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511:(DES) manages events in time. Most computer, logic-test and fault-tree simulations are of this type. In this type of simulation, the simulator maintains a queue of events sorted by the simulated time they should occur. The simulator reads the queue and triggers new events as each event is processed. It is not important to execute the simulation in real time. It is often more important to be able to access the data produced by the simulation and to discover logic defects in the design or the sequence of events.
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407:) of the values are. Often they are expressed as "error bars", a minimum and maximum deviation from the value range within which the true value (is expected to) lie. Because digital computer mathematics is not perfect, rounding and truncation errors multiply this error, so it is useful to perform an "error analysis" to confirm that values output by the simulation will still be usefully accurate.
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1140:. In some cases animations may also be useful in faster than real-time or even slower than real-time modes. For example, faster than real-time animations can be useful in visualizing the buildup of queues in the simulation of humans evacuating a building. Furthermore, simulation results are often aggregated into static images using various ways of
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569:. In agent-based simulation, the individual entities (such as molecules, cells, trees or consumers) in the model are represented directly (rather than by their density or concentration) and possess an internal state and set of behaviors or rules that determine how the agent's state is updated from one time-step to the next.
1173:. If, for instance, one of the key parameters (e.g., the net ratio of oil-bearing strata) is known to only one significant figure, then the result of the simulation might not be more precise than one significant figure, although it might (misleadingly) be presented as having four significant figures.
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In debugging, simulating a program execution under test (rather than executing natively) can detect far more errors than the hardware itself can detect and, at the same time, log useful debugging information such as instruction trace, memory alterations and instruction counts. This technique can also
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manufacturers make use of computer simulation to test safety features in new designs. By building a copy of the car in a physics simulation environment, they can save the hundreds of thousands of dollars that would otherwise be required to build and test a unique prototype. Engineers can step through
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that can be either small, running almost instantly on small devices, or large-scale programs that run for hours or days on network-based groups of computers. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible (or perhaps even imaginable) using traditional
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A model consists of the equations used to capture the behavior of a system. By contrast, computer simulation is the actual running of the program that perform algorithms which solve those equations, often in an approximate manner. Simulation, therefore, is the process of running a model. Thus one
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In social sciences, computer simulation is an integral component of the five angles of analysis fostered by the data percolation methodology, which also includes qualitative and quantitative methods, reviews of the literature (including scholarly), and interviews with experts, and which forms an
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For steady-state simulations, equations define the relationships between elements of the modeled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are often used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modeling case before dynamic simulation is attempted.
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are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations. Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results, meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution. Although this might seem obvious, this is a
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The external data requirements of simulations and models vary widely. For some, the input might be just a few numbers (for example, simulation of a waveform of AC electricity on a wire), while others might require terabytes of information (such as weather and climate models).
844:
An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions. Development of the
Potential Distribution Theorem (PDT) allows this complex subject to be simplified to down-to-earth presentations of molecular
616:(CGI) animation. Although observers could not necessarily read out numbers or quote math formulas, from observing a moving weather chart they might be able to predict events (and "see that rain was headed their way") much faster than by scanning tables of rain-cloud
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are not possible. There are many types of computer simulations; their common feature is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the model would be prohibitive or impossible.
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to ensure that the accuracy of the results is properly understood. For example, the probabilistic risk analysis of factors determining the success of an oilfield exploration program involves combining samples from a variety of statistical distributions using the
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Atanasov, AG; Waltenberger, B; Pferschy-Wenzig, EM; Linder, T; Wawrosch, C; Uhrin, P; Temml, V; Wang, L; Schwaiger, S; Heiss, EH; Rollinger, JM; Schuster, D; Breuss, JM; Bochkov, V; Mihovilovic, MD; Kopp, B; Bauer, R; Dirsch, VM; Stuppner, H (2015).
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being designed to represent the behaviour of, or the outcome of, a real-world or physical system. The reliability of some mathematical models can be determined by comparing their results to the real-world outcomes they aim to predict. Computer
620:. Such intense graphical displays, which transcended the world of numbers and formulae, sometimes also led to output that lacked a coordinate grid or omitted timestamps, as if straying too far from numeric data displays. Today,
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Systems that accept data from external sources must be very careful in knowing what they are receiving. While it is easy for computers to read in values from text or binary files, what is much harder is knowing what the
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High
Performance Computer Modernization Program. Other examples include a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation; a 2.64-million-atom model of the complex protein-producing organelle of all living organisms, the
727:
multiparticle simulation of the response of nanomaterials at multiple scales to an applied force for the purpose of modeling their thermoelastic and thermodynamic properties. Techniques used for such simulations are
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in a pipe. A two-dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing. A three-dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large
369:"invariant" data is often built into the model code, either because the value is truly invariant (e.g., the value of ฯ) or because the designers consider the value to be invariant for all cases of interest;
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to plan or redesign parts of the street network from single junctions over cities to a national highway network to transportation system planning, design and operations. See a more detailed article on
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paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling. In 1997, a desert-battle simulation of one force invading another involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks, trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around
449:, e.g. electric systems, hydraulic systems or multi-body mechanical systems (described primarily by DAE:s) or dynamics simulation of field problems, e.g. CFD of FEM simulations (described by PDE:s).
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simulations are used to simulate the behaviour of flowing air, water and other fluids. One-, two- and three-dimensional models are used. A one-dimensional model might simulate the effects of
612:. However, psychologists and others noted that humans could quickly perceive trends by looking at graphs or even moving-images or motion-pictures generated from the data, as displayed by
579:. Simulations dispersed across multiple host computers like this are often referred to as "distributed simulations". There are several standards for distributed simulation, including
534:). Periodically, the simulation program solves all the equations and uses the numbers to change the state and output of the simulation. Applications include flight simulators,
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might shrink or change during an extended period of medical treatment, presenting the passage of time as a spinning view of the visible human head, as the tumor changes.
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Formerly, the output data from a computer simulation was sometimes presented in a table or a matrix showing how data were affected by numerous changes in the simulation
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Desa, W. L. H. M., Kamaruddin, S., & Nawawi, M. K. M. (2012). Modeling of
Aircraft Composite Parts Using Simulation. Advanced Material Research, 591โ593, 557โ560.
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Other applications of CGI computer simulations are being developed to graphically display large amounts of data, in motion, as changes occur during a simulation run.
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1115:, where random numbers should actually be semi-random numbers. An exception to reproducibility are human-in-the-loop simulations such as flight simulations and
771:, where it is often called "individual based modeling" and is used in situations for which individual variability in the agents cannot be neglected, such as
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Baase, Sara. A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and
Ethical Issues for Computing and the Internet. 3. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2007. Pages 363โ364.
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would not "build a simulation"; instead, one would "build a model (or a simulator)", and then either "run the model" or equivalently "run a simulation".
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A special type of discrete simulation that does not rely on a model with an underlying equation, but can nonetheless be represented formally, is
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Another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures. For time-stepped simulations, there are two main classes:
1119:. Here a human is part of the simulation and thus influences the outcome in a way that is hard, if not impossible, to reproduce exactly.
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models tend to balance the view of moving rain/snow clouds against a map that uses numeric coordinates and numeric timestamps of events.
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Computer simulation developed hand-in-hand with the rapid growth of the computer, following its first large-scale deployment during the
280:(Switzerland), begun in May 2005 to create the first computer simulation of the entire human brain, right down to the molecular level.
237:. Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the system's model. It can be used to explore and gain new insights into new
2002:
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426:(and as a special case of deterministic, chaotic) โ see external links below for examples of stochastic vs. deterministic simulations
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Because of this variety, and because diverse simulation systems have many common elements, there are a large number of specialized
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statistical simulations based upon an agglomeration of a large number of input profiles, such as the forecasting of equilibrium
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data can be entered into the simulation when it starts up, for example by reading one or more files, or by reading data from a
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computer simulation for studying the selective sensitivity of bonds by mechanochemistry during grinding of organic molecules.
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Generic examples of types of computer simulations in science, which are derived from an underlying mathematical description:
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Models used for computer simulations can be classified according to several independent pairs of attributes, including:
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the simulation milliseconds at a time to determine the exact stresses being put upon each section of the prototype.
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that simulate dynamic patterns of urban development and responses to urban land use and transportation policies.
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1465:"Comparison of Parameter Estimation Methods in Stochastic Chemical Kinetic Models: Examples in Systems Biology"
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This article is about computer model within a scientific context. For simulating a computer on a computer, see
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edited by
Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. pp. 249โ260. New York: Routledge,
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Dynamic simulations attempt to capture changes in a system in response to (usually changing) input signals.
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328:. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitute for, modeling systems for which simple
550:, where the differential equations could be represented directly by various electrical components such as
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Young, Joseph and
Findley, Michael. 2014. "Computational Modeling to Study Conflicts and Terrorism."
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Simulations which store their data in regular grids and require only next-neighbor access are called
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that cannot be solved analytically, theories that involve continuous systems such as phenomena in
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Process of building a computer model, and the interplay between experiment, simulation, and theory
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behavior of structures (such as buildings and industrial parts) under stress and other conditions
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1531:"Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review"
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Modelling and
Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View
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608:. The use of the matrix format was related to traditional use of the matrix concept in
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An
Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Measurements
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Although sometimes ignored in computer simulations, it is very important to perform a
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extension of data triangulation. Of course, similar to any other scientific method,
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Notable, and sometimes controversial, computer simulations used in science include:
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1341:"Largest computational biology simulation mimics life's most essential nanomachine"
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and similar "hard to detect" errors as well as produce performance information and
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have become a useful tool for the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in
26:"Computer model" redirects here. For computer models of 3 dimensional objects, see
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2011:
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Building
Software for Simulation: Theory and Algorithms, with Applications in C++
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554:. By the late 1980s, however, most "analog" simulations were run on conventional
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The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the
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Computer simulations are used in a wide variety of practical contexts, such as:
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data can be provided during the simulation run, for example by a sensor network.
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Study on grinding of pharmaceutical products with an aid of computer simulation
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and which cannot be described directly with differential equations (this is a
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Extending
Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method
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The Every Computer Performance Book, Chapter 7: Modeling Computer Performance
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If the underlying graph is not a regular grid, the model may belong to the
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Control surfaces used to direct the progress of the simulation in some way;
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models run on a network of interconnected computers, possibly through the
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data to be input for a specific locale. This technique was developed for
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Values output for the purpose by other simulations, models, or processes.
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Strogatz, Steven (2007). "The End of Insight". In Brockman, John (ed.).
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1133:
920: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences
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783:(most purely mathematical models assume all trout behave identically).
546:. Originally, these kinds of simulations were actually implemented on
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modeling car crashes to test safety mechanisms in new vehicle models.
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simulation in the above sense). Phenomena in this category include
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simulation, typically used for discrete systems where events occur
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design of industrial processes, such as chemical processing plants
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computer simulation to model viral infection in mammalian cells.
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time stepped dynamic model. In hydrology there are several such
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Guide to the Computer Simulation Oral History Archive 2003-2018
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Bratley, Paul; Fox, Bennet L.; Schrage, Linus E. (2011-06-28).
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for the petroleum engineering to model the subsurface reservoir
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Santner, Thomas J; Williams, Brian J; Notz, William I (2003).
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can be used to experience a simulation in real-time, e.g., in
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can be used to display the results of a computer simulation.
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and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for
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Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies
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Sensors and other physical devices connected to the model;
33:"Digital model" redirects here. For digital twinning, see
16:
Process of mathematical modelling, performed on a computer
258:
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in agriculture, via dedicated software frameworks (e.g.
1031:
forecasting of prices on financial markets (for example
1619:"Making Models Match: Replicating an Agent-Based Model"
358:
Values extracted as a by-product from other processes;
266:, in 2005; a complete simulation of the life cycle of
1623:
Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation
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for the design of robots and robot control algorithms
805:
computer simulations have also been used to formally
1290:"Researchers stage largest Military Simulation ever"
767:
agent based simulation has been used effectively in
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Lastly, the time at which data is available varies:
748:Specific examples of computer simulations include:
74:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1428:
1401:
283:Because of the computational cost of simulation,
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1827:
882:is an important part of computational modeling
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1600:United States: Springer Psychology: 126 pages.
1577:Mizukami, Koichi; Saito, Fumio; Baron, Michel.
1463:Gupta, Ankur; Rawlings, James B. (April 2014).
1389:The design and analysis of computer experiments
1318:"Molecular Simulation of Macroscopic Phenomena"
439:(and as an important special case of discrete,
1435:. University Science Books. pp. 128โ129.
1996:
1813:
1462:
248:Computer simulations are realized by running
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720:with small numbers of molecules. (see also:
536:construction and management simulation games
1364:"Mission to build a simulated brain begins"
1361:
756:of receiving waters, allowing the gamut of
355:Current or historical data entered by hand;
2003:
1989:
1820:
1806:
1732:, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht:
1598:Creating Models in Psychological Research.
1338:
294:
1741:Science in the Age of Computer Simulation
1554:
1504:
1408:. Springer Science & Business Media.
962:As a possible humane alternative to live
936:Learn how and when to remove this message
134:Learn how and when to remove this message
1263:
885:
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160:
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37:. For virtual fictional characters, see
1639:
1355:
627:Similarly, CGI computer simulations of
593:Test and Training Enabling Architecture
257:, using multiple supercomputers in the
2258:
1339:Ambrosiano, Nancy (October 19, 2005).
1332:
650:Computer simulation of the process of
287:are used to perform inference such as
156:Weather Research and Forecasting model
1984:
1801:
1617:Wilensky, Uri; Rand, William (2007).
1422:
1282:
1059:process engineering simulation tools.
472:applications belong to this category.
1458:
1456:
1362:Graham-Rowe, Duncan (June 6, 2005).
1199:List of computer simulation software
918:adding citations to reliable sources
889:
802:for river water quality forecasting.
800:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
589:High Level Architecture (simulation)
72:adding citations to reliable sources
43:
2094:Climate change mitigation scenarios
2010:
1728:, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.),
1718:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1705:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
581:Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol
562:the behavior of an analog computer.
336:
13:
1685:
1302:. December 4, 1997. Archived from
973:design of complex systems such as
585:Distributed Interactive Simulation
14:
2302:
1786:
1453:
1024:simulation of other computers is
1016:simulation of electrical circuits
807:model theories of human cognition
502:to model chance or random events;
150:A 48-hour computer simulation of
2240:
2239:
2230:
2229:
1547:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001
1449:from the original on 2015-03-16.
1376:from the original on 2015-02-09.
894:
599:
520:differential-algebraic equations
345:Input sources also vary widely:
48:
2160:Integrated assessment modelling
1664:
1633:
1610:
1590:
1571:
1521:
958:atmospheric dispersion modeling
905:needs additional citations for
518:performs numerical solution of
59:needs additional citations for
2281:Alternatives to animal testing
1884:Monte Carlo molecular modeling
1395:
1380:
1345:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1310:
1257:
1111:special point of attention in
330:closed form analytic solutions
217:, as well as human systems in
1:
2286:Computational fields of study
1927:Electronic circuit simulation
1250:
683:roadway air dispersion models
641:
516:continuous dynamic simulation
391:. There are now many others.
2073:Open energy system databases
1846:Protein structure prediction
1266:What is your dangerous idea?
1079:Simulation in Transportation
834:Computational fluid dynamics
320:. It was a simulation of 12
7:
2140:Electric power transmission
1869:Chemical process simulators
1745:University of Chicago Press
1429:John Robert Taylor (1999).
1176:
1159:
1108:verification and validation
742:Multiscale Green's function
10:
2307:
1698:R. Frigg and S. Hartmann,
816:computer simulation using
788:hydrology transport models
661:a numerical simulation of
614:computer-generated-imagery
303:
289:uncertainty quantification
32:
25:
18:
2225:
2204:
2168:
2127:
2109:Mathematical optimization
2086:
2078:Open energy system models
2065:
2044:
2018:
1950:
1897:
1859:
1836:
1768:. John Wiley & Sons.
1295:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
540:chemical process modeling
508:discrete event simulation
447:Dynamic system simulation
1762:James J. Nutaro (2011).
1142:scientific visualization
718:gene regulatory networks
693:fall into this category.
499:random number generators
410:
387:. The best-known may be
316:to model the process of
1937:Multiphysics simulation
1912:Cosmological simulation
1851:Nucleic acid simulation
1756:Oxford University Press
1596:Mesly, Olivier (2015).
1069:urban simulation models
1020:Power system simulation
996:application performance
809:and performance, e.g.,
429:Steady-state or dynamic
295:Simulation versus model
1970:Organizational studies
1322:IBM Research - Almaden
1113:stochastic simulations
1049:organizational studies
663:differential equations
654:
567:agent-based simulation
524:differential equations
401:measurement resolution
166:
158:
2266:Computational science
2212:Energy Modeling Forum
1713:Simulation in Science
1640:Wescott, Bob (2013).
1405:A Guide to Simulation
1224:Simulation video game
1214:Simulation hypothesis
886:In practical contexts
649:
542:, and simulations of
326:Monte Carlo algorithm
269:Mycoplasma genitalium
195:computational physics
164:
149:
83:"Computer simulation"
1942:Reservoir simulation
1922:Dynamical simulation
1244:Web-based simulation
1166:sensitivity analysis
1138:training simulations
1054:reservoir simulation
1045:strategic management
914:improve this article
385:simulation languages
285:computer experiments
243:analytical solutions
172:is the running of a
68:improve this article
2291:Computer simulation
2271:Simulation software
2099:Computer simulation
1829:Computer simulation
1481:2014AIChE..60.1253G
1234:Virtual prototyping
1219:Simulation software
1184:Computational model
1075:traffic engineering
1012:forecasting of risk
1007:weather forecasting
773:population dynamics
734:Molecular mechanics
687:continuum mechanics
631:can simulate how a
622:weather forecasting
610:mathematical models
544:electrical circuits
170:Computer simulation
2217:openmod initiative
2135:Electricity market
1917:Dynamic simulation
1879:Molecular modeling
1584:2011-07-21 at the
1391:. Springer Verlag.
1343:. Los Alamos, NM:
1171:Monte Carlo method
1102:of the simulation
988:to effect roadway
818:molecular modeling
738:Monte Carlo method
730:Molecular dynamics
722:Monte Carlo method
667:physical cosmology
655:
318:nuclear detonation
174:mathematical model
167:
159:
39:Virtual influencer
2253:
2252:
2114:Scenario analysis
1978:
1977:
1960:Social simulation
1874:Quantum chemistry
1775:978-1-118-09945-2
1700:Models in Science
1606:978-3-319-15752-8
1489:10.1002/aic.14409
1442:978-0-935702-75-0
1268:. HarperCollins.
1194:Illustris project
1130:Computer graphics
1088:crop-soil systems
1001:flight simulators
956:dispersion using
946:
945:
938:
870:and Thomas Ray's
798:developed by the
762:thermal pollution
702:probabilistically
691:chemical kinetics
556:digital computers
310:Manhattan Project
272:in 2012; and the
250:computer programs
144:
143:
136:
118:
2298:
2243:
2242:
2235:Economics models
2233:
2232:
2005:
1998:
1991:
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1063:robot simulators
1033:Adaptive Modeler
990:noise mitigation
941:
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865:James Lovelock's
860:Limits to Growth
548:analog computers
337:Data preparation
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2012:Energy modeling
2009:
1979:
1974:
1946:
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1702:. Entry in the
1688:
1686:Further reading
1683:
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1586:Wayback Machine
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1253:
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1239:Virtual reality
1229:UniverseMachine
1204:Scene generator
1179:
1162:
1150:buffer overflow
1003:to train pilots
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925:
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911:
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851:Donella Meadows
644:
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477:meshfree method
413:
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2015:
2008:
2007:
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1952:Social science
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
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1909:
1907:Finite element
1903:
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1787:External links
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1750:P. Humphreys,
1748:
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1657:978-1482657753
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1535:Biotechnol Adv
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1394:
1379:
1354:
1351:on 2007-07-04.
1331:
1328:on 2013-05-22.
1309:
1306:on 2008-01-22.
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964:animal testing
960:
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822:drug discovery
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671:fluid dynamics
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2186:Mark Jacobson
2184:
2182:
2181:Joe DeCarolis
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1932:EM simulation
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1739:E. Winsberg,
1738:
1736:1996, 77โ100.
1735:
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1724:S. Hartmann,
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1469:AIChE Journal
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1369:New Scientist
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959:
955:
954:air pollutant
951:
950:
949:
940:
937:
929:
919:
915:
909:
908:
903:This section
901:
897:
892:
891:
883:
881:
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862:
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843:
839:
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797:
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782:
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726:
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711:
710:genetic drift
707:
703:
699:
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692:
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684:
680:
679:roadway noise
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
659:
658:
653:
648:
639:
636:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
600:Visualization
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
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571:
568:
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561:
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549:
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541:
537:
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510:
509:
504:
501:
500:
495:
494:
490:
487:
486:
485:
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474:
471:
467:
466:stencil codes
463:
462:
461:
455:
451:
448:
445:
443:or DE models)
442:
438:
434:
431:
428:
425:
424:deterministic
421:
418:
417:
416:
408:
406:
402:
399:(compared to
398:
392:
390:
386:
378:
375:
371:
368:
367:
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357:
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348:
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236:
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228:
224:
220:
216:
215:manufacturing
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
183:
179:
175:
171:
163:
157:
153:
152:Typhoon Mawar
148:
138:
135:
127:
124:December 2022
116:
113:
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85: โ
84:
80:
79:Find sources:
73:
69:
63:
62:
57:This article
55:
51:
46:
45:
40:
36:
29:
22:
2191:John Laitner
2128:Applications
2098:
1828:
1764:
1751:
1740:
1729:
1716:
1711:E. Winsberg
1703:
1666:
1642:
1635:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1597:
1592:
1573:
1538:
1534:
1523:
1472:
1468:
1431:
1424:
1404:
1397:
1388:
1382:
1367:
1357:
1349:the original
1334:
1326:the original
1321:
1312:
1304:the original
1293:
1284:
1265:
1259:
1189:Digital twin
1163:
1146:
1128:
1121:
1106:, therefore
1097:
994:modeling of
952:analysis of
947:
932:
923:
912:Please help
907:verification
904:
876:
858:
857:used in the
848:
838:water hammer
796:DSSAM Models
790:such as the
764:forecasting.
747:
705:
656:
637:
626:
603:
515:
506:
497:
491:
482:
459:
414:
393:
382:
374:preprocessor
364:
344:
340:
322:hard spheres
314:World War II
307:
298:
282:
267:
247:
199:astrophysics
169:
168:
130:
121:
111:
104:
97:
90:
78:
66:Please help
61:verification
58:
35:Digital twin
2196:John Weyant
1743:. Chicago:
1648:CreateSpace
880:replication
754:temperature
714:biochemical
618:coordinates
587:(DIS), the
573:Distributed
496:models use
454:distributed
276:project at
235:engineering
231:health care
203:climatology
187:simulations
28:3D modeling
2260:Categories
1754:. Oxford:
1251:References
1209:Simulation
1134:Animations
984:design of
868:Daisyworld
698:stochastic
642:In science
606:parameters
493:Stochastic
433:Continuous
420:Stochastic
274:Blue Brain
239:technology
223:psychology
154:using the
94:newspapers
2045:Open data
1965:Sociology
1861:Chemistry
1497:0001-1541
1026:emulation
979:logistics
977:and also
926:June 2022
841:building.
629:CAT scans
452:Local or
405:precision
219:economics
207:chemistry
2087:Concepts
1831:software
1582:Archived
1565:26281720
1515:27429455
1447:Archived
1374:Archived
1177:See also
1160:Pitfalls
1100:validity
981:systems.
975:aircraft
706:discrete
681:models,
583:(ALSP),
577:Internet
532:ordinary
526:(either
437:discrete
397:accuracy
324:using a
264:ribosome
178:computer
21:emulator
1899:Physics
1838:Biology
1758:, 2004.
1747:, 2010.
1629:(4): 2.
1556:4748402
1506:4946376
1477:Bibcode
1300:Caltech
1148:detect
1123:Vehicle
845:theory.
769:ecology
673:(e.g.,
652:osmosis
595:(TENA).
560:emulate
552:op-amps
528:partial
468:. Many
304:History
211:biology
191:physics
108:scholar
2169:People
2057:Reegle
2052:OpenEI
2026:MARKAL
2019:Models
1772:
1734:Kluwer
1674:
1654:
1604:
1563:
1553:
1513:
1503:
1495:
1439:
1412:
1272:
1156:data.
1154:tuning
872:Tierra
855:World3
777:salmon
740:, and
479:class.
389:Simula
255:Kuwait
180:, the
110:
103:
96:
89:
81:
2066:Lists
2036:POLES
1104:model
1092:BioMA
811:ACT-R
781:trout
633:tumor
558:that
411:Types
182:model
176:on a
115:JSTOR
101:books
2031:NEMS
1770:ISBN
1672:ISBN
1652:ISBN
1602:ISBN
1561:PMID
1511:PMID
1493:ISSN
1437:ISBN
1410:ISBN
1270:ISBN
1047:and
820:for
794:and
792:SWMM
779:and
689:and
403:and
278:EPFL
233:and
213:and
87:news
1551:PMC
1543:doi
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1485:doi
916:by
775:of
716:or
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530:or
522:or
470:CFD
435:or
422:or
312:in
259:DoD
197:),
70:by
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1627:10
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1539:33
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1467:.
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193:(
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131:(
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122:(
112:ยท
105:ยท
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64:.
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