 1935:Niccolò Barbaro 1930:Đurađ Branković 1902: 1897: 1896: 1895: 1893: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1855:defensive chain 1853:ordered that a 1843: 1751:Battle of Varna 1734:Pope Nicholas V 1722:Pope Nicholas V 1640: 1522: 1506:successor state 1402: 1370:medieval period 1298: 1262: 1260: 1255: 1190:Palaiologan era 1094:Nikephorian era 977: 966: 965: 964: 959: 958: 942: 843: 838: 836: 834: 799: 794: 792: 781: 770: 768: 757: 755: 731: 703: 698: 680: 670: 642: 592: 557: 549: 537: 495: 461: 427: 409: 311: 298:Crown of Aragon 280: 268: 246: 244: 228: 215: 190: 187:, 1475 and 1479 150: 144:Ottoman victory 136: 128: 126: 122: 119: 114: 111: 109: 107: 106: 105: 79: 62: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11936: 11926: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11910: 11905: 11900: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11880: 11875: 11870: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11833: 11832: 11830: 11829: 11819: 11809: 11798: 11795: 11794: 11792: 11791: 11786: 11781: 11776: 11771: 11769:Misconceptions 11766: 11761: 11756: 11751: 11746: 11741: 11736: 11730: 11728: 11724: 11723: 11721: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11705: 11700: 11695: 11690: 11685: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11635: 11630: 11625: 11620: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11600: 11595: 11589: 11587: 11583: 11582: 11580: 11579: 11577:Little Ice Age 11574: 11573: 11572: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11532: 11530:Western Schism 11527: 11522: 11517: 11512: 11507: 11502: 11497: 11492: 11486: 11484: 11478: 11477: 11475: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11459: 11454: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11434: 11429: 11424: 11419: 11414: 11409: 11404: 11399: 11394: 11389: 11384: 11378: 11376: 11370: 11369: 11367: 11366: 11361: 11356: 11351: 11346: 11341: 11336: 11331: 11326: 11321: 11316: 11311: 11306: 11301: 11296: 11295: 11294: 11284: 11279: 11277:Late antiquity 11274: 11269: 11264: 11258: 11256: 11250: 11249: 11242: 11241: 11234: 11227: 11219: 11210: 11209: 11202: 11199: 11198: 11196: 11195: 11184: 11175: 11164: 11153: 11141: 11139: 11135: 11134: 11132: 11131: 11120: 11109: 11100: 11091: 11082: 11071: 11060: 11051: 11042: 11031: 11020: 11009: 10998: 10989: 10978: 10968: 10966: 10962: 10961: 10959: 10958: 10949: 10938: 10927: 10916: 10905: 10894: 10883: 10874: 10863: 10852: 10843: 10832: 10821: 10810: 10801: 10789: 10787: 10783: 10782: 10780: 10779: 10768: 10759: 10750: 10739: 10730: 10719: 10708: 10697: 10686: 10677: 10666: 10657: 10648: 10639: 10630: 10621: 10610: 10600: 10598: 10594: 10593: 10591: 10590: 10581: 10570: 10561: 10552: 10543: 10534: 10525: 10514: 10503: 10492: 10481: 10470: 10461: 10450: 10441: 10432: 10423: 10414: 10405: 10396: 10387: 10378: 10367: 10356: 10347: 10338: 10329: 10320: 10309: 10300: 10291: 10280: 10271: 10262: 10253: 10244: 10235: 10223: 10221: 10217: 10216: 10214: 10213: 10204: 10195: 10184: 10175: 10166: 10155: 10146: 10135: 10124: 10113: 10102: 10093: 10084: 10073: 10064: 10062:Constantinople 10055: 10044: 10035: 10026: 10015: 10006: 9997: 9994:Constantinople 9986: 9983:Constantinople 9974: 9972: 9968: 9967: 9965: 9964: 9961:Constantinople 9953: 9944: 9935: 9926: 9917: 9908: 9899: 9889: 9887: 9883: 9882: 9878:Ottoman Empire 9876:involving the 9863: 9862: 9855: 9848: 9840: 9831: 9830: 9828: 9827: 9825: 9824: 9814: 9809: 9803: 9800: 9797: 9796: 9793: 9792: 9790: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9743: 9740: 9739: 9729: 9728: 9725: 9724: 9721: 9720: 9718: 9717: 9716: 9715: 9705: 9700: 9699: 9698: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9667: 9665: 9663: 9662: 9659: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9647: 9646: 9641: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9625: 9624: 9614: 9613: 9612: 9607: 9597: 9592: 9587: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9556: 9554: 9550: 9549: 9547: 9546: 9541: 9534: 9533: 9532: 9522: 9516: 9514: 9508: 9507: 9505: 9504: 9499: 9498: 9497: 9492: 9487: 9477: 9472: 9467: 9461: 9459: 9453: 9452: 9450: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9433: 9432: 9422: 9417: 9412: 9406: 9404: 9398: 9397: 9394: 9393: 9391: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9359: 9357: 9353: 9352: 9350: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9333: 9331: 9325: 9324: 9322: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9299:Byzantine Bath 9296: 9290: 9288: 9282: 9281: 9279: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9222: 9220: 9218:Constantinople 9214: 9213: 9211: 9210: 9209: 9208: 9203: 9193: 9187: 9181: 9171: 9170: 9160: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9148: 9143: 9138: 9133: 9128: 9127: 9126: 9116: 9110: 9108: 9102: 9101: 9099: 9098: 9093: 9092: 9091: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9027: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9001: 9000: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8977:Byzantine Rite 8968: 8966: 8956: 8955: 8945: 8944: 8941: 8940: 8937: 8936: 8934: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8902: 8901: 8896: 8891: 8881: 8875: 8873: 8867: 8866: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8859: 8857:Grand domestic 8854: 8853: 8852: 8847: 8837: 8836: 8835: 8830: 8823:Komnenian army 8819: 8817: 8813: 8812: 8810: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8769: 8764: 8758: 8756: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8748: 8747: 8746: 8741: 8736: 8731: 8721: 8715: 8713: 8709: 8708: 8706: 8705: 8700: 8698:Military units 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8668:Battle tactics 8664: 8658: 8648: 8647: 8637: 8636: 8633: 8632: 8629: 8628: 8626: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8604: 8602: 8596: 8595: 8592: 8591: 8589: 8588: 8583: 8577: 8575: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8546: 8544: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8505: 8503: 8496: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8485: 8483: 8482: 8477: 8471: 8469: 8465: 8464: 8462: 8461: 8456: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8415: 8413: 8409: 8408: 8406: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8379: 8377: 8373: 8372: 8370: 8369: 8364: 8363: 8362: 8360:Medieval Greek 8352: 8351: 8350: 8345: 8340: 8329: 8323: 8315: 8314: 8304: 8303: 8300: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8254: 8253: 8248: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8187: 8185: 8180: 8177: 8176: 8174: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8131: 8130: 8129: 8119: 8118: 8117: 8115:Fourth Crusade 8106: 8104: 8096: 8093: 8092: 8090: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8072:Macedonian era 8069: 8064: 8059: 8053: 8051: 8043: 8040: 8039: 8037: 8036: 8031: 8030: 8029: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8005:Theodosian era 8002: 8001: 8000: 7995: 7984: 7982: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7968: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7952: 7950: 7945: 7938: 7937: 7925: 7924: 7916: 7915: 7908: 7901: 7893: 7887: 7886: 7876: 7871: 7856: 7840: 7839: 7834: 7829: 7823: 7822: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7807:External links 7805: 7804: 7803: 7788:Wintle, Justin 7785: 7770: 7763: 7760: 7758:978-1603810760 7750: 7737: 7731: 7715: 7709: 7693: 7678: 7663: 7645: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7619: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7589: 7571:(2): 390–410. 7560: 7532:(2): 217–230. 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7508: 7498: 7497: 7491: 7478: 7472: 7459: 7453: 7437: 7431: 7415: 7406: 7400: 7387: 7378: 7372: 7356: 7350: 7334:Nicolle, David 7330: 7312: 7297: 7279: 7264: 7258: 7245: 7236: 7227: 7218: 7212: 7199: 7181: 7166: 7160: 7147: 7141: 7128: 7105: 7087: 7078:Constantinople 7072: 7071: 7070: 7052: 7031: 7018: 7001: 6992: 6986: 6973: 6955: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6931: 6930: 6922:Michael Angold 6909: 6897: 6867: 6846: 6833: 6818: 6796: 6766: 6764:, p. 280. 6754: 6727: 6709: 6683: 6671: 6657: 6631: 6618: 6588: 6569: 6549: 6530: 6511: 6482: 6456: 6443:N. G. Wilson, 6436: 6423: 6421:, p. 446. 6419:Norwich (1995) 6408: 6389: 6369: 6332:Volf, Miroslav 6323: 6304: 6281: 6274: 6248: 6241: 6223: 6194: 6175: 6156: 6137: 6117: 6105: 6093: 6081: 6079:, p. 283. 6077:Reinert (2002) 6069: 6053: 6040: 6038:, p. 145. 6028: 6005: 5985: 5971: 5952: 5933: 5914: 5902: 5883: 5864: 5845: 5825: 5823:, p. 147. 5810: 5779: 5764: 5737: 5718: 5698: 5688: 5668: 5637: 5635:, p. 130. 5625: 5613: 5601: 5589: 5585:Nicolle (2000) 5577: 5575:, p. 152. 5565: 5561:Nicolle (2000) 5553: 5551:, p. 388. 5538: 5526: 5524:, p. 227. 5514: 5502: 5490: 5488:, p. 377. 5486:Norwich (1997) 5478: 5476:, p. 378. 5474:Norwich (1997) 5463: 5446:iefemerida.com 5433: 5429:Crowley (2005) 5421: 5409: 5396: 5374: 5372:, p. 520. 5362: 5358:Crowley (2005) 5350: 5348:, p. 108. 5338: 5336:, p. 100. 5326: 5324:, p. 376. 5322:Norwich (1997) 5309: 5297: 5267: 5263:Nicolle (2000) 5255: 5243: 5231: 5216: 5212:Nicolle (2000) 5204: 5200:Nicolle (2000) 5192: 5180: 5178:, p. 111. 5168: 5153: 5146: 5128: 5109: 5084: 5065: 5040: 5038:, p. 374. 5036:Norwich (1997) 5023: 5019:Nicolle (2000) 5011: 4998: 4985: 4972: 4940: 4923: 4898: 4883: 4859: 4840: 4836:Nicolle (2000) 4825: 4821:Lanning (2005) 4813: 4809:Nicolle (2000) 4801: 4789: 4787:, p. 187. 4777: 4775:, p. 380. 4765: 4763:, p. 415. 4761:Norwich (1995) 4753: 4743: 4717: 4707: 4681: 4659: 4639: 4617: 4597: 4578: 4558: 4541: 4529: 4517: 4484: 4472: 4460: 4458:, p. 146. 4448: 4416: 4414:, p. 373. 4412:Norwich (1997) 4397: 4393:Crowley (2005) 4378: 4366: 4329: 4317: 4302: 4295: 4279:Madden, Thomas 4270: 4266:Norwich (1997) 4258: 4256:, p. 304. 4254:Norwich (1997) 4246: 4203: 4172: 4142: 4111: 4085: 4078: 4056: 4037: 4014: 3999: 3963: 3936: 3932:Nicolle (2000) 3921: 3883: 3871: 3859: 3829: 3820: 3811: 3802: 3769: 3741: 3739:, p. 464. 3724: 3698: 3683: 3666: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3639: 3638: 3628: 3598: 3589: 3577: 3568: 3555: 3545: 3532: 3523: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3503: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3484:Ashikpashazade 3481: 3471: 3465: 3455: 3449: 3439: 3430: 3420: 3410: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3342: 3336: 3327: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3294:Jacopo Tetaldi 3291: 3281: 3278:Nicolò Barbaro 3275: 3269: 3263: 3254: 3246: 3243: 3234: 3231: 3149: 3146: 3108:Main article: 3105: 3102: 3042: 3039: 3031:Constantine XI 3027:Marble Emperor 3022:divine liturgy 2983: 2980: 2966: 2963: 2955:Greek Orthodox 2947: 2944: 2928:Ivan Alexander 2883:Main article: 2880: 2877: 2775:and served as 2772:Constantine XI 2731: 2670:was appointed 2648: 2613: 2610: 2601:Loukas Notaras 2486: 2483: 2461:Ulubatlı Hasan 2400: 2397: 2363:Johannes Grant 2268: 2265: 2249:Loukas Notaras 2163:Charisian Gate 2111: 2108: 2084:Sea of Marmara 1954: 1951: 1901: 1898: 1890: 1889: 1880: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1842: 1839: 1690:Pope Eugene IV 1650:Western Europe 1646:Constantine XI 1639: 1636: 1553:Anadolu Hisarı 1521: 1518: 1510:Fourth Crusade 1490:Sea of Marmara 1421:Fourth Crusade 1405:Constantinople 1401: 1398: 1344:Byzantine army 1331:The attacking 1322:Ottoman Empire 1300: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1289: 1282: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1257: 1256: 1254: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1198: 1197: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1166: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1135:Fourth Crusade 1129: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1104:Macedonian era 1101: 1096: 1091: 1083: 1082: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1053:Theodosian era 1050: 1036: 1028: 1027: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1003: 1002: 998: 997: 986: 985: 979: 978: 971: 961: 960: 957: 956: 951: 946: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 849: 848: 845: 844: 833: 832: 825: 818: 810: 802: 801: 796: 788: 787: 783: 782: 780: 779: 766: 753: 742: 729: 718: 706: 697: 696: 688: 678: 668: 660: 657: 645: 643: 641: 640: 637: 625: 624: 623: 622: 610: 609: 602: 599: 598: 594: 593: 591: 590: 574: 555: 535: 518: 501: 483: 467: 449: 441:Loukas Notaras 433: 422:Constantine XI 412: 410: 408: 407: 397: 387: 377: 360: 350: 334: 321: 318: 317: 313: 312: 310: 309: 301: 290: 278: 266: 255: 242: 231: 229: 227: 226: 216: 213:Ottoman Empire 204: 201: 200: 196: 195: 192: 191: 189: 188: 158: 154: 152: 146: 145: 142: 138: 137: 129:41.030; 28.935 90:Constantinople 88: 86: 82: 81: 76: 68: 67: 54: 53: 46: 45: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11935: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11904: 11901: 11899: 11896: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11866: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11845: 11843: 11828: 11820: 11818: 11810: 11808: 11804: 11800: 11799: 11796: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11780: 11777: 11775: 11772: 11770: 11767: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11757: 11755: 11752: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11731: 11729: 11725: 11719: 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11694: 11691: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11634: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11614: 11611: 11609: 11606: 11604: 11601: 11599: 11596: 11594: 11591: 11590: 11588: 11584: 11578: 11575: 11571: 11568: 11567: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11496: 11493: 11491: 11488: 11487: 11485: 11483: 11479: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11445: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11437:Scholasticism 11435: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11423: 11420: 11418: 11415: 11413: 11410: 11408: 11405: 11403: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11379: 11377: 11375: 11371: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11345: 11342: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11325: 11322: 11320: 11317: 11315: 11312: 11310: 11307: 11305: 11302: 11300: 11299:Rise of Islam 11297: 11293: 11290: 11289: 11288: 11285: 11283: 11280: 11278: 11275: 11273: 11270: 11268: 11265: 11263: 11260: 11259: 11257: 11255: 11251: 11247: 11240: 11235: 11233: 11228: 11226: 11221: 11220: 11217: 11206: 11200: 11194: 11193: 11185: 11183: 11176: 11174: 11173: 11165: 11163: 11162: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11143: 11142: 11140: 11136: 11130: 11129: 11121: 11119: 11118: 11110: 11108: 11101: 11099: 11092: 11090: 11083: 11081: 11080: 11072: 11070: 11069: 11061: 11059: 11052: 11050: 11043: 11041: 11040: 11032: 11030: 11029: 11021: 11019: 11018: 11010: 11008: 11007: 10999: 10997: 10990: 10988: 10987: 10979: 10977: 10970: 10969: 10967: 10963: 10957: 10950: 10948: 10947: 10939: 10937: 10936: 10928: 10926: 10925: 10917: 10915: 10914: 10906: 10904: 10903: 10895: 10893: 10892: 10884: 10882: 10875: 10873: 10872: 10864: 10862: 10861: 10853: 10851: 10844: 10842: 10841: 10833: 10831: 10830: 10822: 10820: 10819: 10811: 10809: 10802: 10800: 10799: 10791: 10790: 10788: 10784: 10778: 10777: 10769: 10767: 10760: 10758: 10751: 10749: 10748: 10740: 10738: 10731: 10729: 10728: 10720: 10718: 10717: 10709: 10707: 10706: 10698: 10696: 10695: 10687: 10685: 10678: 10676: 10675: 10667: 10665: 10658: 10656: 10649: 10647: 10640: 10638: 10631: 10629: 10622: 10620: 10619: 10611: 10609: 10602: 10601: 10599: 10595: 10589: 10582: 10580: 10579: 10571: 10569: 10562: 10560: 10553: 10551: 10544: 10542: 10535: 10533: 10526: 10524: 10523: 10515: 10513: 10512: 10504: 10502: 10501: 10493: 10491: 10490: 10482: 10480: 10479: 10471: 10469: 10462: 10460: 10459: 10451: 10449: 10442: 10440: 10433: 10431: 10424: 10422: 10415: 10413: 10406: 10404: 10397: 10395: 10388: 10386: 10379: 10377: 10376: 10368: 10366: 10365: 10357: 10355: 10348: 10346: 10339: 10337: 10330: 10328: 10321: 10319: 10318: 10310: 10308: 10307:Güns (Kőszeg) 10301: 10299: 10292: 10290: 10289: 10281: 10279: 10272: 10270: 10263: 10261: 10254: 10252: 10245: 10243: 10236: 10234: 10233: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10218: 10212: 10205: 10203: 10196: 10194: 10193: 10185: 10183: 10176: 10174: 10167: 10165: 10164: 10156: 10154: 10147: 10145: 10144: 10136: 10134: 10133: 10125: 10123: 10122: 10114: 10112: 10111: 10103: 10101: 10094: 10092: 10085: 10083: 10082: 10074: 10072: 10065: 10063: 10056: 10054: 10053: 10045: 10043: 10036: 10034: 10027: 10025: 10024: 10016: 10014: 10007: 10005: 9998: 9996: 9995: 9987: 9985: 9984: 9976: 9975: 9973: 9969: 9963: 9962: 9954: 9952: 9945: 9943: 9936: 9934: 9927: 9925: 9918: 9916: 9909: 9907: 9900: 9898: 9891: 9890: 9888: 9884: 9879: 9875: 9870: 9861: 9856: 9854: 9849: 9847: 9842: 9841: 9838: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9804: 9802: 9801: 9798: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9744: 9741: 9734: 9730: 9714: 9711: 9710: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9697: 9694: 9693: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9671:Encyclopedias 9669: 9668: 9666: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9654: 9651: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9623: 9620: 9619: 9618: 9615: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9602: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9595:Hellenization 9593: 9591: 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9557: 9555: 9553:Everyday life 9551: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9528: 9527: 9526: 9525:Acritic songs 9523: 9521: 9518: 9517: 9515: 9513: 9509: 9503: 9500: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9482: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9460: 9458: 9454: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9431: 9428: 9427: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9416: 9413: 9411: 9408: 9407: 9405: 9403: 9399: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9368:Hosios Loukas 9366: 9364: 9361: 9360: 9358: 9354: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9334: 9332: 9330: 9326: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9291: 9289: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9223: 9221: 9219: 9215: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9198: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9165: 9161: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9125: 9122: 9121: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9111: 9109: 9107: 9103: 9097: 9094: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9041:Monophysitism 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9014:Armenian Rite 9012: 9010: 9007: 9006: 9005: 9002: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8974: 8973: 8970: 8969: 8967: 8965: 8961: 8957: 8950: 8946: 8932: 8931:Naval battles 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8886: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8872: 8868: 8858: 8855: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8841: 8838: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8825: 8824: 8821: 8820: 8818: 8814: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8759: 8757: 8753: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8726: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8716: 8714: 8710: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8665: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8653: 8649: 8642: 8638: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8605: 8603: 8601: 8597: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8578: 8576: 8572: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8541: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8506: 8504: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8491: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8472: 8470: 8466: 8460: 8457: 8455: 8454:Protasekretis 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8410: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8380: 8378: 8374: 8368: 8365: 8361: 8358: 8357: 8356: 8353: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8336: 8335: 8334: 8331: 8330: 8327: 8324: 8320: 8316: 8309: 8305: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8280: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8243: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8188: 8186: 8178: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8140: 8136: 8132: 8128: 8125: 8124: 8123: 8120: 8116: 8113: 8112: 8111: 8108: 8107: 8105: 8099: 8094: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8082:Komnenian era 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8054: 8052: 8046: 8041: 8035: 8032: 8027: 8023: 8022: 8021: 8020:Heraclian era 8018: 8016: 8015:Justinian era 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7990: 7989: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7977: 7972: 7964: 7963: 7959: 7958: 7957: 7954: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7930: 7926: 7921: 7914: 7909: 7907: 7902: 7900: 7895: 7894: 7891: 7884: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7857: 7854: 7849: 7845: 7844: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7801: 7800:1-84353-018-X 7797: 7793: 7789: 7786: 7783: 7782:0-670-86942-2 7779: 7775: 7771: 7768: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7738: 7734: 7732:2-86839-816-2 7728: 7724: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7710:88-06-11396-8 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7661: 7660:0-14-303481-2 7657: 7653: 7649: 7646: 7643: 7642:0-691-01078-1 7639: 7635: 7631: 7628: 7627: 7608: 7604: 7599: 7598: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7531: 7527: 7523: 7518: 7517: 7505: 7500: 7499: 7494: 7492:9781906842123 7488: 7484: 7479: 7475: 7469: 7465: 7460: 7456: 7454:0-87169-127-2 7450: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7407: 7403: 7401:9781409410645 7397: 7393: 7388: 7384: 7379: 7375: 7373:0-679-41650-1 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7351:1-84176-091-9 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7319: 7315: 7309: 7305: 7304: 7298: 7286: 7282: 7276: 7272: 7271: 7265: 7261: 7259:90-256-0626-1 7255: 7251: 7246: 7242: 7237: 7233: 7228: 7224: 7219: 7215: 7213:1-4022-2475-3 7209: 7205: 7200: 7188: 7184: 7178: 7174: 7173: 7167: 7163: 7161:9786051149318 7157: 7153: 7148: 7144: 7138: 7134: 7129: 7125: 7119: 7111: 7106: 7094: 7090: 7084: 7080: 7079: 7073: 7059: 7055: 7049: 7045: 7044: 7038: 7037: 7034: 7028: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7008:(in French). 7007: 7002: 6998: 6993: 6989: 6987:0-304-35270-5 6983: 6979: 6974: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6949:. Routledge. 6948: 6947: 6941: 6940: 6927: 6923: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6906: 6901: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6871: 6864: 6863:0-8108-2600-3 6860: 6856: 6850: 6843: 6837: 6829: 6822: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6800: 6784: 6780: 6779:The Economist 6776: 6770: 6763: 6758: 6742: 6738: 6731: 6723: 6719: 6713: 6697: 6693: 6687: 6681:, p. 59. 6680: 6675: 6660: 6658:1-85233-160-7 6654: 6650: 6645: 6644: 6635: 6628: 6622: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6576: 6572: 6566: 6562: 6561: 6553: 6537: 6533: 6527: 6523: 6522: 6515: 6499: 6495: 6489: 6487: 6470: 6466: 6460: 6454: 6453:0-7156-2418-0 6450: 6446: 6440: 6433: 6427: 6420: 6415: 6413: 6396: 6392: 6386: 6383:. Routledge. 6382: 6381: 6373: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6327: 6311: 6307: 6301: 6297: 6296: 6288: 6286: 6277: 6271: 6267: 6262: 6261: 6252: 6244: 6242:0-8419-0519-3 6238: 6234: 6227: 6211: 6207: 6206: 6198: 6182: 6178: 6172: 6168: 6167: 6160: 6144: 6140: 6134: 6130: 6129: 6121: 6114: 6109: 6102: 6097: 6090: 6085: 6078: 6073: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6050: 6044: 6037: 6032: 6025: 6012: 6008: 6002: 5998: 5997: 5989: 5974: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5956: 5940: 5936: 5930: 5926: 5925: 5918: 5911: 5906: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5876: 5875: 5868: 5852: 5848: 5842: 5838: 5837: 5829: 5822: 5817: 5815: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5775: 5768: 5752: 5748: 5741: 5725: 5721: 5715: 5711: 5710: 5702: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5681: 5680: 5672: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5629: 5623:, p. 37. 5622: 5617: 5611:, p. 39. 5610: 5605: 5599:, p. 191 5598: 5593: 5586: 5581: 5574: 5569: 5563:, p. 81. 5562: 5557: 5550: 5545: 5543: 5535: 5530: 5523: 5522:Durant (2011) 5518: 5511: 5506: 5499: 5494: 5487: 5482: 5475: 5470: 5468: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5430: 5425: 5419:, p. 84. 5418: 5413: 5406: 5400: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5384: 5378: 5371: 5366: 5359: 5354: 5347: 5342: 5335: 5330: 5323: 5318: 5316: 5314: 5306: 5301: 5285: 5281: 5280:The Economist 5277: 5271: 5265:, p. 40. 5264: 5259: 5253:, p. 94. 5252: 5247: 5241:, p. 93. 5240: 5235: 5229:, p. 92. 5228: 5223: 5221: 5214:, p. 45. 5213: 5208: 5202:, p. 39. 5201: 5196: 5189: 5184: 5177: 5176:Arnold (2001) 5172: 5165: 5160: 5158: 5149: 5143: 5139: 5132: 5116: 5112: 5106: 5102: 5101: 5093: 5091: 5089: 5072: 5068: 5062: 5058: 5057: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5037: 5032: 5030: 5028: 5021:, p. 44. 5020: 5015: 5008: 5002: 4995: 4989: 4982: 4976: 4969: 4968: 4963: 4962: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4919: 4911: 4905: 4903: 4895: 4890: 4888: 4880: 4876: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4837: 4832: 4830: 4822: 4817: 4811:, p. 32. 4810: 4805: 4798: 4793: 4786: 4781: 4774: 4769: 4762: 4757: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4730: 4721: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4694: 4685: 4678: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4643: 4636: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4601: 4585: 4581: 4575: 4571: 4570: 4562: 4556:, p. 85. 4555: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4538: 4533: 4527:, p. 81. 4526: 4521: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4489: 4481: 4476: 4470:, p. 23. 4469: 4464: 4457: 4456:Setton (1978) 4452: 4436: 4433:. 1890–1900. 4432: 4431: 4426: 4420: 4413: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4394: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4376:, p. 60. 4375: 4370: 4361: 4355: 4339: 4333: 4326: 4321: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4292: 4287: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4267: 4262: 4255: 4250: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4160: 4156: 4155:The Economist 4152: 4146: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4115: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4081: 4079:960-7171-91-8 4075: 4071: 4060: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4030: 4029: 4021: 4019: 4011: 4006: 4004: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3951: 3947: 3940: 3934:, p. 41. 3933: 3928: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3880: 3875: 3869:, p. 57. 3868: 3863: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3833: 3824: 3815: 3806: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3738: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3712: 3708: 3707:"Mahmud Paşa" 3702: 3695: 3690: 3688: 3680: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3663: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3649: 3632: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3593: 3586: 3581: 3572: 3565: 3559: 3549: 3542: 3536: 3527: 3520: 3515: 3511: 3500: 3499:Evliya Çelebi 3497: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3479: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3434: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3395:Lauro Quirini 3393: 3391: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3347: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3331: 3328: 3325: 3322: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3248: 3242: 3240: 3230: 3228: 3227:eis tēn pólin 3225: 3220:εἰς τὴν πόλιν 3217: 3213: 3212:īs tīmbolī(n) 3209: 3204: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3164:Full of Islam 3155: 3145: 3143: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3101: 3099: 3094: 3092: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3054:Fausto Zonaro 3051: 3047: 3038: 3036: 3035:sleeping hero 3032: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2989: 2976: 2971: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2915: 2912:, literally " 2911: 2907: 2906:Roman Emperor 2902: 2896: 2893:Mehmed II by 2891: 2886: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2864: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2716:or dialogue. 2715: 2711: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2660: 2647: 2642: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2626:spoils of war 2623: 2618: 2609: 2607: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2589: 2587: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2563: 2561: 2560:Philip Mansel 2555: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2520: 2515: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2504:David Nicolle 2500: 2498: 2494: 2493: 2482: 2480: 2475: 2471: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2419: 2410: 2405: 2399:Final assault 2396: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2327: 2322: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2282: 2278: 2277:Fausto Zonaro 2273: 2264: 2262: 2261:David Nicolle 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2116: 2107: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2096:Bashi-bazouks 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2067: 2065: 2059: 2052: 2051:Fausto Zonaro 2047: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1959: 1950: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1906: 1892: 1884: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1801:and count of 1800: 1796: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1729:Rumeli Hisarı 1725: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710:ethnic hatred 1707: 1703: 1699: 1698:Bull of Union 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1664:of 1054, the 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1644: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1543:Rumeli hisarı 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1517: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1465: 1464:Ottoman Turks 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1440: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1295: 1290: 1288: 1283: 1281: 1276: 1275: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1259: 1258: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1192: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1114:Komnenian era 1112: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1068:Heraclian era 1066: 1064: 1063:Justinian era 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1034:Tetrarchy era 1032: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1017: 1016: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1000: 999: 992: 988: 987: 984: 981: 980: 975: 970: 969: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 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