Computer - Knowledge

1430: 3760:, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time". then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn. 872: 5012:

with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the

395: 1538: 83: 1010: 43: 587: 34: 5159:. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various 54: 3783: 9447: 885: 63: 5192: 74: 10511: 4755: 5043: 1247: 504: 2066:) the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals do not have to travel long distances. Since ENIAC in 1945, computers have advanced enormously, with modern SoCs (Such as the Snapdragon 865) being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power. 1691: 1208: 1790: 902: 5254: 1372: 3491:, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return 733: 3568: 3349: 1998: 10499: 3595:

that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595." The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

1923:. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated". However, Kilby's invention was a 1113: 1877: 3687: 2495: 3364:(often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance. 2094:, removed this requirement by incorporating batteries – and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s. 5289:

access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the

2016:, and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the 786:) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of 5172:

applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large

5223:, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design. Admiral 5011:

for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each

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Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general-purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend

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that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is

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operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark

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or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals;

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Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running,

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A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number

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were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on

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digital storage device. Although the computer was described as "small and primitive" by a 1998 retrospective, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project began

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and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in

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While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.

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RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power

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The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control

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saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone

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at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors,

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Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in

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In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and

5031:) and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember – a 3407:

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program

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It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words

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systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

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can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be

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Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as

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notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

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to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son,

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When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:

3610:). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in 2500: 2499: 2496: 1934:

Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Noyce's invention was the first true monolithic IC chip. His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of

1414:. He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February. 442:. The word continued to have the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period, women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts. By 1943, most human computers were women. 5374:, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by 2501: 3672:, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part. 5494:

A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of

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electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were six women, often known collectively as the "ENIAC girls".

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can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years.

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blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.

4790:) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or 3764:

but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the

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refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical

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John Presper Eckert Jr. and John W. Mauchly, Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,120,606, filed 26 June 1947, issued 4 February 1964, and invalidated 19 October 1973 after court ruling on

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more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a

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Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an

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The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division,

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systems. Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern-based systems include

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The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand – this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the

5342:, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information." According to this definition, any device that 2498: 1503:. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the 3415:

The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a

5836:, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there. 4994:

Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.

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It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the

832:, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876, Sir William Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the 944:, titled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables", he also designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an 1741:

in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat.

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In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's

9272: 755:. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as 6226:

Fuat Sezgin "Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science (at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University", Frankfurt, Germany) Frankfurt Book Fair 2004, pp. 35 &

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Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract

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system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was not itself a universal computer but could be extended to be

6077:: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a 1770:, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic 6585: 6530: 1456:

computer built in the U.S. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete. Like the Colossus, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the

1368:(ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer". This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. 5273:. In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now 9254: 9236: 1227:; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using 9218: 9146: 5604:

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

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Leiner, Barry M.; Cerf, Vinton G.; Clark, David D.; Kahn, Robert E.; Kleinrock, Leonard; Lynch, Daniel C.; Postel, Jon; Roberts, Larry G.; Wolf, Stephen (1999). "A Brief History of the Internet".

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and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the

5073:, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into 3813:

to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to use most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale

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in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

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wrote a brief history of Babbage's efforts at constructing a mechanical Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. The paper contains a design of a machine capable to calculate formulas like

722:, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation. 960:. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The engine would incorporate an 5822:

architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.

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The control system's function is as follows— this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

3875:. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with 3391:

Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.

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von Neumann ... firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others.

5039:. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. 2497: 5131:. Historically a significant number of other cpu architectures were created and saw extensive use, notably including the MOS Technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the Zilog Z80. 3215:(binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in 3793:

Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as

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Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.

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However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called

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while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as

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Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, therefore the program counter usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.

5207:". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. However, in some cases they may cause the program or the entire system to " 10086: 2517:, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware. 3809:(multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result. 9483: 3623:

constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

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chips. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored

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counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of

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so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support

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it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.

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The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm, composed of 5.5 million transistors.

1638:, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to 538:

included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, likely livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of

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by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

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indicates that the "modern use" of the term, to mean 'programmable digital electronic computer' dates from "1945 under this name; theoretical from 1937, as

11736: 1131:. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The first modern analog computer was a 1955:

in early 1959. In turn, the planar process was based on Mohamed M. Atalla's work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide in the late 1950s.

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programmable computer. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of

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It is called the stored program architecture or stored program model, also known as the von Neumann architecture. We will use these terms interchangeably.

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dates back to the mid 17th century, when it referred to "A person who makes calculations; specifically a person employed for this in an observatory etc."

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The experience of SAGE helped make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system

8928: 5789:, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a 7487: 6570:

Gomez-Jauregui, Valentin; Gutierrez-Garcia, Andres; González-Redondo, Francisco A.; Iglesias, Miguel; Manchado, Cristina; Otero, Cesar (1 June 2022).

1143:, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by 386:). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and they enable the results of operations to be saved and retrieved. 12329: 11690: 11069: 6714: 5626: 7549: 1429: 11724: 11719: 6454: 3697:

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called

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elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer

583:, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. 10514: 8858: 6684: 6128: 4542:

There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended for general purpose, others useful for only highly specialized applications.

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acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in

9759: 8168: 4732:) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of 1816:

at Bell Labs in 1959. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturized and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. With its

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needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for

5634: 5338:. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, a typical modern definition of a computer is: " 3741:

contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.

3495:(true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?"). Logic operations involve 1312:, became the world's first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in 1950 and delivered to the 8528:

Jack S. Kilby, Miniaturized Electronic Circuits, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,138,743, filed 6 February 1959, issued 23 June 1964.

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Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage.

4720:. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for 10345: 8672: 7108: 1966:(MOS transistors). The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at 1900:. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in 11920: 6862: 4767: 2278: 10375: 10308: 11339: 8778:

Silicon Materials Science and Technology: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Silicon Materials Science and Technology

8047: 4564: 12232: 3656:, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called 1880:

Integrated circuits are typically packaged in plastic, metal, or ceramic cases to protect the IC from damage and for ease of assembly.

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rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an

5656: 5622: 4560: 9200: 7048: 5922:. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers. 11759: 11377: 8395: 8512: 6910: 12193: 12062: 11941: 11279: 10536: 8448: 7354: 4572: 3644:

to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the

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If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.

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system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as

3446:(CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the 1970s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single 852: 8135: 1820:, and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET made it possible to build 10480: 10253: 10234: 10215: 10176: 10155: 10038: 10017: 9965: 9904: 9827: 9728: 9694: 9660: 9626: 9592: 9558: 9516: 9477: 9438: 9413: 9382: 9324: 9299: 9100: 9032: 8790: 8752: 8725: 8587: 8549: 8303: 8259: 7940: 7899: 7853: 7748: 7306: 7221: 7092: 7031: 6872: 6812: 6663: 6070: 5729: 5618: 5474:

is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (

1159: 836:. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The 2105:

run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market. These are powered by

1094:, Torres presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, which allowed a user to input arithmetic problems through a 579:

as early as 2400 BCE. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European

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equipment needed and used for full operation; or to a group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a

12473: 9971: 8653: 8417: 7979: 7679: 7641: 7414: 5714: 5652: 5648: 3538: 2554: 1861: 12055: 11327: 11226: 10529: 9871: 5298: 4425: 8623: 5524:

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.

12140: 12132: 11261: 11100: 7263: 6100: 5976: 5724: 5266: 5231:, is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the 4556: 4495: 4437: 3947: 3729:

is another form of I/O. I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A

3534: 3145: 1959: 1800:(G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink). 1136: 1116: 814: 327:

in the 1970s. The speed, power, and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with

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computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in

1394:

achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine,

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Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's

4521: 4409: 3171: 2172: 2160: 2155: 1974:

later introduced the first commercial MOS IC in 1964, developed by Robert Norman. Following the development of the

1944: 6502:

Memoria sobre las máquinas algébricas: con un informe de la Real academia de ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales

1994:

at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968. The MOSFET has since become the most critical device component in modern ICs.

12145: 11273: 11209: 9201:"Growth Accelerates in the Worldwide Mobile Phone and Smartphone Markets in the Second Quarter, According to IDC" 8364: 5885:

could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the

5630: 5147: 5140: 4717: 4601: 1344:. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the 1098:, and computed and printed the results, demonstrating the feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine. 672:, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in 641:. Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century. 10166: 5354:

There is active research to make non-classical computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as

3298:

The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:

7448: 5580: 5550: 5098: 4705: 4622: 3902: 1767: 1382:

programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It is seen here in use at

729:

was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.

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within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

4700:

The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be

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Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.

809:

for every year from 0 CE (that is, 1 BCE) to 4000 CE, keeping track of leap years and varying day length. The

644:

Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The

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The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.

7778: 5739: 5528: 4675: 4650: 4568: 4429: 4351: 4162: 3931: 3818: 2626: 2526: 2439: 1928: 486: 316: 226: 8918: 7479: 6294:

Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi".

767:. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the 11093: 10932: 10903: 7805: 6576: 6521: 5219:. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an 4330: 4186: 2607: 2316: 2037: 1821: 1365: 1337: 1273: 871: 6722: 5302:

networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

1499:. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine" and that is now known as a 1320:, which was founded in 1941 as the first company with the sole purpose of developing computers in Berlin. 12809: 12353: 11516: 11411: 10729: 10671: 5734: 5719: 5220: 4806:

some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the

4679: 4646: 4642: 4158: 4038: 3943: 2321: 1734: 1694: 447: 8817: 7553: 6451: 5902:

However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An

12174: 11431: 11389: 10908: 10503: 10346:"From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush" 9024: 8295: 7845: 6692: 6563: 6123: 5689: 4606: 4282: 4228: 4059: 3919: 3167: 2956: 2481: 1844:. The MOSFET is the most widely used transistor in computers, and is the fundamental building block of 1574: 980:, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as 941: 860: 8649: 8125: 7173: 6516: 11332: 11317: 11243: 11203: 10722: 9751: 8251: 8158: 6078: 5638: 5412: 4795: 4791: 4525: 4232: 4190: 4129: 4078: 4074: 4055: 3516: 3400:

Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.

2256: 1924: 1889: 1675: 1599: 1087: 523: 434:] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." This usage of the term referred to a 408: 406:

It was not until the mid-20th century that the word acquired its modern definition; according to the

20: 6788: 1515:. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be 1032: 11547: 11344: 11249: 11237: 11039: 10952: 10925: 10896: 10659: 10395: 10371: 8717: 7809: 7511: 5765: 5681: 5664: 5467: 5431: 4818:

programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the

4713: 4614: 4202: 3730: 3530: 3529:

computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.

3192: 2150: 2001: 1971: 1837: 1755: 1730: 1595: 1500: 1457: 1163: 1144: 833: 661: 379: 324: 276:, some mechanical devices were built to automate long, tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for 8886: 6479: 1888:(IC). The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the 1762:

designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Their first

12716: 12265: 12218: 12162: 11394: 11172: 11167: 10982: 10977: 10865: 10838: 8990: 8955: 8923: 8891: 8782: 8677: 8423: 8163: 8055: 7298: 6475: 6363: 6329: 5936: 5496: 5486:, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity. 5327: 5270: 5086: 4763: 4509: 4413: 4383: 4146: 3826: 3599: 3443: 3433: 2485: 1920: 1825: 1706: 1702: 1591: 1546: 1532: 1132: 1026: 1014: 848: 810: 756: 615: 347: 7575:

Turing, A. M. (1937). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem".

6964: 5054:

program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labeled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.

3219:

so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

473:". The name has remained, although modern computers are capable of many higher-level functions. 268:

Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the

12686: 12655: 12635: 12595: 12400: 11488: 11285: 10352: 10082: 9374: 9368: 9119: 5889:

process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some

5542: 5538: 5107:) are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer's central processing unit ( 5082: 5069:

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike

4347: 4343: 4248: 4243: 4154: 3860: 3447: 2542: 2020:, designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, along with 1353: 764: 146: 9405: 9399: 8776: 8573: 8539: 7926: 7112: 6572:"Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients" 3733:

might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display

1931:(IC) chip. Kilby's IC had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce. 1200:, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During 12620: 12493: 12488: 12242: 11500: 11454: 11322: 11220: 11157: 10872: 10387: 10316: 9092: 8742: 7885: 6402: 5588: 5436: 5387: 4787: 4783: 4593: 4483: 4326: 4236: 4086: 4082: 3750: 3562: 3465: 3188: 3180: 2424: 1650:

decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. Lyons's

1512: 1361: 1289: 1197: 1151: 1140: 1083: 969: 961: 908: 825: 821: 607: 591: 492: 394: 273: 171: 9018: 8705: 8289: 7775:"Our Computer Heritage Pilot Study: Deliveries of Ferranti Mark I and Mark I Star computers" 6628: 5914:

microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel

2462:(Also known as an Application Processor or AP if it lacks circuitry such as radio circuitry) 2090:

were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in. The first laptops, such as the

1658:

of 1949, became operational in April 1951 and ran the world's first routine office computer

12795: 12751: 12721: 12483: 12390: 12312: 11426: 11421: 11404: 11124: 10860: 10407: 10114: 9995: 8832: 8202: 7932: 7891: 6250: 6158: 5932: 5749: 5704: 5675: 5572: 5546: 5427: 5331: 5064: 5013: 4749: 4701: 4546: 4487: 4391: 4379: 4359: 4278: 4259: 4141: 3872: 3734: 3630: 3583: 3571: 3546: 2145: 2118: 2051: 1833: 1829: 1783: 1774:, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the 1619: 1453: 1262: 760: 482: 455:

in the 1640s, meaning 'one who calculates'; this is an "agent noun from compute (v.)". The

359: 281: 230: 167: 9792: 7058: 6691:. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from 3701:. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and 1824:. In addition to data processing, it also enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as 8: 12814: 12790: 12615: 12518: 12503: 12425: 12395: 12300: 11540: 11473: 11416: 11255: 11177: 11152: 11116: 10734: 10194: 9951:

Bromley, Allan G. (1990). "Difference and Analytical Engines". In Aspray, William (ed.).

9204: 8706: 8652:, "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", issued 1961-04-25, assigned to 6680: 6594: 6571: 6538: 5890: 5592: 5554: 5508: 5375: 5371: 5120: 4499: 4312: 4290: 4252: 4093: 3852: 3814: 3710: 3611: 3504: 3500: 3307: 3096: 2833: 2454: 2252: 2005: 1845: 1841: 1763: 1743: 1681: 1516: 1418: 1379: 930: 715: 673: 375: 367: 293: 10411: 10118: 9999: 8836: 8391: 8206: 6254: 6162: 4728:

for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (

4712:) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the 3375:) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. 1009: 618:. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the 430:] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [ 12845: 12768: 12741: 12660: 12002: 11903: 11563: 11493: 11478: 11359: 11197: 11162: 10288: 10280: 10144: 10130: 9941: 9847: 8507: 8226: 8106: 7592: 7154: 7053: 6904: 6609: 6311: 6276: 6192: 5685: 5576: 5513: 5483: 5160: 5035:

such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's

4736:

years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

4662: 4513: 4355: 4274: 4125: 3802: 3798: 3722: 3619: 3372: 3204: 3008: 2703: 2697: 2619: 2615: 2514: 2444: 2304: 2200: 2183: 2059: 1885: 1857: 1441: 1345: 1341: 1329: 1189: 989: 806: 775: 693: 516: 343: 336: 187: 179: 132: 10126: 8328:"Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference" 8214: 7884:

Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017).

6633:

Mémoires Présentés par Divers Savants à l'Académie des Scienes de l'Institut de France

6569: 5103:

Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed

3382:

Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.

1001:) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. 586: 12435: 12420: 12283: 11825: 11731: 11449: 10882: 10746: 10644: 10556: 10476: 10423: 10292: 10249: 10230: 10211: 10172: 10151: 10034: 10013: 9961: 9900: 9823: 9724: 9690: 9656: 9622: 9588: 9554: 9512: 9473: 9434: 9409: 9378: 9320: 9295: 9096: 9082: 9028: 8850: 8786: 8748: 8744:

To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology

8721: 8583: 8545: 8299: 8255: 8218: 8098: 7999: 7936: 7895: 7849: 7691: 7649: 7302: 7259: 7217: 7088: 7027: 6887:, p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer Science, January 2003. 6884: 6868: 6808: 6659: 6652: 6613: 6552: 6426: 6268: 6184: 6176: 6106: 6096: 6066: 5954: 5754: 5709: 5504: 5398: 5367: 5355: 5317: 5216: 5173: 5128: 5036: 4819: 4589: 4580: 4479: 4338: 4316: 4212: 4150: 3954: 3883: 3848: 3765: 3353: 3232: 3100: 3062: 2990: 2968: 2960: 2902: 2647: 2631: 2568: 2550: 2477: 2405: 2294: 2289: 2192: 2075: 1987: 1975: 1912: 1809: 1639: 1624: 1474: 1411: 1375: 948:, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via 945: 937: 891: 619: 421: 250: 199: 10105:

Swade, Doron D. (February 1993). "Redeeming Charles Babbage's Mechanical Computer".

8110: 7725: 7384: 7158: 6280: 6028: 12804: 12701: 12541: 12410: 12022: 11926: 11652: 11182: 10717: 10608: 10448: 10415: 10272: 10122: 10003: 8840: 8579: 8210: 8090: 7991: 7584: 7146: 6997: 6599: 6589: 6542: 6534: 6341: 6303: 6258: 6196: 6166: 5950: 5864: 5568: 5503:. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: 5500: 5459: 5443: 5418: 5407: 5403: 5394: 5363: 5278: 5244: 5208: 5112: 5070: 4745: 4709: 4585: 4459: 4451: 4433: 4367: 4206: 4136: 3892: 3879: 3856: 3738: 3726: 3706: 3649: 3636: 3542: 3302: 3267: 3157: 3092: 3027: 2983: 2978: 2948: 2892: 2867: 2844: 2759: 2655: 2651: 2449: 2363: 2239: 2106: 2043: 1901: 1718: 1647: 1558: 1508: 1440:, Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the 1224: 1079: 926: 837: 748: 599: 535: 328: 297: 246: 219: 215: 203: 191: 122: 7752: 5877:

Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some

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from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In

1537: 91:

Computers and computing devices from different eras—left to right, top to bottom:

12761: 12756: 12736: 12726: 12681: 12665: 12640: 12590: 12546: 12498: 12415: 12405: 12028: 12016: 11861: 11849: 11712: 11683: 11640: 11634: 11372: 11367: 11349: 11312: 11307: 11232: 11192: 10877: 10855: 10818: 10766: 10586: 10581: 10573: 10419: 10205: 9787: 9718: 9684: 9650: 9616: 9582: 9548: 9506: 9467: 9115: 9088: 8516: 8455: 8285: 8245: 7623: 7596: 7253: 6501: 6458: 6132: 5819: 5558: 5471: 5232: 5196: 4759: 4517: 4270: 3868: 3777: 3714: 3690: 3653: 3579: 3558: 3368: 3272: 3242: 3196: 3129: 3114: 3078: 2964: 2929: 2860: 2811: 2794: 2639: 2576: 2465: 2398: 2378: 2368: 2326: 2284: 2262: 2140: 2132: 2102: 2087: 2025: 1991: 1979: 1897: 1748: 1714: 1631: 1587: 1554: 1542: 1403: 1340:

in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the

1302: 1293: 1277: 1107: 1095: 981: 977: 973: 918: 611: 527: 355: 10437:"Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in Computing" 9059: 6776:

Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones,

1192:

had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a

1078:, for a sequence of sets of values. The whole machine was to be controlled by a 997:, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the 16:

Automatic general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations

12746: 12731: 12696: 12625: 12605: 12580: 12565: 12468: 12010: 11302: 10942: 10843: 10613: 10596: 10028: 9952: 8359: 8094: 7588: 7323: 6058: 5962: 5958: 5790: 5311: 5290: 5212: 5017: 4721: 4395: 4197: 4043: 3702: 3575: 3484: 3452: 3437: 3417: 3262: 3237: 3058: 2881: 2716: 2683: 2572: 2489: 2459: 2244: 2210: 2013: 1948: 1871: 1867: 1817: 1659: 1504: 1461: 1395: 1391: 1383: 1357: 1172: 884: 805:, which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the 798: 771:

circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.

595: 580: 522:

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using

469: 435: 399: 351: 332: 320: 242: 238: 234: 106: 11991: 8427: 8007: 7699: 7657: 7422: 6985:

Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of 'inventor of the modern computer'

6364:"Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents" 6359: 3851:

from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs,

1634:, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer. Built by 12839: 12600: 12551: 12430: 12087: 11483: 11466: 11461: 11044: 11034: 11014: 10830: 10756: 10709: 10654: 10649: 10601: 10341: 10304: 8854: 8222: 8102: 8003: 7928:

Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century

7695: 7653: 7627: 7610: 7444: 6556: 6180: 5957:

microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain

5671: 5516:, font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing. 5479: 5455: 5422: 5359: 4654: 4491: 4471: 4374: 4363: 3983: 3907: 3864: 3794: 3603: 3520: 3496: 3247: 3070: 2999: 2952: 2847: 2829: 2825: 2740: 2736: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2564: 2429: 2269: 2231: 2225: 2178: 2063: 2029: 2008:, an early 1970s microprocessor integrating 3500 transistors on a single chip 1775: 1615: 1607: 1422: 1333: 1309: 1297: 1258: 1232: 1216: 1155: 994: 957: 841: 539: 301: 254: 194:. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. The term 142: 126: 12047: 10521: 10030:

The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage

7995: 7134: 6110: 5293:, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like 5089:. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. 2513:

covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects.

840:

was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s,

12630: 12610: 12513: 10920: 10808: 10791: 10786: 10564: 10453: 10436: 10427: 10276: 10207:

The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer

8644: 8613: 8541:

Media Technology and Society: A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet

8247:

Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation

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unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example,

5451: 5446:, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. 5224: 5204: 5191: 5186: 5074: 5047: 5028: 5004: 4807: 4667: 4529: 4455: 4387: 4304: 4265: 3971: 3822: 3681: 3661: 3508: 3472: 3409: 3361: 3343: 3184: 3118: 3049: 2727: 2546: 2415: 2205: 2188: 2091: 2055: 2021: 1983: 1916: 1710: 1651: 1470: 1243:, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer. 1201: 1091: 965: 949: 719: 572: 508: 289: 285: 5027:

While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (

2012:

The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the

787: 272:

have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times. Early in the

42: 12585: 12523: 12463: 12376: 11780: 11019: 10987: 10890: 10850: 10813: 10781: 10623: 9127: 7782: 7080: 7015: 6778:

Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.

5919: 5458:

paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called

5323: 5042: 5007:

with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or

4775: 4754: 4725: 4475: 4447: 4421: 4300: 4286: 4169: 3995: 3718: 3526: 3492: 3488: 3476: 3282: 3122: 3110: 3017: 2873: 2856: 2393: 2346: 2299: 2220: 1952: 1813: 1771: 1759: 1738: 1603: 1566: 1562: 1492: 1437: 1349: 1250: 1236: 1228: 1212: 1128: 791: 645: 623: 531: 439: 383: 183: 82: 53: 11985: 10510: 10284: 10134: 9867: 9143:"7 dazzling smartphone improvements with Qualcomm's Snapdragon 835 chip" 8230: 6941: 2109:(SoCs), which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin. 2058:. If not integrated, the RAM is usually placed directly above (known as 1623:

at the university to develop it into a practically useful computer, the

1565:. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid out by 1452:(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic 33: 12785: 12650: 12570: 11967: 11885: 11521: 11187: 11132: 10751: 10681: 10676: 10666: 10300: 10146:

Jacquard's Web, How a hand loom led to the birth of the information age

9020:

Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension

8845: 8472: 6604: 6547: 6315: 5596: 5463: 5447: 5151: 5116: 4814: 4799: 4733: 4671: 4466: 4308: 4098: 4019: 4003: 3999: 3979: 3975: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3806: 3698: 3339: 3327: 3322: 3312: 3257: 3216: 3208: 3082: 3045: 2938: 2934: 2852: 2821: 2817: 2804: 2800: 2787: 2693: 2410: 2388: 2373: 2341: 2259:

computers, video editing PCs and the like, this term is no longer used)

2098: 2017: 1908: 1797: 1726: 1690: 1671: 1407: 1313: 1168: 856: 779: 744: 737: 726: 701: 665: 649: 503: 304: 258: 211: 175: 112: 11085: 8193:

Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology".

7806:"A brief history of British computers: the first 25 years (1948–1973)" 7150: 6965:"Biography of Konrad Zuse, Inventor and Programmer of Early Computers" 5285:. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. 5195:

The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the

2123:

Computers can be classified in a number of different ways, including:

1884:

The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the

1402:

which were often run by women. To crack the more sophisticated German

1348:

network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of

1207: 1090:. In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the 12773: 12645: 12508: 12226: 11979: 11973: 11961: 11897: 11891: 11873: 11646: 11147: 11029: 11024: 11008: 10937: 10776: 10628: 10591: 10008: 9983: 9896:

Computer Architecture: Fundamentals and Principles of Computer Design

9819: 5907: 5470:

is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a

5335: 5021: 3991: 3987: 3757: 3669: 3421: 3317: 3287: 3277: 2898: 2837: 2383: 2351: 2336: 2331: 2083: 2047: 1940: 1722: 1643: 1520: 1285: 1246: 1193: 1124: 925:, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the " 752: 657: 653: 576: 512: 102: 9584:

Software Design Methodology: From Principles to Architectural Styles

9401:

Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User

8244:

Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994).

6307: 6263: 6238: 6171: 6146: 6135:, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 1 July 2007. 5253: 2505:

Video demonstrating the standard components of a "slimline" computer

718:, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, 12823: 12779: 12691: 12207: 11955: 11867: 11819: 11142: 11137: 10967: 10618: 9852: 5294: 5248: 5228: 5156: 5078: 5032: 4417: 4405: 4333:, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management 3838: 3756:

One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an

3657: 3512: 3388:

Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.

3252: 3163: 3066: 2712: 2708: 2667: 2580: 2434: 2079: 1789: 1751:

basis, which limited them to a number of specialized applications.

1635: 1150:

The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the

922: 901: 829: 783: 692:

in 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared

677: 371: 262: 207: 136: 73: 2050:(or chip) the size of a coin. They may or may not have integrated 1610:, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948. It was designed as a 664:

in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE and is often attributed to

62: 12711: 12575: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12102: 12097: 12092: 11855: 11813: 11702: 11577: 10801: 10739: 10693: 9397: 8986:"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip" 8130: 7813: 7087:(in German) (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 55. 5915: 5886: 5475: 5282: 5258: 5051: 4630: 4103: 4031: 3911: 3480: 3442:

The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a

3203:. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small 2922: 2910: 2906: 2877: 2764: 2732: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2611: 2356: 2078:

were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50 lb (23 kg)

1936: 1611: 1507:, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. 1317: 1219:, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer 732: 685: 669: 627: 550: 308: 163: 8673:"1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented" 7295:

Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers

5965:

design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.

3567: 12560: 12250: 11949: 11879: 11837: 11831: 11801: 11795: 11673: 11594: 10915: 10688: 10498: 10312: 10168:

Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet

8048:"1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" 6214: 5903: 5759: 5008: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4027: 4023: 4015: 3789:

designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

3587: 3137: 3074: 2918: 2752: 2659: 2311: 2274: 1997: 1963: 1805: 1793: 1685: 1523:

execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

1323: 1265:, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 1240: 689: 568: 560: 312: 269: 249:. Computers are at the core of general-purpose devices such as 12345: 8519:, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, Retrieved 29 May 2008. 6452:"The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage" 5462:

makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from

5450:

are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above

5370:. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any 3348: 1292:. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in 1162:

starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of

1112: 12800: 12706: 12201: 12182: 11617: 11611: 11532: 10196:

Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine

9292:

The Most Complex Machine: A Survey of Computers and Computing

8052:

The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers

5882: 5833: 5274: 4729: 4626: 4618: 4610: 4216: 4047: 3938: 3923: 3915: 3668:

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM

3660:, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. 3195:(collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by 2914: 2885: 2748: 2720: 2663: 2643: 2635: 2033: 1449: 1433: 1399: 1398:, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical 1281: 1266: 631: 198:

may refer to a nominally complete computer that includes the

96: 7887:

Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes

5227:, an American computer scientist and developer of the first 1876: 1808:(MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by 1646:. In October 1947 the directors of British catering company 1147:, the elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson. 12819: 11843: 11807: 10992: 10886: 9935:. New York, Toronto, London: Pitman publishing corporation. 9652:

Fundamentals of Dependable Computing for Software Engineers

9314: 8818:"Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" 8618: 6817: 6791:, pp. 575-583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914. 6789:

Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf)

6446: 6444: 6211:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

6095:. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. 5085:

before being run, or translated directly at run time by an

4687: 4638: 4634: 4182: 4174: 3927: 3898: 3876: 3786: 3645: 3607: 3541:

features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on

3200: 3141: 2774: 2744: 1371: 1204:

similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

1123:

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific

953: 697: 681: 545: 363: 342:

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one

335:

noted that counts doubled every two years), leading to the

277: 8881: 8879: 8150: 7956: 3686: 190:

computers can perform generic sets of operations known as

10972: 10796: 9682: 9508:

Computational Thinking: A Perspective on Computer Science

7022:

Translated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. Andrew from:

5124: 5108: 5003:

In most computers, individual instructions are stored as

4683: 4224: 4220: 4178: 4010: 3212: 3179:

A general-purpose computer has four main components: the

3149: 2783: 1967: 1270: 768: 530:. The earliest counting device was most likely a form of 426: 280:. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized 116: 10263:

Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women".

10062:

Les machines à calculer; leurs principes, leur évolution

9333: 8887:"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution" 8575:

Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts

6441: 4794:). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen 1630:

The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the

1004: 844:

and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

747:

was invented around 1620–1630, by the English clergyman

10229:(2nd ed.). Swindon: The British Computer Society. 9366: 8980: 8978: 8876: 3626:

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:

1316:. The computer was manufactured by Zuse's own company, 1257:

In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the

952:, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical 463:'calculating machine' (of any type) is from 1897." The 9686:

The Mythical Man-month: Essays on Software Engineering

9370:

Introduction to Microcomputers and the Microprocessors

7883: 7838:

The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits

7137:(1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". 6649: 5961:

division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the

3618:

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called

940:

he announced his invention in 1822, in a paper to the

751:, shortly after the publication of the concept of the 288:

electronic calculating machines were developed during

9994:(3). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press: 74–75. 9960:. Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp. 59–98. 9170:"Global notebook shipments finally overtake desktops" 7407: 6678: 6517:"A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle" 6493: 1491:

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by

1460:

of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the

1410:

and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the

1035: 10464:

Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories

9137: 9135: 8975: 7530: 6746:"Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer" 2036:. In the early 1970s, MOS IC technology enabled the 1828:

storage elements, leading to the development of MOS

319:

chip technologies in the late 1950s, leading to the

10466:. IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium. 9845: 8665: 8291:

Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs

8243: 8081:Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)". 7518: 6842: 6839:

The Origins of Digital Computers, pp.109-120, 1982.

3424:program that causes all of these events to happen. 2166: 10143: 7973: 7971: 7447:; Fensom, Harry; Milne, Frank A. (15 March 1995). 7443: 6651: 6296:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 6209:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 5997: 5794:these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. 5381: 3356:instruction would be decoded by the control system 2082:was an early example. Later portables such as the 2040:of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip. 1778:of 1955, built by the electronics division of the 1406:machine, used for high-level Army communications, 1390:During World War II, the British code-breakers at 1070: 759:such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and 284:calculations in the early 20th century. The first 10394: 10370: 9132: 9080: 8951:"1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs" 6721:. Science Museum. 19 January 2007. Archived from 6009: 5910:is able to run most of the same programs that an 5797: 5786: 3582:of choice in the 1960s, until it was replaced by 3394:Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register. 1737:in 1948. From 1955 onwards, transistors replaced 1557:and can store in memory a set of instructions (a 1167:some specialized applications such as education ( 824:, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve 382:that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era 12837: 10398:(1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". 9813: 9710: 9428: 8031: 7977: 7355:"Meet the female codebreakers of Bletchley Park" 5519: 5215:clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to 3427: 2520: 1982:and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967, the first 1978:(silicon-gate) MOS transistor by Robert Kerwin, 1119:'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81 1082:program, which was complete with provisions for 610:is believed to be the earliest known mechanical 416:was in a different sense, in a 1613 book called 237:, including simple special-purpose devices like 9716: 9614: 9546: 8775:Huff, Howard R.; Tsuya, H.; Gösele, U. (1998). 8774: 8392:"Martin Atalla in Inventors Hall of Fame, 2009" 8040: 7968: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7282: 7251: 7165: 6829: 5123:) cannot understand the machine language of an 3825:applications, as well as with other so-called " 3693:are common storage devices used with computers. 3515:. These can be useful for creating complicated 1469:(about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of 339:during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. 265:, which links billions of computers and users. 9984:"Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer" 9398:Jerry Peek; Grace Todino; John Strang (2002). 9017:Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). 8747:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. 7980:"Some early transistor applications in the UK" 7751:. The University of Manchester. Archived from 7577:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 7049:"A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On" 6743: 6626: 6293: 6090: 5238: 4739: 3459: 1569:in his 1936 paper. In 1945, Turing joined the 1261:, the world's first working electromechanical 12361: 12330:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 12077: 12063: 11548: 11101: 11070:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 10551: 10537: 9317:Handbook of Parallel Computing and Statistics 9056:"Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004" 8284: 7207: 7205: 7046: 6909:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017. 6707: 6332:(1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". 3886:computer, it is sometimes called "firmware". 3207:which can be turned off or on by means of an 1958:Modern monolithic ICs are predominantly MOS ( 1486: 571:was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The 554: 9351: 9289: 9016: 9010: 8188: 8186: 7920: 7918: 7279: 7174:"How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" 6885:Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf) 6239:"Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece" 1733:, in 1947, which was followed by Shockley's 1654:computer, modelled closely on the Cambridge 1324:Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits 929:", he conceptualized and invented the first 366:. Peripheral devices include input devices ( 10461: 10334:Irascible Genius, Charles Babbage, inventor 9676: 9648: 9642: 9608: 9339: 9058:. Intel Corp. November 1971. Archived from 8919:"1964 – First Commercial MOS IC Introduced" 8501: 7984:Engineering Science & Education Journal 7211: 6934:"Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers" 6925: 6425:. chonday.com. 11 July 2013. Archived from 6405:(1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", 5305: 4914:# if odd number is greater than n then exit 1806:metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor 1139:(later to become Lord Kelvin) in 1872. The 855:that could solve real and complex roots of 534:. Later record keeping aids throughout the 438:, a person who carried out calculations or 12368: 12354: 12070: 12056: 11555: 11541: 11108: 11094: 10544: 10530: 10441:CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 9781:Taylor, Alexander L. III (16 April 1984). 9540: 8036:. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. p. 139. 7724:. University of Manchester. Archived from 7680:"Early computers at Manchester University" 7202: 7127: 6508: 6125:The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project 5489: 5472:minimum capability (being Turing-complete) 5211:", becoming unresponsive to input such as 5150:that are able to express the needs of the 4716:often have machine code in the form of an 4565:Generational list of programming languages 3479:. Some can operate only on whole numbers ( 3475:functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and 3367:A key component common to all CPUs is the 1840:, and became the driving force behind the 1426:I, greatly speeding the decoding process. 676:. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical 374:, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, 10452: 10224: 10007: 9851: 9774: 9472:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 9081:Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998). 8844: 8565: 8333:United States Patent and Trademark Office 8192: 8183: 8080: 7962: 7924: 7915: 7740: 7639: 6768: 6744:Graham-Cumming, John (23 December 2010). 6603: 6593: 6546: 6262: 6170: 6065:. Princeton University Press. p. 5. 4561:List of programming languages by category 3648:that orchestrates loading the computer's 797:In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer 9580: 9574: 9469:Computer Architecture and Implementation 9167: 8697: 8325: 7609: 7292: 6899: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6236: 6213:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 6144: 5252: 5203:Errors in computer programs are called " 5190: 5041: 4753: 3781: 3725:serve as both input and output devices. 3685: 3566: 3347: 3037: 2493: 2062:) or below (on the opposite side of the 1996: 1875: 1788: 1689: 1536: 1428: 1370: 1245: 1206: 1111: 1013:Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by 1008: 870: 731: 585: 544: 502: 459:states that the use of the term to mean 393: 11280:Application-specific integrated circuit 11115: 10340: 10246:Préhistoire et Histoire des ordinateurs 9950: 9504: 8740: 8608: 8606: 8537: 8410: 7139:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 6848: 6823: 6689:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 6654:Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer 6480:"Memória sobre las Máquinas Algébricas" 5906:compatible microprocessor like the AMD 5134: 5058: 4893:# check if the number is less than 1000 4813:Comparatively, a person using a pocket 4573:Non-English-based programming languages 1907:The first working ICs were invented by 1284:. Program code was supplied on punched 668:. A combination of the planisphere and 307:in the late 1940s were followed by the 12838: 10515:Wikiversity has a quiz on this article 10299: 9780: 9465: 9453: 9431:Noise Reduction in Speech Applications 9149:from the original on 30 September 2019 9120:The Making of the First Microprocessor 8811: 8809: 8571: 8398:from the original on 19 September 2019 8384: 8138:from the original on 24 September 2019 7722:"Early Electronic Computers (1946–51)" 7574: 7490:from the original on 17 September 2013 7477: 7352: 7324:"The woman who cracked Enigma cyphers" 7321: 7047:Salz Trautman, Peggy (20 April 1994). 7026:. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. 6962: 6956: 6837:Electromechanical Calculating Machine, 6514: 6474: 6384:from the original on 15 September 2009 6057: 5092: 1851: 907:The Difference Engine Number 2 at the 859:, which were published in 1901 by the 851:began to develop a series of advanced 634:, and has been dated to approximately 402:, with microscope and calculator, 1952 12349: 12051: 11536: 11089: 10525: 10434: 10262: 10164: 9874:from the original on 26 December 2009 9689:. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 9109: 8931:from the original on 22 December 2015 8825:The Electrochemical Society Interface 8714:Springer Science & Business Media 8703: 8471: 8449:"The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer" 8352: 8319: 8171:from the original on 13 December 2013 8123: 7978:Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998). 7877: 7803: 7542: 7536: 7524: 7334:from the original on 10 November 2014 7133: 6975:from the original on 13 December 2020 6890: 6328: 6039:from the original on 16 November 2016 6015: 6003: 5730:List of computer system manufacturers 3675: 3598:In almost all modern computers, each 1005:Electromechanical calculating machine 921:, an English mechanical engineer and 12335:List of pioneers in computer science 11788: 11215:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 11075:List of pioneers in computer science 10376:"Tokens: The Cognitive Significance" 10092:from the original on 1 December 2017 10047:from the original on 20 January 2007 9977:from the original on 9 October 2022. 9943:Giant Brains, or Machines That Think 9723:. Pearson Education. pp. 4–17. 9618:Introduction to Software Engineering 9550:Introduction to Software Engineering 9315:Erricos John Kontoghiorghes (2006). 9168:Chartier, David (23 December 2008). 8708:History of Semiconductor Engineering 8685:from the original on 24 October 2019 8603: 8372:from the original on 27 October 2019 8156: 8126:"Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive" 8062:from the original on 27 October 2019 7552:. techiwarehouse.com. Archived from 7459:from the original on 3 February 2012 7395:from the original on 4 February 2010 7385:"Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus" 7365:from the original on 7 February 2019 7079: 7024:Der Computer, mein Lebenswerk (1984) 7014: 6998:"Who is the Father of the Computer?" 6595:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830 6539:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003 6358: 6352: 5931:High level languages are also often 5745:List of pioneers in computer science 4774:This section applies to most common 4285:, Scheduling & Time management, 1836:in computers. The MOSFET led to the 1780:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 1580:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 1183: 1178: 890:A diagram of a portion of Babbage's 700:knowledge processing machine with a 684:-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of 10303:; Strohmaier, Erich; Simon, Horst; 10210:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 9615:Ronald J. Leach (27 January 2016). 9547:Ronald J. Leach (27 January 2016). 9511:. Singapore: Springer. p. 60. 9198: 8998:from the original on 12 August 2021 8864:from the original on 29 August 2017 8815: 8806: 8654:Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation 8034:Introduction to Transistor Circuits 7834: 7828: 7640:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998). 6860:Cristopher Moore. Stephan Mertens. 6423:"The Writer Automaton, Switzerland" 6203: 5715:Glossary of computer hardware terms 4704:. That is to say that some type of 2069: 2046:(SoCs) are complete computers on a 1939:, whereas Kilby's chip was made of 1862:Invention of the integrated circuit 1481: 1101: 847:In the 1890s, the Spanish engineer 813:invented by the Scottish scientist 575:was developed from devices used in 498: 13: 11227:Erasable programmable logic device 9892: 9683:Frederick P. Brooks (Jr.) (1975). 9505:Xu, Zhiwei; Zhang, Jialin (2021). 9367:Arpad Barna; Dan I. Porat (1976). 9354:Introduction to the Basic Computer 9124:IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine 8899:from the original on 10 March 2020 7746: 7315: 7190:from the original on 9 August 2017 6756:from the original on 5 August 2012 6515:Thomas, Federico (1 August 2008). 5257:Visualization of a portion of the 4426:Integrated development environment 4065:List of embedded operating systems 3771: 3606:in groups of eight bits (called a 2126: 1962:) integrated circuits, built from 1526: 559:). The number represented on this 412:, the first known use of the word 14: 12867: 12233:Computers built 1955 through 1978 11262:Complex programmable logic device 10491: 10227:A History of Manchester Computers 10127:10.1038/scientificamerican0293-86 10085:: Digital Equipment Corporation. 9525:from the original on 30 July 2022 9486:from the original on 30 July 2022 8963:from the original on 29 July 2020 8626:from the original on 21 July 2019 8215:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48 7171: 6913:from the original on 12 July 2010 6627:Torres Quevedo, Leonardo (1901). 5977:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 5762:(list of most powerful computers) 5725:List of computer term etymologies 5166: 4557:Timeline of programming languages 4438:Software configuration management 3948:Comparison of Linux distributions 3705:, and output devices such as the 3352:Diagram showing how a particular 3293: 1758:, a team under the leadership of 1253:, inventor of the modern computer 1086:. He also introduced the idea of 866: 12479:Failure of electronic components 10509: 10497: 10199:. Chicago: Washington Institute. 9886: 9860: 9839: 9807: 9744: 9498: 9459: 9422: 9391: 9360: 9345: 9308: 9283: 9265: 9247: 9229: 9211: 9192: 9180:from the original on 4 July 2017 9161: 9084:Computer Organization and Design 9074: 9048: 8489:from the original on 29 May 2008 7419:The National Museum of Computing 7353:Bearne, Suzanne (24 July 2018). 7322:Miller, Joe (10 November 2014). 7258:. University of Michigan Press. 6938:The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse 6931: 6145:Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). 5968: 5942: 5925: 5896: 5871: 5857: 5848: 5839: 5825: 5812: 5803: 5148:high-level programming languages 4602:high-level programming languages 3222: 2173:List of computer size categories 2167:By size, form-factor and purpose 2161:Reduced instruction set computer 2156:Complex instruction set computer 1822:high-density integrated circuits 1766:and the first in the world, was 900: 883: 451:gives the first attested use of 81: 72: 61: 52: 41: 32: 12375: 11274:Field-programmable object array 11210:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 10309:"Architectures Share Over Time" 10171:. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. 10059: 9816:Systems, Experts, and Computers 9783:"The Wizard Inside the Machine" 9762:from the original on 1 May 2018 9649:John Knight (12 January 2012). 9294:. A K Peters, Ltd. p. 54. 8943: 8911: 8768: 8734: 8638: 8531: 8522: 8482:. Stockholm: Nobel Foundation. 8465: 8442: 8426:. 6 August 2010. Archived from 8365:National Inventors Hall of Fame 8326:Marriott, J.W. (10 June 2019). 8278: 8237: 8157:Laws, David (4 December 2013). 8124:Young, Ian (12 December 2018). 8117: 8074: 8032:Cooke-Yarborough, E.H. (1957). 8025: 7797: 7767: 7714: 7672: 7633: 7603: 7568: 7502: 7478:Fensom, Jim (8 November 2010). 7471: 7437: 7377: 7346: 7245: 7230: 7216:. Springer Nature. p. 65. 7101: 7073: 7040: 7008: 6990: 6906:The Modern History of Computing 6877: 6854: 6794: 6781: 6737: 6672: 6650:Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). 6643: 6620: 6468: 6415: 6396: 6322: 6287: 6230: 6220: 5382:Computer architecture paradigms 5322:A computer does not need to be 5141:High-level programming language 5115:CPU (such as may be found in a 5105:low-level programming languages 4998: 4786:and are generally carried out ( 4762:, the world's first electronic 4718:imperative programming language 4050:(previously OS X and Mac OS X) 3744: 3333: 1541:A section of the reconstructed 1417:Colossus was the world's first 656:in the early 11th century. The 598:circa 150–100 BCE, is an early 491:For a chronological guide, see 11562: 10462:Verma, G.; Mielke, N. (1988). 8159:"Who Invented the Transistor?" 7925:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). 7415:"Colossus – The Rebuild Story" 7109:"Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse" 6138: 6117: 6084: 6051: 6021: 5779: 5551:Telecommunications engineering 5099:Low-level programming language 4768:Museum of Science and Industry 4553:Lists of programming languages 2536:(mechanical/electromechanical) 1665: 1071:{\displaystyle a^{x}(y-z)^{2}} 1059: 1046: 1: 12325:History of computing hardware 11400:Hardware description language 11268:Field-programmable gate array 11065:History of computing hardware 10070:Digital Equipment Corporation 8419:Triumph of the MOS Transistor 8288:; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). 7779:Computer Conservation Society 7255:The First Electronic Computer 7085:Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk 6963:Bellis, Mary (15 May 2019) . 5991: 5800:estimates it took 4000 years. 5740:List of films about computers 5520:Professions and organizations 5281:that resulted was called the 4869:# set first number to add = 1 4569:List of programming languages 4430:Software performance analysis 3932:List of BSD operating systems 3428:Central processing unit (CPU) 2555:Quevedo's analytical machines 2527:History of computing hardware 2521:History of computing hardware 2440:Programmable logic controller 1951:, developed by his colleague 1929:monolithic integrated circuit 1519:, which is to say, they have 1235:, created by German engineer 1223:Early digital computers were 705: 635: 487:History of computing hardware 354:, together with some type of 317:monolithic integrated circuit 12474:List of emerging electronics 10933:Network interface controller 10420:10.1126/science.211.4479.283 10075:PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook 10026: 9893:II, Joseph D. Dumas (2005). 9587:. Elsevier. pp. 47–72. 9356:. Prentice-Hall. p. 12. 7749:"Introduction to the Mark 1" 7642:"Computing's Golden Jubilee" 7214:A Brief History of Computing 6940:. EPE Online. Archived from 6577:Mechanism and Machine Theory 6522:Mechanism and Machine Theory 5529:Computer-related professions 5235:computer in September 1947. 4989:# put sum in output register 4965:# repeat the summing process 4537: 4331:Computer-aided manufacturing 3211:. Each circuit represents a 2317:Desktop replacement computer 1943:. Noyce's monolithic IC was 1571:National Physical Laboratory 1338:Post Office Research Station 1296:'s earlier design), using a 389: 331:increasing at a rapid pace ( 95:Early vacuum tube computer ( 7: 11412:Formal equivalence checking 10730:Refreshable braille display 10672:Refreshable braille display 10475:. Berlin: Pringler-Verlag. 10331: 10244:Ligonnière, Robert (1987). 10150:. Oxford University Press. 10141: 9930: 9273:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 9255:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 9237:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 9219:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 8816:Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). 8741:Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). 6807:Springer, pp. 84-85, 2017. 6489:(in Spanish) (28): 217–222. 6237:Charette, François (2006). 6063:Mathematics in Ancient Iraq 6033:Online Etymology Dictionary 5735:List of fictional computers 5720:History of computer science 5697: 5239:Networking and the Internet 5050:containing one line from a 4740:Stored program architecture 4695: 4039:Macintosh operating systems 3944:List of Linux distributions 3867:. It is often divided into 3855:and related non-executable 3832: 3460:Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) 3371:, a special memory cell (a 2471: 1927:(hybrid IC), rather than a 1735:bipolar junction transistor 1695:Bipolar junction transistor 1495:in his seminal 1936 paper, 1478:capacitors, and inductors. 1154:, built by H. L. Hazen and 933:in the early 19th century. 782:, built a mechanical doll ( 465:Online Etymology Dictionary 457:Online Etymology Dictionary 448:Online Etymology Dictionary 245:, and factory devices like 10: 12872: 12175:University of Pennsylvania 11432:Hierarchical state machine 11390:Transaction-level modeling 10203: 10104: 10064:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. 10060:Couffignal, Louis (1933). 9981: 9954:Computing Before Computers 9923: 9899:. CRC Press. p. 340. 9655:. CRC Press. p. 186. 9581:Hong Zhu (22 March 2005). 9433:. CRC Press. p. 111. 9025:Cambridge University Press 8544:. Routledge. p. 221. 8296:Cambridge University Press 8095:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462 7846:Cambridge University Press 6867:OUP Oxford, p. 291, 2011. 6787:Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. 6639:. Impr. nationale (París). 6463:Scientific Computing World 5690:Apache Software Foundation 5583:, Information technology, 5581:Human–computer interaction 5315: 5309: 5242: 5184: 5138: 5096: 5062: 4743: 4526:Package management systems 4283:Database management system 3836: 3775: 3748: 3679: 3556: 3463: 3431: 3337: 3199:, often made of groups of 2957:Personal digital assistant 2524: 2482:Personal computer hardware 2475: 2170: 2116: 1865: 1855: 1796:(MOS transistor), showing 1725:, built the first working 1679: 1669: 1575:University of Pennsylvania 1530: 1487:Concept of modern computer 1308:Zuse's next computer, the 1105: 942:Royal Astronomical Society 803:Perpetual Calendar machine 696:astrolabe, an early fixed- 490: 480: 476: 18: 12674: 12532: 12449: 12383: 12293: 12276: 12260: 12241: 12217: 12192: 12173: 12160: 12131: 12083: 12078:IBM vacuum tube computers 12045: 12038: 12001: 11940: 11913: 11779: 11772: 11752: 11669: 11662: 11627: 11604: 11587: 11570: 11509: 11442: 11358: 11333:Digital signal processing 11318:Logic in computer science 11295: 11244:Programmable logic device 11204:Hybrid integrated circuit 11123: 11057: 11001: 10960: 10951: 10829: 10765: 10708: 10637: 10572: 10563: 10470: 10396:Schmandt-Besserat, Denise 10372:Schmandt-Besserat, Denise 10248:. Paris: Robert Laffont. 10243: 10225:Lavington, Simon (1998). 10192: 10165:Evans, Claire L. (2018). 9940:Berkeley, Edmund (1949). 9939: 9870:. Thefreedictionary.com. 9814:Agatha C. Hughes (2000). 9752:"Why do computers crash?" 9621:. CRC Press. p. 56. 9553:. CRC Press. p. 11. 9429:Gillian M. Davis (2002). 9319:. CRC Press. p. 45. 8572:Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). 8252:American Chemical Society 7550:"Generations of Computer" 6863:The Nature of Computation 6658:. Crowell-Collier Press. 6487:Revista de Obras Públicas 6081:was in use 2350–2000 BCE. 6079:sexagesimal number system 5980:(6th ed, 2007), the word 5413:Non-Uniform Memory Access 5349: 5346:qualifies as a computer. 4258: 4244:Text-based user interface 4196: 4135: 4130:Standard Template Library 4092: 3891: 3552: 3128: 3044: 2974: 2770: 2689: 2598: 2533: 2257:non-linear editing system 2234:(term fallen into disuse) 1960:metal–oxide–semiconductor 1925:hybrid integrated circuit 1890:Royal Radar Establishment 1832:, which replaced earlier 1676:History of the transistor 1364:developed and tested the 1088:floating-point arithmetic 861:Paris Academy of Sciences 834:ball-and-disk integrators 555: 524:one-to-one correspondence 409:Oxford English Dictionary 21:Computer (disambiguation) 11345:Switching circuit theory 11250:Programmable Array Logic 11238:Programmable logic array 10435:Smith, Erika E. (2013). 10332:Moseley, Maboth (1964). 10142:Essinger, James (2004). 10068: 9946:. John Wiley & Sons. 9868:"Definition of computer" 9717:Ian Sommerville (2007). 8509:The Chip that Jack Built 7810:British Computer Society 7589:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 7512:Honeywell v. Sperry Rand 7449:"Obituary: Allen Coombs" 7252:Arthur W. Burks (1989). 7212:O'Regan, Gerard (2010). 6147:"In search of lost time" 6093:Numbers through the ages 5772: 5766:Unconventional computing 5682:Free Software Foundation 5591:, Software engineering, 5432:von Neumann architecture 5386:There are many types of 5306:Unconventional computers 4824: 4714:von Neumann architecture 4323:Design and manufacturing 4203:Graphical user interface 3731:graphics processing unit 3193:input and output devices 3028:Wetware/Organic computer 2975:Theoretical/experimental 2608:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 2151:Von Neumann architecture 2112: 1972:General Microelectronics 1838:microcomputer revolution 1756:University of Manchester 1731:point-contact transistor 1596:University of Manchester 1501:universal Turing machine 1366:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 757:transcendental functions 622:off the Greek island of 325:microcomputer revolution 12717:Electromagnetic warfare 12266:UNIVAC family computers 12219:Sperry Rand Corporation 11760:Soviet computer systems 11395:Register-transfer level 10839:Central processing unit 10380:Documenta Praehistorica 10204:Ifrah, Georges (2001). 10027:Collier, Bruce (1970). 9982:Cohen, Bernard (2000). 9466:Cragon, Harvey (2000). 9340:Verma & Mielke 1988 8991:Computer History Museum 8956:Computer History Museum 8924:Computer History Museum 8892:Computer History Museum 8783:Electrochemical Society 8678:Computer History Museum 8538:Winston, Brian (1998). 8462:, accessed 8 July 2008. 8460:Electronic Product News 8424:Computer History Museum 8164:Computer History Museum 8083:Proceedings of the IEEE 8056:Computer History Museum 8021:(subscription required) 7835:Lee, Thomas H. (2003). 7480:"Harry Fensom obituary" 7299:Oxford University Press 7293:Copeland, Jack (2006). 7020:The Computer – My Life 6457:3 November 2012 at the 6091:Flegg, Graham. (1989). 5497:artificial intelligence 5490:Artificial intelligence 5180: 5127:CPU that might be in a 4764:stored-program computer 4510:Artificial intelligence 3827:embarrassingly parallel 3444:central processing unit 3434:Central processing unit 2573:IBM ASCC/Harvard Mark I 2486:Central processing unit 2191:(term no longer used), 1921:Fairchild Semiconductor 1764:transistorized computer 1707:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld 1703:field-effect transistor 1592:stored-program computer 1547:stored-program computer 1545:, the first electronic 1533:Stored-program computer 1133:tide-predicting machine 1027:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 1015:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 849:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 811:tide-predicting machine 763:trigonometry and other 616:Derek J. de Solla Price 418:The Yong Mans Gleanings 350:(CPU) in the form of a 348:central processing unit 12687:Automotive electronics 12636:Robotic vacuum cleaner 12596:Information technology 12401:Electronic engineering 11942:University of Illinois 11286:Tensor Processing Unit 10473:The Computer – My life 10454:10.7771/1481-4374.1972 10277:10.1353/tech.1999.0128 10265:Technology and Culture 10193:Felt, Dorr E. (1916). 10033:. Garland Publishing. 9931:Bowden, B. V. (1953). 6346:10.1109/MM.1984.291305 5798:Schmandt-Besserat 1999 5787:Schmandt-Besserat 1981 5645:Professional societies 5543:Electronic engineering 5539:Electrical engineering 5388:computer architectures 5340:A device that computes 5262: 5200: 5055: 4820:MIPS assembly language 4771: 4770:in Manchester, England 4348:Vector graphics editor 4344:Raster graphics editor 4249:Command-line interface 3790: 3694: 3591: 3517:conditional statements 3448:MOS integrated circuit 3403:Jump back to step (1). 3357: 2506: 2228:(term no longer used) 2009: 1881: 1801: 1717:, while working under 1698: 1648:J. Lyons & Company 1594:. It was built at the 1590:was the world's first 1549: 1445: 1387: 1354:John Vincent Atanasoff 1290:floating-point numbers 1254: 1220: 1120: 1072: 1018: 927:father of the computer 876: 826:differential equations 794:, and still operates. 740: 603: 564: 519: 420:by the English writer 403: 261:. Computers power the 12621:Portable media player 12494:Molecular electronics 12489:Low-power electronics 11501:Electronic literature 11455:Hardware acceleration 11323:Computer architecture 11221:Emitter-coupled logic 11158:Printed circuit board 10471:Zuse, Konrad (1993). 10336:. London: Hutchinson. 9352:Donald Eadie (1968). 9290:David J. Eck (2000). 8650:US patent 2981877 8614:"Integrated circuits" 7996:10.1049/esej:19980301 7933:John Wiley & Sons 7892:John Wiley & Sons 6803:Numbers and Computers 6629:"Machines á calculer" 6505:, Misericordia, 1895. 6403:Donald Routledge Hill 6131:28 April 2008 at the 5589:Computational science 5437:Cellular architecture 5344:processes information 5256: 5194: 5045: 4848:# initialize sum to 0 4757: 4547:Programming languages 4496:Massively multiplayer 4327:Computer-aided design 4087:Plan 9 from Bell Labs 3805:. Multiprocessor and 3785: 3751:Computer multitasking 3689: 3570: 3563:Computer data storage 3466:Arithmetic logic unit 3351: 3181:arithmetic logic unit 3038:Other hardware topics 2504: 2425:Single-board computer 2279:Small form factor PCs 2000: 1902:Washington, D.C. 1879: 1866:Further information: 1792: 1693: 1680:Further information: 1540: 1513:theory of computation 1497:On Computable Numbers 1432: 1374: 1362:Iowa State University 1249: 1210: 1198:Torpedo Data Computer 1152:differential analyzer 1141:differential analyser 1115: 1084:conditional branching 1073: 1012: 970:conditional branching 962:arithmetic logic unit 936:After working on his 911:laboratory in Seattle 909:Intellectual Ventures 874: 822:differential analyser 735: 608:Antikythera mechanism 592:Antikythera mechanism 589: 548: 506: 493:Timeline of computing 397: 315:(MOS transistor) and 274:Industrial Revolution 12856:Electronics industry 12851:Consumer electronics 12815:Terahertz technology 12796:Open-source hardware 12752:Consumer electronics 12722:Electronics industry 12484:Flexible electronics 12391:Analogue electronics 12313:Vacuum-tube computer 11427:Finite-state machine 11405:High-level synthesis 11340:Circuit minimization 10506:at Wikimedia Commons 10358:on 21 September 2013 10307:(13 November 2006). 9720:Software Engineering 9404:. O'Reilly. p. 9199:IDC (25 July 2013). 8785:. pp. 181–182. 8647:'s Unitary circuit, 8438:– via YouTube. 7935:. pp. 165–167. 7615:The Essential Turing 7301:. pp. 101–115. 7115:on 18 September 2016 6971:. Dotdash Meredith. 6681:Robertson, Edmund F. 5750:Outline of computers 5705:Computability theory 5676:open source software 5573:Computer engineering 5547:Computer engineering 5468:Church–Turing thesis 5428:Harvard architecture 5135:High-level languages 5111:). For instance, an 5065:Programming language 5059:Programming language 5014:Harvard architecture 4750:Computer programming 4488:First-person shooter 4402:Software engineering 4380:Digital audio editor 4360:3D computer graphics 4279:Presentation program 3873:application software 3861:online documentation 3631:random-access memory 3584:semiconductor memory 3572:Magnetic-core memory 3493:Boolean truth values 2777:integrated circuits) 2627:Programmable devices 2561:Programmable devices 2146:Harvard architecture 2119:Classes of computers 1898:Geoffrey W.A. Dummer 1834:magnetic-core memory 1830:semiconductor memory 1744:Junction transistors 1600:Frederic C. Williams 1577:also circulated his 1269:, implementing a 22 1033: 1023:Essays on Automatics 660:was invented in the 654:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 483:History of computing 424:: "I haue [ 380:input/output devices 360:semiconductor memory 19:For other uses, see 12791:Nuclear electronics 12616:Networking hardware 12519:Quantum electronics 12504:Organic electronics 12426:Printed electronics 12396:Digital electronics 12301:Transistor computer 11737:Electronika SS VLSI 11474:Digital photography 11256:Generic Array Logic 11178:Combinational logic 11153:Printed electronics 11117:Digital electronics 10412:1981Sci...211..283S 10390:on 30 January 2012. 10319:on 20 February 2007 10119:1993SciAm.268b..86S 10107:Scientific American 10000:2000PhT....53c..74C 9933:Faster than thought 9756:Scientific American 8837:2013ECSIn..22a..55K 8454:11 May 2013 at the 8340:on 17 December 2019 8207:1973SciAm.229b..48H 8195:Scientific American 7785:on 11 December 2016 7239:Des Moines Register 6826:, p. 6, 11–13. 6800:Ronald T. Kneusel. 6774:L. Torres Quevedo. 6679:O'Connor, John J.; 6478:(10 October 1895). 6429:on 20 February 2015 6412:, pp. 139–163. 6255:2006Natur.444..551C 6163:2006Natur.444..534M 5891:non-volatile memory 5611: 5593:Video game industry 5585:Information systems 5555:Optical engineering 5531: 5509:pattern recognition 5372:computable function 5245:Computer networking 5161:video game consoles 5121:hand-held videogame 5093:Low-level languages 4663:scripting languages 4549: 4500:Interactive fiction 4313:Mail transfer agent 4291:Accounting software 4253:Text user interface 4122:Programming library 4083:AOS, Bluebottle, A2 3799:mainframe computers 3727:Computer networking 3723:optical disc drives 3602:is set up to store 3533:and computers with 3531:Graphics processors 3483:) while others use 3205:electrical circuits 3158:computer networking 2955:, Laptop computer, 2834:MOS Technology 6502 2698:integrated circuits 2543:Pascal's calculator 2455:System in a package 2253:Multimedia computer 1894:Ministry of Defence 1852:Integrated circuits 1846:digital electronics 1842:computer revolution 1768:operational by 1953 1682:Transistor computer 1561:) that details the 1276:that operated at a 1137:Sir William Thomson 1117:Sir William Thomson 1025:published in 1914, 931:mechanical computer 815:Sir William Thomson 674:spherical astronomy 12769:Marine electronics 12742:Integrated circuit 12661:Video game console 12459:2020s in computing 12441:Thermal management 12003:Harvard University 11422:Asynchronous logic 11198:Integrated circuit 11163:Electronic circuit 9145:. 3 January 2017. 8846:10.1149/2.F06131if 8704:Lojek, Bo (2007). 8515:1 May 2015 at the 8458:, (n.d.), (HTML), 8010:on 8 November 2020 7865:on 9 December 2019 7804:Lavington, Simon. 7755:on 26 October 2008 7690:(4). Summer 1992. 7241:. 15 January 1941. 7061:on 4 November 2016 7054:The New York Times 6330:Price, Derek de S. 5818:Most major 64-bit 5686:Mozilla Foundation 5607: 5577:Desktop publishing 5527: 5505:rule-based systems 5484:cellular automaton 5326:, nor even have a 5263: 5201: 5056: 4778:–based computers. 4772: 4581:assembly languages 4545: 4514:Antivirus software 4275:Desktop publishing 4126:C standard library 3819:graphics rendering 3791: 3695: 3676:Input/output (I/O) 3654:embedded computers 3592: 3358: 2696:and SSI, MSI, LSI 2507: 2445:Computer-on-module 2305:Internet appliance 2217:Personal computer 2184:Mainframe computer 2060:Package on package 2010: 1988:self-aligned gates 1886:integrated circuit 1882: 1858:Integrated circuit 1802: 1699: 1550: 1446: 1442:United States Army 1419:electronic digital 1388: 1380:electronic digital 1346:telephone exchange 1342:telephone exchange 1330:electronic circuit 1255: 1221: 1190:United States Navy 1121: 1068: 1019: 990:British Government 877: 807:perpetual calendar 776:Pierre Jaquet-Droz 741: 694:lunisolar calendar 604: 565: 520: 517:prehistoric Africa 404: 344:processing element 337:Digital Revolution 251:personal computers 188:digital electronic 180:logical operations 133:Video game console 12833: 12832: 12810:Radio electronics 12436:Schematic capture 12421:Power electronics 12343: 12342: 12284:Colossus computer 12272: 12271: 12169: 12168: 12154: 12153: 11936: 11935: 11768: 11767: 11530: 11529: 11479:Digital telephone 11450:Computer hardware 11417:Synchronous logic 11083: 11082: 11053: 11052: 10983:Analog audio jack 10704: 10703: 10502:Media related to 10482:978-0-387-56453-1 10406:(4479): 283–285. 10255:978-2-221-05261-7 10236:978-0-902505-01-8 10217:978-0-471-39671-0 10178:978-0-7352-1175-9 10157:978-0-19-280577-5 10040:978-0-8240-0043-1 10019:978-0-262-53179-5 9967:978-0-8138-0047-9 9906:978-0-8493-2749-0 9829:978-0-262-08285-3 9730:978-0-321-31379-9 9696:978-0-201-00650-6 9662:978-1-4665-1821-6 9628:978-1-4987-0528-8 9594:978-0-08-045496-2 9560:978-1-4987-0528-8 9518:978-981-16-3848-0 9479:978-0-521-65168-4 9440:978-0-8493-0949-6 9415:978-0-596-00261-9 9384:978-0-471-05051-3 9373:. Wiley. p. 9326:978-0-8247-4067-2 9301:978-1-56881-128-4 9102:978-1-55860-428-5 9087:. San Francisco: 9034:978-1-107-05240-6 8792:978-1-56677-193-1 8754:978-0-8018-8639-3 8727:978-3-540-34258-8 8589:978-981-281-445-6 8551:978-0-415-14230-4 8430:on 18 August 2021 8305:978-1-107-43449-3 8261:978-0-8412-2861-0 7965:, pp. 34–35. 7942:978-0-470-50892-3 7901:978-3-527-34053-8 7855:978-1-139-64377-1 7747:Napper, R. B. E. 7728:on 5 January 2009 7702:on 28 August 2017 7660:on 9 January 2012 7308:978-0-19-284055-4 7223:978-3-030-66599-9 7151:10.1109/85.707574 7094:978-3-540-56292-4 7033:978-3-642-08151-4 6873:978-0-199-23321-2 6813:978-3-319-50508-4 6752:. New Scientist. 6685:"Charles Babbage" 6665:978-0-02-741370-0 6499:Leonardo Torres. 6407:Annals of Science 6371:Turk J Elec Engin 6249:(7119): 551–552. 6157:(7119): 534–538. 6072:978-0-691-09182-2 5974:According to the 5865:computer clusters 5755:Pulse computation 5710:Computer security 5695: 5694: 5602: 5601: 5514:voice recognition 5444:abstract machines 5399:Chemical computer 5376:quantum factoring 5368:quantum computers 5356:optical computers 5318:Harvard Computers 5071:natural languages 5037:assembly language 4956:# get next number 4693: 4692: 4535: 4534: 4317:Instant messaging 4213:Microsoft Windows 3955:Microsoft Windows 3895:/System Software 3884:IBM PC compatible 3739:desktop computers 3354:MIPS architecture 3233:Computer keyboard 3209:electronic switch 3177: 3176: 3035: 3034: 2991:Chemical computer 2969:Wearable computer 2961:Portable computer 2945:Personal computer 2930:Embedded computer 2771:Fourth generation 2648:Manchester Mark 1 2599:Second generation 2569:Analytical engine 2551:Difference engine 2502: 2478:Computer hardware 2406:Wearable computer 2295:Portable computer 2290:Keyboard computer 2249:Slimline desktop 2193:Midrange computer 1990:was developed by 1976:self-aligned gate 1913:Texas Instruments 1904:, on 7 May 1952. 1810:Mohamed M. Atalla 1701:The concept of a 1625:Manchester Mark 1 1475:J. Presper Eckert 1358:Clifford E. Berry 1336:, working at the 1225:electromechanical 1184:Electromechanical 1179:Digital computers 976:, and integrated 946:analytical engine 938:difference engine 892:Difference engine 704:and gear-wheels, 662:Hellenistic world 620:Antikythera wreck 594:, dating back to 563:is 6,302,715,408. 422:Richard Brathwait 329:transistor counts 298:thermionic valves 294:electromechanical 247:industrial robots 233:use computers as 231:consumer products 225:A broad range of 170:to automatically 12863: 12805:Radio navigation 12702:Data acquisition 12411:Microelectronics 12370: 12363: 12356: 12347: 12346: 12072: 12065: 12058: 12049: 12048: 12043: 12042: 12023:Harvard Mark III 11786: 11785: 11777: 11776: 11745: 11728: 11716: 11699: 11687: 11667: 11666: 11557: 11550: 11543: 11534: 11533: 11183:Sequential logic 11110: 11103: 11096: 11087: 11086: 10958: 10957: 10609:Optical trackpad 10574:Pointing devices 10570: 10569: 10546: 10539: 10532: 10523: 10522: 10513: 10501: 10486: 10467: 10458: 10456: 10431: 10391: 10386:. Archived from 10367: 10365: 10363: 10357: 10351:. Archived from 10350: 10337: 10328: 10326: 10324: 10315:. Archived from 10296: 10259: 10240: 10221: 10200: 10189: 10187: 10185: 10161: 10149: 10138: 10101: 10099: 10097: 10091: 10080: 10065: 10056: 10054: 10052: 10023: 10011: 10009:10.1063/1.883007 9978: 9976: 9959: 9947: 9936: 9918: 9917: 9915: 9913: 9890: 9884: 9883: 9881: 9879: 9864: 9858: 9857: 9855: 9843: 9837: 9836: 9811: 9805: 9804: 9802: 9800: 9795:on 16 March 2007 9791:. 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Archived from 8323: 8317: 8316: 8314: 8312: 8286:Fossum, Jerry G. 8282: 8276: 8275: 8270: 8268: 8241: 8235: 8234: 8190: 8181: 8180: 8178: 8176: 8154: 8148: 8147: 8145: 8143: 8121: 8115: 8114: 8078: 8072: 8071: 8069: 8067: 8044: 8038: 8037: 8029: 8023: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8015: 8006:. Archived from 7975: 7966: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7951: 7949: 7922: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7908: 7881: 7875: 7874: 7872: 7870: 7864: 7858:. Archived from 7843: 7832: 7826: 7825: 7823: 7821: 7812:. Archived from 7801: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7790: 7781:. Archived from 7771: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7760: 7744: 7738: 7737: 7735: 7733: 7718: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7707: 7698:. Archived from 7676: 7670: 7669: 7667: 7665: 7656:. Archived from 7637: 7631: 7621: 7607: 7601: 7600: 7572: 7566: 7565: 7563: 7561: 7546: 7540: 7534: 7528: 7522: 7516: 7506: 7500: 7499: 7497: 7495: 7475: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7464: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7425:on 18 April 2015 7421:. Archived from 7411: 7405: 7404: 7402: 7400: 7381: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7370: 7350: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7339: 7319: 7313: 7312: 7290: 7277: 7276: 7274: 7272: 7249: 7243: 7242: 7234: 7228: 7227: 7209: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7189: 7178: 7169: 7163: 7162: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7120: 7111:. Archived from 7105: 7099: 7098: 7077: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7066: 7057:. Archived from 7044: 7038: 7037: 7012: 7006: 7005: 6994: 6988: 6987: 6982: 6980: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6951: 6949: 6929: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6918: 6901: 6888: 6883:Randell, Brian. 6881: 6875: 6858: 6852: 6846: 6840: 6833: 6827: 6821: 6815: 6798: 6792: 6785: 6779: 6772: 6766: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6741: 6735: 6734: 6732: 6730: 6725:on 7 August 2012 6711: 6705: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6657: 6647: 6641: 6640: 6624: 6618: 6617: 6607: 6597: 6567: 6561: 6560: 6550: 6512: 6506: 6497: 6491: 6490: 6484: 6476:Torres, Leonardo 6472: 6466: 6448: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6434: 6419: 6413: 6400: 6394: 6393: 6391: 6389: 6383: 6368: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6326: 6320: 6319: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6266: 6234: 6228: 6224: 6218: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6174: 6142: 6136: 6121: 6115: 6114: 6088: 6082: 6076: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6025: 6019: 6013: 6007: 6001: 5985: 5972: 5966: 5951:Pentium FDIV bug 5946: 5940: 5929: 5923: 5900: 5894: 5875: 5869: 5861: 5855: 5852: 5846: 5843: 5837: 5829: 5823: 5816: 5810: 5807: 5801: 5783: 5615:Standards groups 5612: 5606: 5569:Computer science 5565:Software-related 5535:Hardware-related 5532: 5526: 5501:machine learning 5419:Register machine 5415:(NUMA) computers 5408:Vector processor 5404:Scalar processor 5395:Quantum computer 5378:) very quickly. 5364:neural computers 5279:computer network 5113:ARM architecture 5029:machine language 4990: 4987: 4984: 4981: 4978: 4975: 4972: 4969: 4966: 4963: 4960: 4957: 4954: 4951: 4948: 4945: 4942: 4939: 4936: 4933: 4930: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4915: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4900: 4897: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4885: 4882: 4879: 4876: 4873: 4870: 4867: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4837: 4834: 4831: 4828: 4746:Computer program 4550: 4544: 4460:Flight simulator 4452:Educational game 4434:Revision control 4368:Image processing 4356:Animation editor 3893:Operating system 3889: 3888: 3715:Hard disk drives 3691:Hard disk drives 3650:operating system 3637:read-only memory 3612:two's complement 3303:Computer monitor 3268:Overlay keyboard 3042: 3041: 3009:Optical computer 2984:IBM Q System One 2979:Quantum computer 2949:Desktop computer 2760:Desktop Computer 2690:Third generation 2656:Ferranti Mercury 2652:Ferranti Pegasus 2534:First generation 2531: 2530: 2503: 2450:System on module 2240:Desktop computer 2201:Rackmount server 2137:Digital computer 2107:System on a Chip 2076:mobile computers 2070:Mobile computers 2044:System on a Chip 2004:photograph of a 1818:high scalability 1719:William Shockley 1705:was proposed by 1482:Modern computers 1171:) and aircraft ( 1102:Analog computers 1077: 1075: 1074: 1069: 1067: 1066: 1045: 1044: 904: 887: 838:torque amplifier 749:William Oughtred 710: 707: 640: 637: 600:analog computing 558: 557: 542:is one example. 536:Fertile Crescent 499:Pre-20th century 462: 220:computer cluster 216:computer network 204:operating system 123:Desktop computer 85: 76: 65: 56: 45: 36: 12871: 12870: 12866: 12865: 12864: 12862: 12861: 12860: 12836: 12835: 12834: 12829: 12762:Small appliance 12757:Major appliance 12737:Home automation 12727:Embedded system 12682:Audio equipment 12670: 12666:Washing machine 12591:Home theater PC 12547:Central heating 12542:Air conditioner 12534: 12528: 12499:Nanoelectronics 12451: 12445: 12416:Optoelectronics 12406:Instrumentation 12379: 12374: 12344: 12339: 12289: 12268: 12256: 12237: 12213: 12188: 12165: 12156: 12155: 12150: 12127: 12079: 12076: 12034: 12029:Harvard Mark IV 12017:Harvard Mark II 11997: 11932: 11909: 11764: 11748: 11739: 11722: 11710: 11693: 11681: 11658: 11623: 11600: 11583: 11566: 11561: 11531: 11526: 11505: 11438: 11373:Place and route 11368:Logic synthesis 11354: 11350:Gate equivalent 11313:Logic synthesis 11308:Boolean algebra 11291: 11233:Macrocell array 11193:Boolean circuit 11119: 11114: 11084: 11079: 11049: 10997: 10947: 10825: 10819:USB flash drive 10768: 10761: 10700: 10633: 10587:Game controller 10582:Graphics tablet 10559: 10550: 10494: 10489: 10483: 10361: 10359: 10355: 10348: 10322: 10320: 10256: 10237: 10218: 10183: 10181: 10179: 10158: 10095: 10093: 10089: 10078: 10050: 10048: 10041: 10020: 9974: 9968: 9957: 9926: 9921: 9911: 9909: 9907: 9891: 9887: 9877: 9875: 9866: 9865: 9861: 9844: 9840: 9830: 9822:. p. 161. 9812: 9808: 9798: 9796: 9779: 9775: 9765: 9763: 9750: 9749: 9745: 9735: 9733: 9731: 9715: 9711: 9701: 9699: 9697: 9681: 9677: 9667: 9665: 9663: 9647: 9643: 9633: 9631: 9629: 9613: 9609: 9599: 9597: 9595: 9579: 9575: 9565: 9563: 9561: 9545: 9541: 9528: 9526: 9519: 9503: 9499: 9489: 9487: 9480: 9464: 9460: 9452: 9448: 9441: 9427: 9423: 9416: 9396: 9392: 9385: 9365: 9361: 9350: 9346: 9338: 9334: 9327: 9313: 9309: 9302: 9288: 9284: 9271: 9270: 9266: 9253: 9252: 9248: 9235: 9234: 9230: 9217: 9216: 9212: 9197: 9193: 9183: 9181: 9166: 9162: 9152: 9150: 9141: 9140: 9133: 9126:, Winter 2009, 9116:Federico Faggin 9114: 9110: 9103: 9089:Morgan Kaufmann 9079: 9075: 9065: 9063: 9054: 9053: 9049: 9039: 9037: 9035: 9015: 9011: 9001: 8999: 8984: 8983: 8976: 8966: 8964: 8949: 8948: 8944: 8934: 8932: 8917: 8916: 8912: 8902: 8900: 8885: 8884: 8877: 8867: 8865: 8861: 8820: 8814: 8807: 8797: 8795: 8793: 8773: 8769: 8759: 8757: 8755: 8739: 8735: 8728: 8702: 8698: 8688: 8686: 8671: 8670: 8666: 8658: 8648: 8643: 8639: 8629: 8627: 8612: 8611: 8604: 8594: 8592: 8590: 8582:. p. 140. 8570: 8566: 8556: 8554: 8552: 8536: 8532: 8527: 8523: 8517:Wayback Machine 8506: 8502: 8492: 8490: 8486: 8479: 8477:"Nobel lecture" 8470: 8466: 8456:Wayback Machine 8447: 8443: 8433: 8431: 8416: 8415: 8411: 8401: 8399: 8390: 8389: 8385: 8375: 8373: 8358: 8357: 8353: 8343: 8341: 8324: 8320: 8310: 8308: 8306: 8298:. p. vii. 8283: 8279: 8266: 8264: 8262: 8254:. p. 389. 8242: 8238: 8191: 8184: 8174: 8172: 8155: 8151: 8141: 8139: 8122: 8118: 8079: 8075: 8065: 8063: 8046: 8045: 8041: 8030: 8026: 8020: 8013: 8011: 7976: 7969: 7961: 7957: 7947: 7945: 7943: 7923: 7916: 7906: 7904: 7902: 7882: 7878: 7868: 7866: 7862: 7856: 7841: 7833: 7829: 7819: 7817: 7802: 7798: 7788: 7786: 7773: 7772: 7768: 7758: 7756: 7745: 7741: 7731: 7729: 7720: 7719: 7715: 7705: 7703: 7678: 7677: 7673: 7663: 7661: 7638: 7634: 7624:Stanley Frankel 7608: 7604: 7573: 7569: 7559: 7557: 7548: 7547: 7543: 7535: 7531: 7523: 7519: 7507: 7503: 7493: 7491: 7476: 7472: 7462: 7460: 7453:The Independent 7442: 7438: 7428: 7426: 7413: 7412: 7408: 7398: 7396: 7383: 7382: 7378: 7368: 7366: 7351: 7347: 7337: 7335: 7320: 7316: 7309: 7291: 7280: 7270: 7268: 7266: 7250: 7246: 7236: 7235: 7231: 7224: 7210: 7203: 7193: 7191: 7187: 7176: 7170: 7166: 7132: 7128: 7118: 7116: 7107: 7106: 7102: 7095: 7078: 7074: 7064: 7062: 7045: 7041: 7034: 7013: 7009: 6996: 6995: 6991: 6978: 6976: 6961: 6957: 6947: 6945: 6930: 6926: 6916: 6914: 6903: 6902: 6891: 6882: 6878: 6859: 6855: 6847: 6843: 6834: 6830: 6822: 6818: 6799: 6795: 6786: 6782: 6773: 6769: 6759: 6757: 6742: 6738: 6728: 6726: 6713: 6712: 6708: 6698: 6696: 6695:on 16 June 2006 6677: 6673: 6666: 6648: 6644: 6625: 6621: 6568: 6564: 6513: 6509: 6498: 6494: 6482: 6473: 6469: 6465:, May/June 2003 6459:Wayback Machine 6449: 6442: 6432: 6430: 6421: 6420: 6416: 6401: 6397: 6387: 6385: 6381: 6366: 6357: 6353: 6327: 6323: 6308:10.2307/1006002 6292: 6288: 6264:10.1038/444551a 6235: 6231: 6225: 6221: 6208: 6204: 6172:10.1038/444534a 6143: 6139: 6133:Wayback Machine 6122: 6118: 6103: 6089: 6085: 6073: 6059:Robson, Eleanor 6056: 6052: 6042: 6040: 6029:"computer (n.)" 6027: 6026: 6022: 6014: 6010: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5989: 5988: 5973: 5969: 5947: 5943: 5930: 5926: 5901: 5897: 5876: 5872: 5862: 5858: 5853: 5849: 5844: 5840: 5830: 5826: 5820:instruction set 5817: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5795: 5784: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5700: 5559:Nanoengineering 5522: 5492: 5384: 5352: 5320: 5314: 5308: 5261:on the Internet 5251: 5243:Main articles: 5241: 5233:Harvard Mark II 5197:Harvard Mark II 5189: 5183: 5169: 5143: 5137: 5101: 5095: 5067: 5061: 5001: 4992: 4991: 4988: 4985: 4982: 4979: 4976: 4973: 4970: 4967: 4964: 4961: 4958: 4955: 4952: 4949: 4946: 4943: 4940: 4937: 4934: 4931: 4928: 4925: 4922: 4919: 4916: 4913: 4910: 4907: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4895: 4892: 4889: 4886: 4883: 4880: 4877: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4862: 4859: 4856: 4853: 4850: 4847: 4844: 4841: 4838: 4835: 4832: 4829: 4826: 4808:flow of control 4760:Manchester Baby 4758:Replica of the 4752: 4744:Main articles: 4742: 4722:word processors 4698: 4540: 4518:Malware scanner 4392:Audio synthesis 4297:Internet Access 4271:Word processing 3869:system software 3841: 3835: 3780: 3778:Multiprocessing 3774: 3772:Multiprocessing 3753: 3747: 3684: 3678: 3580:computer memory 3565: 3559:Computer memory 3557:Main articles: 3555: 3519:and processing 3468: 3462: 3440: 3432:Main articles: 3430: 3420:, which runs a 3369:program counter 3346: 3338:Main articles: 3336: 3296: 3273:Real-time clock 3243:Graphics tablet 3225: 3115:hard disk drive 3079:graphics tablet 3040: 3020:-based computer 2861:WDC 65816/65802 2772: 2691: 2640:Manchester Baby 2600: 2577:Harvard Mark II 2535: 2529: 2523: 2494: 2492: 2476:Main articles: 2474: 2466:Microcontroller 2399:Pocket computer 2379:Ultra-mobile PC 2369:Tablet computer 2364:Mobile computer 2312:Laptop computer 2285:Home theater PC 2263:Gaming computer 2175: 2169: 2141:Hybrid computer 2133:Analog computer 2129: 2127:By architecture 2121: 2115: 2088:Compaq Portable 2072: 2026:Masatoshi Shima 1992:Federico Faggin 1874: 1864: 1856:Main articles: 1854: 1749:mass-production 1715:Walter Brattain 1688: 1678: 1670:Main articles: 1668: 1632:Ferranti Mark 1 1588:Manchester Baby 1555:instruction set 1543:Manchester Baby 1535: 1529: 1527:Stored programs 1517:Turing-complete 1489: 1484: 1423:boolean logical 1404:Lorenz SZ 40/42 1326: 1303:Turing complete 1294:Charles Babbage 1278:clock frequency 1196:. This was the 1186: 1181: 1173:control systems 1110: 1108:Analog computer 1104: 1062: 1058: 1040: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1007: 982:Turing-complete 968:in the form of 919:Charles Babbage 916: 915: 914: 913: 912: 905: 896: 895: 894: 888: 875:Charles Babbage 869: 853:analog machines 708: 638: 614:, according to 612:analog computer 515:dating back to 501: 496: 489: 481:Main articles: 479: 460: 392: 356:computer memory 243:remote controls 239:microwave ovens 235:control systems 196:computer system 156: 155: 154: 153: 152: 127:ThinkCentre S50 88: 87: 86: 78: 77: 68: 67: 66: 58: 57: 48: 47: 46: 38: 37: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 12869: 12859: 12858: 12853: 12848: 12831: 12830: 12828: 12827: 12826:Communications 12817: 12812: 12807: 12798: 12793: 12788: 12783: 12777: 12771: 12766: 12765: 12764: 12759: 12754: 12747:Home appliance 12744: 12739: 12734: 12732:Home appliance 12729: 12724: 12719: 12714: 12709: 12704: 12699: 12697:Control system 12694: 12689: 12684: 12678: 12676: 12672: 12671: 12669: 12668: 12663: 12658: 12653: 12648: 12643: 12638: 12633: 12628: 12623: 12618: 12613: 12608: 12606:Microwave oven 12603: 12598: 12593: 12588: 12583: 12578: 12573: 12568: 12563: 12554: 12549: 12544: 12538: 12536: 12530: 12529: 12527: 12526: 12521: 12516: 12511: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12469:Bioelectronics 12466: 12461: 12455: 12453: 12447: 12446: 12444: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12387: 12385: 12381: 12380: 12373: 12372: 12365: 12358: 12350: 12341: 12340: 12338: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12321: 12320: 12310: 12309: 12308: 12297: 12295: 12291: 12290: 12288: 12287: 12280: 12278: 12277:United Kingdom 12274: 12273: 12270: 12269: 12264: 12262: 12258: 12257: 12255: 12254: 12247: 12245: 12239: 12238: 12236: 12235: 12229: 12223: 12221: 12215: 12214: 12212: 12211: 12205: 12198: 12196: 12190: 12189: 12187: 12186: 12179: 12177: 12171: 12170: 12167: 12166: 12163:IBM mainframes 12161: 12158: 12157: 12152: 12151: 12149: 12148: 12143: 12137: 12135: 12129: 12128: 12126: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12105: 12100: 12095: 12090: 12084: 12081: 12080: 12075: 12074: 12067: 12060: 12052: 12046: 12040: 12036: 12035: 12033: 12032: 12026: 12020: 12014: 12011:Harvard Mark I 12007: 12005: 11999: 11998: 11996: 11995: 11992:Trusted ILLIAC 11989: 11983: 11977: 11971: 11965: 11959: 11953: 11946: 11944: 11938: 11937: 11934: 11933: 11931: 11930: 11924: 11917: 11915: 11911: 11910: 11908: 11907: 11901: 11895: 11889: 11883: 11877: 11871: 11865: 11859: 11853: 11847: 11841: 11835: 11829: 11823: 11817: 11811: 11805: 11799: 11792: 11790: 11783: 11774: 11770: 11769: 11766: 11765: 11763: 11762: 11756: 11754: 11750: 11749: 11747: 11746: 11734: 11729: 11717: 11705: 11700: 11688: 11676: 11670: 11664: 11660: 11659: 11657: 11656: 11650: 11644: 11638: 11631: 11629: 11625: 11624: 11622: 11621: 11615: 11608: 11606: 11602: 11601: 11599: 11598: 11591: 11589: 11585: 11584: 11582: 11581: 11574: 11572: 11568: 11567: 11560: 11559: 11552: 11545: 11537: 11528: 11527: 11525: 11524: 11519: 11513: 11511: 11507: 11506: 11504: 11503: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11491: 11489:cinematography 11481: 11476: 11471: 11470: 11469: 11459: 11458: 11457: 11446: 11444: 11440: 11439: 11437: 11436: 11435: 11434: 11424: 11419: 11414: 11409: 11408: 11407: 11402: 11392: 11387: 11386: 11385: 11380: 11370: 11364: 11362: 11356: 11355: 11353: 11352: 11347: 11342: 11337: 11336: 11335: 11328:Digital signal 11325: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11305: 11303:Digital signal 11299: 11297: 11293: 11292: 11290: 11289: 11283: 11277: 11271: 11265: 11259: 11253: 11247: 11241: 11235: 11230: 11224: 11218: 11212: 11207: 11201: 11195: 11190: 11185: 11180: 11175: 11170: 11165: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11129: 11127: 11121: 11120: 11113: 11112: 11105: 11098: 11090: 11081: 11080: 11078: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11061: 11059: 11055: 11054: 11051: 11050: 11048: 11047: 11042: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11017: 11012: 11005: 11003: 10999: 10998: 10996: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10964: 10962: 10955: 10949: 10948: 10946: 10945: 10943:Expansion card 10940: 10935: 10930: 10929: 10928: 10923: 10913: 10912: 10911: 10901: 10900: 10899: 10894: 10880: 10870: 10869: 10868: 10863: 10853: 10848: 10847: 10846: 10844:Microprocessor 10835: 10833: 10827: 10826: 10824: 10823: 10822: 10821: 10816: 10806: 10805: 10804: 10799: 10794: 10784: 10779: 10773: 10771: 10763: 10762: 10760: 10759: 10754: 10749: 10744: 10743: 10742: 10732: 10727: 10726: 10725: 10714: 10712: 10710:Output devices 10706: 10705: 10702: 10701: 10699: 10698: 10697: 10696: 10686: 10685: 10684: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10663: 10662: 10652: 10647: 10641: 10639: 10635: 10634: 10632: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10616: 10614:Pointing stick 10611: 10606: 10605: 10604: 10594: 10589: 10584: 10578: 10576: 10567: 10561: 10560: 10549: 10548: 10541: 10534: 10526: 10518: 10517: 10507: 10493: 10492:External links 10490: 10488: 10487: 10481: 10468: 10459: 10432: 10392: 10368: 10342:Randell, Brian 10338: 10329: 10305:Dongarra, Jack 10297: 10271:(3): 455–483. 10260: 10254: 10241: 10235: 10222: 10216: 10201: 10190: 10177: 10162: 10156: 10139: 10102: 10066: 10057: 10039: 10024: 10018: 9979: 9966: 9948: 9937: 9927: 9925: 9922: 9920: 9919: 9905: 9885: 9859: 9838: 9828: 9806: 9773: 9743: 9729: 9709: 9695: 9675: 9661: 9641: 9627: 9607: 9593: 9573: 9559: 9539: 9517: 9497: 9478: 9458: 9446: 9439: 9421: 9414: 9390: 9383: 9359: 9344: 9332: 9325: 9307: 9300: 9282: 9264: 9246: 9228: 9210: 9191: 9160: 9131: 9108: 9101: 9073: 9062:on 13 May 2008 9047: 9033: 9009: 8974: 8942: 8910: 8875: 8805: 8791: 8767: 8753: 8733: 8726: 8696: 8664: 8637: 8602: 8588: 8564: 8550: 8530: 8521: 8500: 8464: 8441: 8409: 8383: 8351: 8318: 8304: 8277: 8260: 8236: 8182: 8149: 8116: 8073: 8039: 8024: 7990:(3): 100–106. 7967: 7963:Lavington 1998 7955: 7941: 7914: 7900: 7894:. p. 14. 7876: 7854: 7827: 7816:on 5 July 2010 7796: 7766: 7739: 7713: 7671: 7632: 7617:. p. 22: 7611:Copeland, Jack 7602: 7583:(1): 230–265. 7567: 7556:on 2 July 2015 7541: 7539:, p. 459. 7529: 7517: 7501: 7470: 7445:Randell, Brian 7436: 7406: 7376: 7345: 7314: 7307: 7278: 7264: 7244: 7229: 7222: 7201: 7164: 7126: 7100: 7093: 7072: 7039: 7032: 7007: 6989: 6955: 6944:on 1 June 2008 6924: 6889: 6876: 6853: 6841: 6828: 6816: 6793: 6780: 6767: 6736: 6706: 6671: 6664: 6642: 6619: 6562: 6507: 6492: 6467: 6440: 6414: 6395: 6351: 6321: 6286: 6229: 6219: 6202: 6137: 6116: 6101: 6083: 6071: 6050: 6020: 6008: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5967: 5963:microprocessor 5959:floating point 5941: 5924: 5895: 5870: 5856: 5847: 5838: 5824: 5811: 5802: 5791:bill of lading 5777: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5768: 5763: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5679: 5668: 5667: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5616: 5600: 5599: 5566: 5562: 5561: 5536: 5521: 5518: 5491: 5488: 5440: 5439: 5434: 5425: 5416: 5410: 5401: 5383: 5380: 5351: 5348: 5312:Human computer 5310:Main article: 5307: 5304: 5291:World Wide Web 5240: 5237: 5185:Main article: 5182: 5179: 5168: 5167:Program design 5165: 5139:Main article: 5136: 5133: 5097:Main article: 5094: 5091: 5063:Main article: 5060: 5057: 5018:Harvard Mark I 5000: 4997: 4825: 4741: 4738: 4697: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4665: 4661:Commonly used 4658: 4657: 4604: 4600:Commonly used 4597: 4596: 4583: 4579:Commonly used 4576: 4575: 4554: 4539: 4536: 4533: 4532: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4445: 4441: 4440: 4403: 4399: 4398: 4396:Computer music 4384:Audio playback 4377: 4371: 4370: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4268: 4263: 4256: 4255: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4210: 4200: 4198:User interface 4194: 4193: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4144: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4101: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4072: 4068: 4067: 4062: 4052: 4051: 4044:Classic Mac OS 4041: 4035: 4034: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3905: 3896: 3837:Main article: 3834: 3831: 3795:supercomputers 3776:Main article: 3773: 3770: 3749:Main article: 3746: 3743: 3680:Main article: 3677: 3674: 3670:cache memories 3641: 3640: 3634: 3604:binary numbers 3590:memory cells). 3576:magnetic cores 3554: 3551: 3485:floating point 3464:Main article: 3461: 3458: 3453:microprocessor 3450:chip called a 3438:Microprocessor 3429: 3426: 3418:microsequencer 3405: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3335: 3332: 3331: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3295: 3294:Output devices 3292: 3291: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3238:Digital camera 3235: 3224: 3221: 3175: 3174: 3161: 3153: 3152: 3135: 3132: 3130:Computer buses 3126: 3125: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3056: 3053: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3021: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3005: 3004: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2971: 2946: 2942: 2941: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2896: 2889: 2888: 2882:Motorola 68000 2871: 2864: 2863: 2850: 2841: 2840: 2815: 2808: 2807: 2798: 2791: 2790: 2781: 2778: 2768: 2767: 2762: 2756: 2755: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2717:IBM System/360 2706: 2701: 2687: 2686: 2629: 2623: 2622: 2605: 2602: 2601:(vacuum tubes) 2596: 2595: 2562: 2558: 2557: 2540: 2537: 2525:Main article: 2522: 2519: 2490:Microprocessor 2473: 2470: 2469: 2468: 2463: 2460:System-on-chip 2457: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2361: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2309: 2308: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2272: 2267: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2247: 2237: 2236: 2235: 2223: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2195: 2186: 2181: 2168: 2165: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2135: 2128: 2125: 2114: 2111: 2071: 2068: 2014:microprocessor 1949:planar process 1872:Microprocessor 1868:Planar process 1853: 1850: 1667: 1664: 1598:in England by 1531:Main article: 1528: 1525: 1505:stored program 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1462:stored program 1436:was the first 1392:Bletchley Park 1384:Bletchley Park 1325: 1322: 1280:of about 5–10 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1135:, invented by 1106:Main article: 1103: 1100: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1043: 1039: 1006: 1003: 906: 899: 898: 897: 889: 882: 881: 880: 879: 878: 868: 867:First computer 865: 799:Giovanni Plana 774:In the 1770s, 709: 1000 AD 639: 100 BCE 596:ancient Greece 581:counting house 500: 497: 478: 475: 470:Turing machine 436:human computer 400:human computer 391: 388: 352:microprocessor 346:, typically a 321:microprocessor 255:mobile devices 151: 150: 140: 130: 120: 110: 107:IBM System 360 100: 92: 90: 89: 80: 79: 71: 70: 69: 60: 59: 51: 50: 49: 40: 39: 31: 30: 29: 28: 27: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12868: 12857: 12854: 12852: 12849: 12847: 12844: 12843: 12841: 12825: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12802: 12799: 12797: 12794: 12792: 12789: 12787: 12784: 12781: 12778: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12763: 12760: 12758: 12755: 12753: 12750: 12749: 12748: 12745: 12743: 12740: 12738: 12735: 12733: 12730: 12728: 12725: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12715: 12713: 12710: 12708: 12705: 12703: 12700: 12698: 12695: 12693: 12690: 12688: 12685: 12683: 12680: 12679: 12677: 12673: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12652: 12649: 12647: 12644: 12642: 12639: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12592: 12589: 12587: 12584: 12582: 12579: 12577: 12574: 12572: 12569: 12567: 12564: 12562: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12552:Clothes dryer 12550: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12539: 12537: 12531: 12525: 12522: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12507: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12456: 12454: 12448: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12431:Semiconductor 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12388: 12386: 12382: 12378: 12371: 12366: 12364: 12359: 12357: 12352: 12351: 12348: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12319: 12316: 12315: 12314: 12311: 12307: 12304: 12303: 12302: 12299: 12298: 12296: 12292: 12285: 12282: 12281: 12279: 12275: 12267: 12263: 12259: 12252: 12249: 12248: 12246: 12244: 12240: 12234: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12224: 12222: 12220: 12216: 12209: 12206: 12203: 12200: 12199: 12197: 12195: 12191: 12184: 12181: 12180: 12178: 12176: 12172: 12164: 12159: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12139: 12138: 12136: 12134: 12130: 12124: 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12086: 12085: 12082: 12073: 12068: 12066: 12061: 12059: 12054: 12053: 12050: 12044: 12041: 12037: 12030: 12027: 12024: 12021: 12018: 12015: 12012: 12009: 12008: 12006: 12004: 12000: 11993: 11990: 11987: 11984: 11981: 11978: 11975: 11972: 11969: 11966: 11963: 11960: 11957: 11954: 11951: 11948: 11947: 11945: 11943: 11939: 11928: 11925: 11922: 11919: 11918: 11916: 11912: 11905: 11902: 11899: 11896: 11893: 11890: 11887: 11884: 11881: 11878: 11875: 11872: 11869: 11866: 11863: 11860: 11857: 11854: 11851: 11848: 11845: 11842: 11839: 11836: 11833: 11830: 11827: 11824: 11821: 11818: 11815: 11812: 11809: 11806: 11803: 11800: 11797: 11794: 11793: 11791: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11778: 11775: 11773:United States 11771: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11755: 11751: 11743: 11738: 11735: 11733: 11730: 11726: 11721: 11718: 11714: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11697: 11692: 11689: 11685: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11671: 11668: 11665: 11661: 11654: 11651: 11648: 11645: 11642: 11639: 11636: 11633: 11632: 11630: 11626: 11619: 11616: 11613: 11610: 11609: 11607: 11603: 11596: 11593: 11592: 11590: 11586: 11579: 11576: 11575: 11573: 11569: 11565: 11558: 11553: 11551: 11546: 11544: 11539: 11538: 11535: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11517:Metastability 11515: 11514: 11512: 11510:Design issues 11508: 11502: 11499: 11495: 11492: 11490: 11487: 11486: 11485: 11484:Digital video 11482: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11472: 11468: 11465: 11464: 11463: 11462:Digital audio 11460: 11456: 11453: 11452: 11451: 11448: 11447: 11445: 11441: 11433: 11430: 11429: 11428: 11425: 11423: 11420: 11418: 11415: 11413: 11410: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11397: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11384: 11381: 11379: 11376: 11375: 11374: 11371: 11369: 11366: 11365: 11363: 11361: 11357: 11351: 11348: 11346: 11343: 11341: 11338: 11334: 11331: 11330: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11300: 11298: 11294: 11287: 11284: 11281: 11278: 11275: 11272: 11269: 11266: 11263: 11260: 11257: 11254: 11251: 11248: 11245: 11242: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11228: 11225: 11222: 11219: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11205: 11202: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11161: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11130: 11128: 11126: 11122: 11118: 11111: 11106: 11104: 11099: 11097: 11092: 11091: 11088: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11062: 11060: 11056: 11046: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11023: 11021: 11018: 11016: 11015:Parallel port 11013: 11010: 11007: 11006: 11004: 11000: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10965: 10963: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10950: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10918: 10917: 10914: 10910: 10907: 10906: 10905: 10902: 10898: 10895: 10892: 10888: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10875: 10874: 10871: 10867: 10864: 10862: 10859: 10858: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10845: 10842: 10841: 10840: 10837: 10836: 10834: 10832: 10831:Computer case 10828: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10811: 10810: 10807: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10795: 10793: 10790: 10789: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10780: 10778: 10775: 10774: 10772: 10770: 10764: 10758: 10757:Graphics card 10755: 10753: 10750: 10748: 10745: 10741: 10738: 10737: 10736: 10733: 10731: 10728: 10724: 10721: 10720: 10719: 10716: 10715: 10713: 10711: 10707: 10695: 10692: 10691: 10690: 10687: 10683: 10680: 10679: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10661: 10658: 10657: 10656: 10655:Graphics card 10653: 10651: 10650:Image scanner 10648: 10646: 10643: 10642: 10640: 10636: 10630: 10627: 10625: 10622: 10620: 10617: 10615: 10612: 10610: 10607: 10603: 10600: 10599: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10579: 10577: 10575: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10565:Input devices 10562: 10558: 10555: 10547: 10542: 10540: 10535: 10533: 10528: 10527: 10524: 10520: 10516: 10512: 10508: 10505: 10500: 10496: 10495: 10484: 10478: 10474: 10469: 10465: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10433: 10429: 10425: 10421: 10417: 10413: 10409: 10405: 10401: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10354: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10335: 10330: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10282: 10278: 10274: 10270: 10266: 10261: 10257: 10251: 10247: 10242: 10238: 10232: 10228: 10223: 10219: 10213: 10209: 10208: 10202: 10198: 10197: 10191: 10180: 10174: 10170: 10169: 10163: 10159: 10153: 10148: 10147: 10140: 10136: 10132: 10128: 10124: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10103: 10088: 10084: 10077: 10076: 10071: 10067: 10063: 10058: 10046: 10042: 10036: 10032: 10031: 10025: 10021: 10015: 10010: 10005: 10001: 9997: 9993: 9989: 9988:Physics Today 9985: 9980: 9973: 9969: 9963: 9956: 9955: 9949: 9945: 9944: 9938: 9934: 9929: 9928: 9908: 9902: 9898: 9897: 9889: 9873: 9869: 9863: 9854: 9849: 9842: 9835: 9831: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9810: 9794: 9790: 9789: 9784: 9777: 9761: 9757: 9753: 9747: 9732: 9726: 9722: 9721: 9713: 9698: 9692: 9688: 9687: 9679: 9664: 9658: 9654: 9653: 9645: 9630: 9624: 9620: 9619: 9611: 9596: 9590: 9586: 9585: 9577: 9562: 9556: 9552: 9551: 9543: 9536: 9524: 9520: 9514: 9510: 9509: 9501: 9485: 9481: 9475: 9471: 9470: 9462: 9455: 9450: 9442: 9436: 9432: 9425: 9417: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9402: 9394: 9386: 9380: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9363: 9355: 9348: 9341: 9336: 9328: 9322: 9318: 9311: 9303: 9297: 9293: 9286: 9278: 9274: 9268: 9260: 9256: 9250: 9242: 9238: 9232: 9224: 9220: 9214: 9206: 9202: 9195: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9164: 9148: 9144: 9138: 9136: 9129: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9112: 9104: 9098: 9094: 9090: 9086: 9085: 9077: 9061: 9057: 9051: 9036: 9030: 9027:. p. 2. 9026: 9022: 9021: 9013: 8997: 8993: 8992: 8987: 8981: 8979: 8962: 8958: 8957: 8952: 8946: 8930: 8926: 8925: 8920: 8914: 8898: 8894: 8893: 8888: 8882: 8880: 8860: 8856: 8852: 8847: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8819: 8812: 8810: 8794: 8788: 8784: 8780: 8779: 8771: 8756: 8750: 8746: 8745: 8737: 8729: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8710: 8709: 8700: 8684: 8680: 8679: 8674: 8668: 8655: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8625: 8621: 8620: 8615: 8609: 8607: 8591: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8576: 8568: 8553: 8547: 8543: 8542: 8534: 8525: 8518: 8514: 8511: 8510: 8504: 8485: 8478: 8474: 8468: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8450: 8445: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8420: 8413: 8397: 8393: 8387: 8371: 8367: 8366: 8361: 8360:"Dawon Kahng" 8355: 8339: 8335: 8334: 8329: 8322: 8307: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8292: 8287: 8281: 8274: 8263: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8248: 8240: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8189: 8187: 8170: 8166: 8165: 8160: 8153: 8137: 8133: 8132: 8127: 8120: 8112: 8108: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8077: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8043: 8035: 8028: 8009: 8005: 8001: 7997: 7993: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7974: 7972: 7964: 7959: 7944: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7929: 7921: 7919: 7903: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7888: 7880: 7861: 7857: 7851: 7847: 7840: 7839: 7831: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7800: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7770: 7754: 7750: 7743: 7727: 7723: 7717: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7675: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7636: 7629: 7628:Brian Randell 7625: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7606: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7571: 7555: 7551: 7545: 7538: 7533: 7527:, p. 39. 7526: 7521: 7514: 7513: 7505: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7410: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7380: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7349: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7318: 7310: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7287: 7285: 7283: 7267: 7265:0-472-08104-7 7261: 7257: 7256: 7248: 7240: 7233: 7225: 7219: 7215: 7208: 7206: 7186: 7182: 7175: 7172:Rojas, Raúl. 7168: 7160: 7156: 7152: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7130: 7114: 7110: 7104: 7096: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7076: 7060: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7043: 7035: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7011: 7003: 6999: 6993: 6986: 6974: 6970: 6969:thoughtco.com 6966: 6959: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6932:Zuse, Horst. 6928: 6912: 6908: 6907: 6900: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6886: 6880: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6864: 6857: 6850: 6845: 6838: 6832: 6825: 6820: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6804: 6797: 6790: 6784: 6777: 6771: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6740: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6710: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6675: 6667: 6661: 6656: 6655: 6646: 6638: 6635:(in French). 6634: 6630: 6623: 6615: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6578: 6573: 6566: 6558: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6533:: 1055–1063. 6532: 6528: 6524: 6523: 6518: 6511: 6504: 6503: 6496: 6488: 6481: 6477: 6471: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6453: 6447: 6445: 6428: 6424: 6418: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6399: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6361: 6355: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6290: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6233: 6223: 6216: 6212: 6206: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6141: 6134: 6130: 6127: 6126: 6120: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6102:0-333-49130-0 6098: 6094: 6087: 6080: 6074: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6054: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6024: 6017: 6012: 6006:, p. 23. 6005: 6000: 5996: 5983: 5979: 5978: 5971: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5945: 5938: 5934: 5928: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5881:like the DEC 5880: 5879:minicomputers 5874: 5866: 5860: 5851: 5842: 5835: 5828: 5821: 5815: 5806: 5799: 5792: 5788: 5785:According to 5782: 5778: 5767: 5764: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5680: 5677: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5610: 5609:Organizations 5605: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5530: 5525: 5517: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5480:supercomputer 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5442:Of all these 5438: 5435: 5433: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5423:Stack machine 5420: 5417: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5379: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5360:DNA computers 5357: 5347: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5334:, nor even a 5333: 5329: 5325: 5319: 5313: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5236: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5178: 5175: 5164: 5162: 5158: 5153: 5149: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5100: 5090: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5053: 5049: 5044: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5025: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5010: 5006: 4996: 4823: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4809: 4803: 4801: 4797: 4796:conditionally 4793: 4789: 4785: 4779: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4747: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4668:Bourne script 4666: 4664: 4660: 4659: 4656: 4655:Object Pascal 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4598: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4551: 4548: 4543: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4508: 4505: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4464: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4446: 4443: 4442: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4401: 4400: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4369: 4365: 4364:Video editing 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4325: 4322: 4321: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4299: 4296: 4295: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4261: 4257: 4254: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4167: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4131: 4127: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4070: 4069: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4054: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4008: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3984:Windows Vista 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3908:UNIX System V 3906: 3904: 3900: 3897: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3881: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3865:digital media 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3830: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3769: 3767: 3761: 3759: 3752: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3673: 3671: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3560: 3550: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3522: 3521:Boolean logic 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3497:Boolean logic 3494: 3490: 3487:to represent 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3413: 3411: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3380: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3363: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3300: 3299: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3248:Image scanner 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3230: 3229: 3223:Input devices 3220: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3155: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3071:image scanner 3068: 3064: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3006: 3003: 3001: 3000:DNA computing 2998: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2953:Home computer 2950: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2897: 2895:microcomputer 2894: 2891: 2890: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2872: 2870:microcomputer 2869: 2866: 2865: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2851: 2849: 2848:microcomputer 2846: 2843: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2830:Motorola 6809 2827: 2826:Motorola 6800 2823: 2819: 2816: 2814:microcomputer 2813: 2810: 2809: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2797:microcomputer 2796: 2793: 2792: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2769: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2741:IBM System/36 2738: 2737:IBM System/32 2734: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2565:Jacquard loom 2563: 2560: 2559: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2532: 2528: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2430:Plug computer 2428: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2327:Rugged laptop 2325: 2323: 2322:Gaming laptop 2320: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2270:All-in-one PC 2268: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2245:Tower desktop 2243: 2242: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2232:Home computer 2230: 2229: 2227: 2226:Microcomputer 2224: 2222: 2219: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2179:Supercomputer 2177: 2176: 2174: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2124: 2120: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2067: 2065: 2064:circuit board 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2030:Stanley Mazor 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1863: 1859: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1776:Harwell CADET 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1696: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1677: 1673: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1621: 1620:random-access 1617: 1616:Williams tube 1613: 1609: 1608:Geoff Tootill 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1584: 1582: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1466: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1352:. In the US, 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1334:Tommy Flowers 1331: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1218: 1214: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1188:By 1938, the 1176: 1174: 1170: 1165: 1164:James Thomson 1161: 1157: 1156:Vannevar Bush 1153: 1148: 1146: 1145:James Thomson 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1063: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1041: 1037: 1028: 1024: 1016: 1011: 1002: 1000: 996: 995:Henry Babbage 991: 985: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 958:Jacquard loom 955: 951: 950:punched cards 947: 943: 939: 934: 932: 928: 924: 920: 910: 903: 893: 886: 873: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 845: 843: 842:Vannevar Bush 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 818: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 795: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 772: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 739: 734: 730: 728: 723: 721: 717: 712: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 680:computer and 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 642: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 601: 597: 593: 588: 584: 582: 578: 574: 570: 562: 552: 547: 543: 541: 540:counting rods 537: 533: 529: 525: 518: 514: 510: 505: 494: 488: 484: 474: 472: 471: 466: 458: 454: 450: 449: 443: 441: 437: 433: 429: 428: 423: 419: 415: 411: 410: 401: 396: 387: 385: 381: 378:, etc.), and 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 340: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 303: 302:semiconductor 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 266: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 223: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 174:sequences of 173: 169: 165: 161: 148: 144: 143:Supercomputer 141: 138: 134: 131: 129:with monitor) 128: 124: 121: 118: 114: 111: 108: 104: 101: 98: 94: 93: 84: 75: 64: 55: 44: 35: 26: 22: 12675:Applications 12656:Water heater 12631:Refrigerator 12611:Mobile phone 12556: 12514:Piezotronics 11663:Soviet Union 11443:Applications 10921:Power MOSFET 10904:Power supply 10873:Data storage 10809:Flash memory 10787:Optical disc 10769:data storage 10553: 10519: 10472: 10463: 10444: 10440: 10403: 10399: 10388:the original 10383: 10379: 10360:. Retrieved 10353:the original 10333: 10321:. Retrieved 10317:the original 10268: 10264: 10245: 10226: 10206: 10195: 10182:. Retrieved 10167: 10145: 10113:(2): 86–91. 10110: 10106: 10094:. Retrieved 10074: 10061: 10049:. Retrieved 10029: 9991: 9987: 9953: 9942: 9932: 9910:. Retrieved 9895: 9888: 9876:. Retrieved 9862: 9841: 9833: 9815: 9809: 9797:. Retrieved 9793:the original 9786: 9776: 9764:. Retrieved 9755: 9746: 9734:. Retrieved 9719: 9712: 9700:. Retrieved 9685: 9678: 9666:. Retrieved 9651: 9644: 9632:. Retrieved 9617: 9610: 9598:. Retrieved 9583: 9576: 9564:. Retrieved 9549: 9542: 9534: 9527:. Retrieved 9507: 9500: 9488:. Retrieved 9468: 9461: 9449: 9430: 9424: 9400: 9393: 9369: 9362: 9353: 9347: 9335: 9316: 9310: 9291: 9285: 9276: 9267: 9258: 9249: 9240: 9231: 9222: 9213: 9205:the original 9194: 9182:. Retrieved 9174:Ars Technica 9173: 9163: 9151:. Retrieved 9123: 9111: 9083: 9076: 9064:. Retrieved 9060:the original 9050: 9038:. Retrieved 9019: 9012: 9000:. Retrieved 8989: 8965:. Retrieved 8954: 8945: 8933:. Retrieved 8922: 8913: 8901:. Retrieved 8890: 8866:. Retrieved 8831:(1): 55–61. 8828: 8824: 8796:. Retrieved 8777: 8770: 8758:. Retrieved 8743: 8736: 8707: 8699: 8687:. Retrieved 8676: 8667: 8645:Robert Noyce 8640: 8628:. Retrieved 8617: 8593:. Retrieved 8574: 8567: 8555:. Retrieved 8540: 8533: 8524: 8508: 8503: 8491:. Retrieved 8467: 8459: 8444: 8432:. Retrieved 8428:the original 8418: 8412: 8400:. Retrieved 8386: 8374:. Retrieved 8363: 8354: 8342:. Retrieved 8338:the original 8331: 8321: 8309:. Retrieved 8290: 8280: 8272: 8265:. Retrieved 8246: 8239: 8201:(2): 48–59. 8198: 8194: 8173:. Retrieved 8162: 8152: 8140:. Retrieved 8129: 8119: 8089:(1): 43–48. 8086: 8082: 8076: 8064:. Retrieved 8051: 8042: 8033: 8027: 8012:. Retrieved 8008:the original 7987: 7983: 7958: 7946:. Retrieved 7927: 7905:. Retrieved 7886: 7879: 7867:. Retrieved 7860:the original 7837: 7830: 7818:. Retrieved 7814:the original 7799: 7787:. Retrieved 7783:the original 7769: 7757:. Retrieved 7753:the original 7742: 7730:. Retrieved 7726:the original 7716: 7704:. Retrieved 7700:the original 7687: 7684:Resurrection 7683: 7674: 7662:. Retrieved 7658:the original 7646:Resurrection 7645: 7635: 7618: 7614: 7605: 7580: 7576: 7570: 7558:. Retrieved 7554:the original 7544: 7532: 7520: 7510: 7504: 7492:. Retrieved 7484:The Guardian 7483: 7473: 7461:. Retrieved 7452: 7439: 7427:. Retrieved 7423:the original 7418: 7409: 7397:. Retrieved 7388: 7379: 7367:. Retrieved 7359:The Guardian 7358: 7348: 7336:. Retrieved 7327: 7317: 7294: 7269:. Retrieved 7254: 7247: 7238: 7232: 7213: 7194:28 September 7192:. Retrieved 7181:fu-berlin.de 7180: 7167: 7145:(3): 51–54. 7142: 7138: 7129: 7117:. Retrieved 7113:the original 7103: 7084: 7081:Zuse, Konrad 7075: 7063:. Retrieved 7059:the original 7052: 7042: 7023: 7019: 7016:Zuse, Konrad 7010: 7002:ComputerHope 7001: 6992: 6984: 6977:. Retrieved 6968: 6958: 6946:. Retrieved 6942:the original 6937: 6927: 6915:. Retrieved 6905: 6879: 6861: 6856: 6849:Bromley 1990 6844: 6836: 6835:B. Randell. 6831: 6824:Randell 1982 6819: 6801: 6796: 6783: 6775: 6770: 6758:. Retrieved 6749: 6739: 6727:. Retrieved 6723:the original 6719:Online stuff 6718: 6709: 6697:. Retrieved 6693:the original 6688: 6674: 6653: 6645: 6636: 6632: 6622: 6581: 6575: 6565: 6526: 6520: 6510: 6500: 6495: 6486: 6470: 6462: 6450:Ray Girvan, 6431:. Retrieved 6427:the original 6417: 6409: 6406: 6398: 6386:. Retrieved 6377:(1): 63–70. 6374: 6370: 6360:Őren, Tuncer 6354: 6340:(1): 22–52. 6337: 6333: 6324: 6299: 6295: 6289: 6246: 6242: 6232: 6222: 6210: 6205: 6154: 6150: 6140: 6124: 6119: 6092: 6086: 6062: 6053: 6041:. Retrieved 6032: 6023: 6018:, p. 6. 6011: 5999: 5981: 5975: 5970: 5953:caused some 5944: 5927: 5912:Intel Core 2 5898: 5873: 5859: 5850: 5841: 5827: 5814: 5805: 5781: 5603: 5523: 5493: 5441: 5385: 5353: 5343: 5339: 5321: 5287: 5264: 5225:Grace Hopper 5202: 5187:Software bug 5170: 5144: 5104: 5102: 5075:machine code 5068: 5048:punched card 5026: 5005:machine code 5002: 4999:Machine code 4993: 4935:# update sum 4812: 4804: 4780: 4773: 4726:web browsers 4706:instructions 4699: 4541: 4530:File manager 4456:Serious game 4305:Email client 4266:Office suite 4116:Vulkan (API) 4071:Experimental 3972:Windows 2000 3843: 3842: 3823:cryptography 3811: 3792: 3762: 3754: 3745:Multitasking 3696: 3682:Input/output 3667: 3662:Flash memory 3642: 3625: 3617: 3597: 3593: 3525: 3489:real numbers 3477:square roots 3473:trigonometry 3469: 3451: 3441: 3414: 3410:control flow 3406: 3377: 3366: 3362:control unit 3359: 3344:Control unit 3334:Control unit 3297: 3226: 3185:control unit 3178: 3156:Long range ( 3119:optical disc 3050:input/output 2780:Minicomputer 2728:Minicomputer 2547:Arithmometer 2510: 2508: 2416:Smartglasses 2211:Tower server 2206:Blade server 2189:Minicomputer 2122: 2096: 2092:Grid Compass 2073: 2056:flash memory 2042: 2011: 1986:MOS IC with 1984:silicon-gate 1980:Donald Klein 1957: 1933: 1917:Robert Noyce 1906: 1883: 1803: 1753: 1739:vacuum tubes 1711:John Bardeen 1700: 1629: 1618:, the first 1585: 1578: 1551: 1496: 1490: 1471:John Mauchly 1467: 1454:programmable 1447: 1416: 1389: 1378:, the first 1350:vacuum tubes 1327: 1307: 1263:programmable 1256: 1229:vacuum tubes 1222: 1202:World War II 1187: 1149: 1122: 1092:arithmometer 1022: 1021:In his work 1020: 998: 986: 966:control flow 956:such as the 935: 917: 846: 819: 796: 773: 742: 724: 720:trigonometry 713: 652:invented by 643: 605: 573:Roman abacus 566: 549:The Chinese 521: 509:Ishango bone 468: 464: 456: 452: 446: 444: 440:computations 431: 425: 417: 413: 407: 405: 358:, typically 341: 300:. The first 290:World War II 267: 224: 195: 166:that can be 159: 157: 25: 12782:electronics 12586:Home cinema 12524:Spintronics 12464:Atomtronics 12377:Electronics 11740: [ 11723: [ 11711: [ 11694: [ 11682: [ 11173:Memory cell 11020:Serial port 11011:(IEEE 1394) 10988:DisplayPort 10978:Thunderbolt 10851:Motherboard 10814:Memory card 10782:Floppy disk 10624:Touchscreen 10323:27 November 10301:Meuer, Hans 10096:27 November 10083:Maynard, MA 9799:17 February 9736:26 November 9702:26 November 9668:26 November 9634:26 November 9600:26 November 9566:26 November 9456:, p. . 9454:TOP500 2006 9128:IEEE Xplore 9091:. pp. 8473:Kilby, Jack 7732:16 November 7399:24 November 7065:15 February 6605:10902/24391 6548:10261/30460 6302:(5): 1–69. 5937:interpreter 5933:interpreted 5920:Intel 80486 5464:calculators 5448:Logic gates 5277:), and the 5087:interpreter 4800:subroutines 4776:RAM machine 4734:programmers 4448:Edutainment 4444:Educational 4422:Text editor 4414:Interpreter 4287:Spreadsheet 4260:Application 4170:File format 3996:Windows 8.1 3735:3D graphics 3721:drives and 3719:floppy disk 3699:peripherals 3600:memory cell 3527:Superscalar 3283:Touchscreen 3217:logic gates 3183:(ALU), the 3134:Short range 3123:teleprinter 3111:Floppy disk 3101:loudspeaker 3018:Spintronics 2874:Intel 80386 2857:Zilog Z8000 2694:transistors 2604:Calculators 2539:Calculators 2394:Handheld PC 2347:Subnotebook 2300:Thin client 2281:, Mini PCs) 2221:Workstation 2099:smartphones 2038:integration 1953:Jean Hoerni 1826:memory cell 1814:Dawon Kahng 1772:drum memory 1760:Tom Kilburn 1666:Transistors 1604:Tom Kilburn 1567:Alan Turing 1563:computation 1509:Von Neumann 1493:Alan Turing 1274:word length 1251:Konrad Zuse 1239:in 1939 in 1237:Konrad Zuse 1213:Konrad Zuse 1211:Replica of 1129:computation 857:polynomials 830:integration 792:Switzerland 646:planisphere 624:Antikythera 532:tally stick 384:touchscreen 364:information 333:Moore's law 305:transistors 259:smartphones 184:computation 12840:Categories 12786:Multimedia 12776:technology 12651:Television 12581:Home robot 12571:Dishwasher 12533:Electronic 12231:See also: 11968:ILLIAC III 11886:MUSASINO-1 11781:IAS family 11564:Mainframes 11522:Runt pulse 11494:television 11188:Logic gate 11133:Transistor 11125:Components 10767:Removable 10752:Sound card 10682:Sound chip 10677:Sound card 10667:Microphone 10557:components 10447:(1): 1–9. 10362:29 October 10184:9 November 10051:24 October 9912:9 November 9878:29 January 9853:cs/9901011 8716:. p. 7820:10 January 7759:4 November 7622:Letter by 7537:Light 1999 7525:Evans 2018 7494:17 October 7463:18 October 7369:14 October 7338:14 October 7297:. 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