775:, stemming from a number of what are presented as discrepancies in the standard opponent process theory. For example, the phenomenon of an after-image of complementary color can be induced by fatiguing the cells responsible for color perception, by staring at a vibrant color for a length of time, and then looking at a white surface. This phenomenon of complementary colors demonstrates cyan, rather than green, to be the complement of red and magenta, rather than red, to be the complement of green, as well as demonstrating, as a consequence, that the reddish-green color proposed to be impossible by opponent process theory is, in fact, the color yellow. Although this phenomenon is more readily explained by the trichromatic theory, explanations for the discrepancy may include alterations to the opponent process theory, such as redefining the opponent colors as red vs. cyan, to reflect this effect. Despite such criticisms, both theories remain in use.
815:
762:, posits three types of cones preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red, respectively. Others have suggested that the trichromatic theory is not specifically a theory of color vision but a theory of receptors for all vision, including color but not specific or limited to it. Equally, it has been suggested that the relationship between the phenomenal opponency described by Hering and the physiological opponent processes are not straightforward (see below), making of physiological opponency a mechanism that is relevant to the whole of vision, and not just to color vision alone.
638:
1809:
1225:
visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light; their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.
93:
1014:
the light is relatively bright might then become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision. These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such "double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw; their existence in primates was suggested by
1368:) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and yellowâbut cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have redeveloped the ability to distinguish longer wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one-amino-acid mutations in opsin genes. The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to the identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious.
943:
735:
1828:, with wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the colors in this file are specified in Adobe RGB. Areas outside the triangle cannot be accurately rendered because they are out of the gamut of Adobe RGB, therefore they have been interpreted. Note that the colors depicted depend on the color space of the device you use to view the image (number of colors on your monitor, etc.), and may not be a strictly accurate representation of the color at a particular position.
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1177:; the ability of the visual system to preserve the appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as
646:
1501:
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349:(colors that are produced by a narrow band of wavelengths) such as red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet can be found in this range. These spectral colors do not refer to a single wavelength, but rather to a set of wavelengths: red, 625â740 nm; orange, 590â625 nm; yellow, 565â590 nm; green, 500â565 nm; cyan, 485â500 nm; blue, 450â485 nm; violet, 380â450 nm.
1232:, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans.
1063:
finding confirmed by subsequent studies. The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color but it is worth noting that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1, V2 and V3. Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called
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22:
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stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO. Area V4 was initially suggested by
1030:, and are thought to come in two flavors, redâgreen and blue-yellow. Redâgreen cells compare the relative amounts of redâgreen in one part of a scene with the amount of redâgreen in an adjacent part of the scene, responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of
795:
produced by looking at a green surface that is reflecting more "green" (middle-wave) than "red" (long-wave) light is magenta, so is the afterâimage of the same surface when it reflects more "red" than "green" light (when it is still perceived as green). This would seem to rule out an explanation of color opponency based on retinal cone adaptation.
968:
corresponds loosely to redâgreen opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blueâyellow opponency but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.
1280:, for example, possess a trichromatic color system, which they use in foraging for pollen from flowers. In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the main groups of
1129:) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes. The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.
2011:
combination of spectral colors that we perceive as (say) a specific version of tan; instead, there are infinitely many possibilities that produce that exact color. The boundary colors that are pure spectral colors can be perceived only in response to light that is purely at the associated wavelength,
1013:
In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual system. A given cell that might respond best to long-wavelength light if
894:
and a low density in the rest of the retina. Thus color information is mostly taken in at the fovea. Humans have poor color perception in their peripheral vision, and much of the color we see in our periphery may be filled in by what our brains expect to be there on the basis of context and memories.
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to be exclusively dedicated to color, and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others, a
967:
and beyond. In Hering's theory, opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of redâgreen, blueâyellow, and light-dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which
794:
is to a large degree independent of the wavelength composition of the light reflected from it. Also the after-image produced by looking at a given part of a complex scene is also independent of the wavelength composition of the light reflected from it alone. Thus, while the color of the after-image
962:
Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both
Helmholtz's trichromatic theory and Hering's opponent-process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent
770:
Greenâmagenta and blueâyellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, a single eye cannot perceive a bluish-yellow or a reddish-green. Although these two theories are both currently widely accepted theories, past
1973:
had to be added to the test color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone has the property that moving directly away from the
994:
The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones
1224:
in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet "colors" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300â400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are
1057:
From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick
766:
proposed the opponent process theory in 1872. It states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are generally accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the adjacent
695:: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and which is finalized in the
1486:
Ultraviolet vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.
434:
The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of
1082:. "IT" cortex is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as the
1119:" thought experiment. For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light. This inversion has never been demonstrated in experiment, though.
1136:
have been found to categorize colors differently from most
Westerners and are able to easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades
2564:
1010:. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color processing becomes much more complicated.
1110:
Color is a feature of visual perception by an observer. There is a complex relationship between the wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color. Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher
2006:
This system implies that for any hue or non-spectral color not on the boundary of the chromaticity diagram, there are infinitely many distinct physical spectra that are all perceived as that hue or color. So, in general, there is no such thing as
80:, color vision may have evolved under selective pressure for a variety of visual tasks including the foraging for nutritious young leaves, ripe fruit, and flowers, as well as detecting predator camouflage and emotional states in other primates.
1475:(daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants. Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropodsâthe only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.
1804:
while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of spectral colors is also a color.
823:
A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.
1986:
lights proportionately. Again, a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular such cross-section, corresponding to constant
1482:
patients. Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas. These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.
1259:, which is the general color vision state for mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.
818:
Cones are present at a low density throughout most of the retina, with a sharp peak in the center of the fovea. Conversely, rods are present at high density throughout most of the retina, with a sharp decline in the
995:
throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receives axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.
979:: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma, the visual tracts are referred to as the
916:; one study found 85 variants in a sample of 236 men. A small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome.
471:
Impossible colors are a combination of cone responses that cannot be naturally produced. For example, medium cones cannot be activated completely on their own; if they were, we would see a 'hyper-green' color.
1887:
lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their
725:
The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with so-called normal color vision; in some non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.
1309:
and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals. In
1621:
A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional
1184:
In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light source from the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a
465:
Shades include colors such as pink or brown. Pink is obtained from mixing red and white. Brown may be obtained from mixing orange with gray or black. Navy is obtained from mixing blue and black.
468:
Violet-red colors include hues and shades of magenta. The light spectrum is a line on which violet is one end and the other is red, and yet we see hues of purple that connect those two colors.
1592:
of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness.
1349:
have the capability of seeing color in dim light. At least some color-guided behaviors in amphibians have also been shown to be wholly innate, developing even in visually deprived animals.
1931:, and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.
1341:
Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal
1371:
However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans.
2012:
while the boundary colors on the "line of purples" can each only be generated by a specific ratio of the pure violet and the pure red at the ends of the visible spectral colors.
1155:
Psychophysical experiments have shown that color is perceived before the orientation of lines and directional motion by as much as 40ms and 80 ms respectively, thus leading to a
1565:(in the visible range). In principle there exist infinitely many distinct spectral colors, and so the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional
4641:
Koyanagi M, Nagata T, Katoh K, Yamashita S, Tokunaga F (February 2008). "Molecular evolution of arthropod color vision deduced from multiple opsin genes of jumping spiders".
1848:. To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities (
419:
which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions,
4500:
Mollon JD, Bowmaker JK, Jacobs GH (September 1984). "Variations of colour vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments".
1793:
Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in
1436:
Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In
388:
wavelengths to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure
1228:
The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals, in general, have a color vision of a limited type, and usually have
802:
depends upon the three sets of cone cells ("red," "green," and "blue") separately perceiving each surface's relative lightness in the scene and, together with the
1294:
butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in
411:. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is
72:. Color vision is found in many animals and is mediated by similar underlying mechanisms with common types of biological molecules and a complex history of
3135:
2223:
Peichl, Leo; Behrmann, Gunther; Kroger, Ronald H. H. (April 2001). "For whales and seals the ocean is not blue: a visual pigment loss in marine mammals".
4388:
Shozo
Yokoyama and F. Bernhard Radlwimmera, "The Molecular Genetics of Red and Green Color Vision in Mammals", Genetics, Vol. 153, 919â932, October 1999.
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has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S cones and M cones do not directly correspond to
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1832:
In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a
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1105:
4697:
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When viewed in full size, this image contains about 16 million pixels, each corresponding to a different color in the full set of RGB colors. The
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is a function from the range of visible wavelengthsâconsidered as an interval of real numbers âto the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength
520:
have lost one or many photopsin genes, leading to lower-dimension color vision. The dimensions of color vision range from 1-dimensional and up:
1375:
may or may not have color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the
2333:
Nathans J, Thomas D, Hogness DS (April 1986). "Molecular genetics of human color vision: the genes encoding blue, green, and red pigments".
1387:
are trichromats. Visual sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive
920:
means that while only one opsin is expressed in each cone cell, both types may occur overall, and some women may therefore show a degree of
1192:), while keeping other colors also looking realistic. For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between
1478:
Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some
462:
Grayscale colors include white, gray, and black. Rods contain rhodopsin, which reacts to light intensity, providing grayscale coloring.
6144:
4447:
Jacobs GH, Deegan JF, Neitz J, Crognale MA, Neitz M (September 1993). "Photopigments and color vision in the nocturnal monkey, Aotus".
5875:
4955:
3279:"Color-tuned neurons are spatially clustered according to color preference within alert macaque posterior inferior temporal cortex"
3374:
Zeki S (March 1983). "The distribution of wavelength and orientation selective cells in different areas of monkey visual cortex".
92:
2878:
1759:). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the "physical" space
1678:
Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a physical color
5865:
5729:
5094:
3745:
3693:
3012:
1776:
Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional
Hilbert space
1448:
mammals have less-developed color vision since adequate light is needed for cones to function properly. There is evidence that
772:
3917:
Neumeyer C (2012). "Chapter 2: Color Vision in
Goldfish and Other Vertebrates". In Lazareva O, Shimizu T, Wasserman E (eds.).
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1026:. As Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1 called
722:, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color but is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.
6402:
1330:
in its inner segment. Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell.
50:, is an ability to perceive differences between light composed of different frequencies independently of light intensity.
5941:
4014:
4711:
Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Deegan JF (October 1991). "Retinal receptors in rodents maximally sensitive to ultraviolet light".
68:. Those photoreceptors then emit outputs that are propagated through many layers of neurons and then ultimately to the
3791:
3775:
1548:
60:
and is mediated by a complex process between neurons that begins with differential stimulation of different types of
1530:
1364:
mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally have less-effective two-receptor (
6483:
5886:
3887:
2507:"The Paton prize lecture 2021: A colourful experience leading to a reassessment of colour vision and its theories"
2278:"Genomic evidence for rod monochromacy in sloths and armadillos suggests early subterranean history for Xenarthra"
6111:
6065:
4123:
Cronin TW, Marshall NJ (1989). "A retina with at least ten spectral types of photoreceptors in a mantis shrimp".
2015:
The CIE chromaticity diagram is horseshoe-shaped, with its curved edge corresponding to all spectral colors (the
1461:
641:
Normalized response spectra of human cones to monochromatic spectral stimuli, with wavelength given in nanometers
1639:
stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be represented by 3 functions
6137:
5881:
5870:
1526:
930:, which encodes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants have no effect on
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1522:
1229:
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2569:
Sitzungsberichte der
MathematischâNaturwissenschaftliche Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
4948:
2157:"Experimental evidence that primate trichromacy is well suited for detecting primate social colour signals"
649:
The same figures as above represented here as a single curve in three (normalized cone response) dimensions
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6239:
5749:
5409:
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3888:"True or False? The common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultra-violet light"
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Cuthill IC, Partridge JC, Bennett AT, Church SC, Hart NS, Hunt S (2000). "Ultraviolet Vision in Birds".
3730:
3525:"The Ferrier Lecture 1995 behind the seen: the functional specialization of the brain in space and time"
3040:"Color vision mechanisms in monkey striate cortex: dual-opponent cells with concentric receptive fields"
691:
The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their
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5538:
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751:
373:
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Neitz J, Jacobs GH (1986). "Polymorphism of the long-wavelength cone in normal human colour vision".
1961:) as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is formed. (Note that when one of
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types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone
1248:
917:
662:
73:
4461:
6306:
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5744:
5394:
5127:
4285:"The dual rod system of amphibians supports colour discrimination at the absolute visual threshold"
3039:
2237:
1511:
1152:
The perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented.
755:
1391:
protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome.
1302:) having between 12 and 16 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.
1288:) mostly have three types of photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's.
427:. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the
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5978:
5931:
5921:
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2749:(6th ed.). Chichester UK: WileyâIS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology. pp.
2571:. LXVI. Band (III Abtheilung). K.-K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei in Commission bei C. Gerold's Sohn.
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in the matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment.
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However, our accuracy of color perception in the periphery increases with the size of stimulus.
783:
451:, shades of colors obtained by mixing grayscale colors with spectral colors, violet-red colors,
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Journal of
Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural & Behavioral Physiology
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913:
806:, assigning color based on comparing the lightness values perceived by each set of cone cells.
707:
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3087:"Spatial structure of cone inputs to color cells in alert macaque primary visual cortex (V-1)"
2774:
Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Katz LC, LaMantia AS, McNamara JO, Williams SM (2001).
1115:
recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "
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4694:"Let the light shine in: You don't have to come from another planet to see ultraviolet light"
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approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them
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Cones and rods are not evenly distributed in the human eye. Cones have a high density at the
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Biggs T, McPhail S, Nassau K, Patankar H, Stenerson M, Maulana F, Douma M. Smith SE (ed.).
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Jacobs GH (August 1993). "The distribution and nature of colour vision among the mammals".
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There are a variety of colors in addition to spectral colors and their hues. These include
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3987:"Spectral Sensitivity of Photoreceptors and Colour Vision in the Solitary Bee, Osmia Rufa"
2830:"Signatures of selection and gene conversion associated with human color vision variation"
1239:(Old World monkeys and apesâprimates closely related to humans), there are three types of
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8:
6442:
5648:
5548:
5480:
4984:
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Daw NW (November 1967). "Goldfish retina: organization for simultaneous color contrast".
2018:
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have trichromatic color vision which is insensitive to red but sensitive to ultraviolet.
1067:. This is the part of the brain in which color is first processed into the full range of
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior
657:. Cone cells contain different forms of opsin â a pigment protein â that have different
333:
relative brightness sensitivity of the human visual system as a function of wavelength (
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4674:
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4424:
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4366:
4335:
4311:
4284:
4195:
4148:
4105:
4080:
Arikawa K (November 2003). "Spectral organization of the eye of a butterfly, Papilio".
4062:
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3955:
3785:
3617:
3549:
3524:
3500:
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2181:
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2091:
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1399:
637:
61:
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1356:, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by
360:, respectively. Humans cannot generally see these wavelengths, but other animals may.
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Yovanovich CA, Koskela SM, Nevala N, Kondrashev SL, Kelber A, Donner K (April 2017).
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2096:
1800:. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone represents maintaining the same
1372:
1116:
47:
4829:
4678:
4537:
4109:
4066:
4033:"A review of the evolution of animal colour vision and visual communication signals"
3971:
3753:
3411:
3258:
2378:
2262:
2108:
1444:, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the other hand,
6432:
6371:
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5996:
5991:
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4199:
4179:
4152:
4140:
4089:
4044:
3998:
3951:
3646:. Vol. II. Psychological aspects. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 159â72.
3621:
3593:
3544:
3536:
3495:
3487:
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3442:
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3391:
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342:
320:
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4219:
Colour vision : a study in cognitive science and the philosophy of perception
734:
480:
Color vision is categorized foremost according to the dimensionality of the color
323:
could be recombined to make white light by passing them through a different prism.
6376:
6321:
6291:
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6234:
6219:
6051:
6041:
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5686:
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5324:
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5218:
5017:
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3919:
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Animals See the World: Comparative Behavior, Biology, and Evolution of Vision
3859:
3669:
Visual perception - an interactive journey of discovery through our visual system
3232:
2981:
1622:
1581:
1440:
primates, color perception is essential for finding proper (immature) leaves. In
1240:
1201:
1178:
1174:
1031:
971:
Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the
903:
891:
787:
719:
488:
required to represent the color vision. This is generally equal to the number of
428:
269:
4862:
4803:
2925:
Hendry SH, Reid RC (1970-01-01). "The koniocellular pathway in primate vision".
6101:
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5211:
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5149:
4400:"Photopigments and colour vision in New World monkeys from the family Atelidae"
3283:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2775:
2658:
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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148:
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and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find
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are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable
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3014:
Neural Mechanisms of Color Vision: Double-Opponent Cells in the Visual Cortex
2628:
2530:
2301:
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1833:
1580:. More technically, the space of physical colors may be considered to be the
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1315:
1306:
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The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X
803:
779:
696:
617:
593:
485:
130:
57:
4762:
Varela FJ, Palacios AG, Goldsmith TM (1993). Bischof HJ, Zeigler HP (eds.).
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2354:
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1689:
stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to
1566:
1380:
1335:
1323:
1263:
1133:
1090:("where pathway") that is thought to analyze motion, among other features.
1023:
921:
763:
537:
497:
393:
312:
135:
4867:
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occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to
1412:, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus
1255:. Many other primates (including New World monkeys) and other mammals are
6251:
6224:
6187:
5958:
5816:
5593:
5588:
5452:
5421:
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5292:
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1413:
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1311:
1281:
1252:
1197:
1193:
1126:
1122:
1072:
980:
972:
942:
580:
572:
500:. The common vertebrate ancestor possessed four photopsins (expressed in
368:
Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived
357:
6422:
3895:
3071:
2672:
6261:
5968:
5811:
5639:
5543:
5531:
5287:
5250:
5245:
5228:
5039:
2022:), and the remaining straight edge corresponding to the most saturated
1741:). The triple of resulting numbers associates with each physical color
1376:
1295:
1276:
1236:
1188:(CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (
1112:
1059:
899:
563:
493:
381:
108:
4804:"Simulating the Visual Experience of Very Bright and Very Dark Scenes"
4167:
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2506:
2362:
790:, which shows that the color of any surface that is part of a complex
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6229:
6172:
6159:
5828:
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501:
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416:
377:
119:
113:
4820:
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3491:
1500:
902:; defective encoding of these leads to the two most common forms of
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Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells known as
509:
412:
404:
400:
353:
330:
77:
5471:
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1820:. The Planckian locus is shown with color temperatures labeled in
954:(green) is also shown. They originate from a common source in the
711:
319:
after being split into its component colors when passed through a
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5855:
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4242:
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The CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram with a triangle showing the
1585:
1290:
1149:) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.
1045:
1039:
999:
677:
610:
606:
326:
3671:(in German and English). Sulgen Zurich, Switzerland: Niggli AG.
1460:. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common
912:
gene, which encodes the opsin present in the L cones, is highly
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5681:
5671:
5072:
3984:
3635:
Roberson D, Davidoff J, Davies IR, Shapiro LR (November 2006).
3168:. Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology.
2023:
1821:
1457:
1453:
1452:
light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the
1331:
1285:
1221:
1212:
Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human "
926:
908:
702:
For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as
423:
comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the
408:
385:
245:
37:
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2879:"Some women may see 100 million colors, thanks to their genes"
2773:
1934:
By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities (
1002:
at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary
6300:
5706:
5701:
5691:
5661:
5132:
5103:
4922:"The Science of Why No One Agrees on the Color of This Dress"
4786:
3634:
2657:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
2653:
2121:
1813:
1388:
1342:
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221:
124:
103:
69:
53:
26:
21:
4802:
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4640:
3985:
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2904:. Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
1752:) a particular perceived color (which is a single point in
1346:
602:
197:
173:
3217:"Specialized color modules in macaque extrastriate cortex"
2276:
Emerling, Christopher A.; Springer, Mark S. (2015-02-07).
1588:
whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the
5772:
5666:
5431:
4446:
4241:
4172:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
3944:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
2027:
1217:
1068:
369:
352:
Wavelengths longer or shorter than this range are called
293:
65:
30:
4276:
3424:
2609:
2154:
1915:) matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of
4856:. Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement (IDEA).
4761:
3857:
2282:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4847:
4801:
3574:"The representation of colours in the cerebral cortex"
2795:
American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics
2659:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1974:
origin corresponds to increasing the intensity of the
4565:
1766:
can all result in the same single perceived color in
4499:
4327:
4235:
4165:
2332:
2222:
1159:
that is demonstrable with brief presentation times.
4963:
1093:
742:Two complementary theories of color vision are the
668:Each individual cone contains pigments composed of
4869:(New millennium ed.). New York: Basic Books.
4340:Tadpoles Is Persistent and Requires the Tegmentum"
1927:would have to be added with some intensity to the
1490:
1469:evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates
1053:can distinguish about 10 million different colors.
672:apoprotein covalently linked to a light-absorbing
16:Ability to perceive differences in light frequency
5725:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate
4710:
3214:
1326:(LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored
1106:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate
1006:(V1) located at the back of the brain within the
718:, although they are often described as such. The
632:
6460:
4568:"Behavioural evidence for marsupial trichromacy"
4566:Arrese CA, Beazley LD, Neumeyer C (March 2006).
4166:Kelber A, Vorobyev M, Osorio D (February 2003).
3427:"Equiluminance cells in visual cortical area v4"
2827:
2445:"Primate photopigments and primate color vision"
2275:
2075:"Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision"
1173:In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to
950:(purple) is important in color recognition. The
4879:– via California Institute of Technology.
3215:Conway BR, Moeller S, Tsao DY (November 2007).
2610:Zeki S, Cheadle S, Pepper J, Mylonas D (2017).
798:According to Land's Retinex theory, color in a
96:sRGB rendering of the spectrum of visible light
4766:. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. pp. 77â94.
4333:
4244:"The pupils and optical systems of gecko eyes"
4122:
4030:
4026:
4024:
3727:The Image and Visual Representation Lab (IVRL)
3685:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3210:
3208:
3206:
3204:
2717:
1284:insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and
1086:or the "what pathway", distinguished from the
809:
6138:
5088:
4949:
4685:
3858:Varela FJ, Palacios AG, Goldsmith TH (1993).
3473:
2711:
2203:
937:
4397:
4334:Hunt JE, Bruno JR, Pratt KG (May 12, 2020).
3369:
3367:
3178:
2893:
2786:
1561:A "physical color" is a combination of pure
1251:. These primates, like humans, are known as
1207:
4021:
3851:
3835:Reproductive Biology and Phylogeny of Birds
3474:Tanigawa H, Lu HD, Roe AW (December 2010).
3265:
3201:
2918:
2828:Verrelli BC, Tishkoff SA (September 2004).
2776:"Anatomical Distribution of Rods and Cones"
2580:
2578:
2391:
1529:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
661:. Humans contain three types, resulting in
6145:
6131:
6107:
5095:
5081:
4956:
4942:
3276:
2924:
4892:. University of Utah School of Medicine.
4819:
4583:
4550:
4460:
4423:
4365:
4355:
4336:"An Innate Color Preference Displayed by
4310:
4300:
4259:
4048:
3691:
3548:
3516:
3499:
3450:
3364:
3312:
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3240:
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3110:
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2637:
2627:
2478:
2468:
2309:
2236:
2180:
2139:
2090:
1549:Learn how and when to remove this message
345:ranges from about 380 to 740 nanometers.
5876:International Commission on Illumination
4691:
4212:
3916:
3832:
2584:
2575:
2072:
1807:
1044:
946:Visual pathways in the human brain. The
941:
813:
773:criticism of the opponent process theory
733:
644:
636:
492:expressed: a correlation that holds for
325:
20:
4860:
4700:from the original on November 23, 2014.
4215:"Introducing Comparative Colour Vision"
4079:
4031:Osorio D, Vorobyev M (September 2008).
3804:
3181:Color in Business, Science and Industry
3133:
3037:
2899:
2792:
2612:"The Constancy of Colored After-Images"
1663:) corresponding to the response of the
1162:
376:in wavelength varies from about 1
6461:
5866:Color Association of the United States
4919:
4904:
4883:
4606:
3941:
3160:
3084:
3010:
2559:
2442:
2204:Davson H, Perkins ES (7 August 2020).
2003:, gives the CIE chromaticity diagram.
1204:, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.
442:
6126:
5076:
4937:
4865:. In Gottlieb MA, Pfeiffer R (eds.).
3743:
3720:
3666:
2500:
2498:
2216:
2079:Clinical & Experimental Optometry
1783:to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space
1432:Evolution of color vision in primates
6152:
4764:Vision, brain, and behavior in birds
4344:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
3864:Vision, Brain, and Behavior in Birds
3862:. In Zeigler HP, Bischof HJ (eds.).
3642:. In Pitchford N, Biggam CP (eds.).
3571:
3522:
3373:
3335:
2876:
2742:
2673:"The Retinex Theory of Color Vision"
2670:
2504:
1573:). This space is typically notated
1527:adding citations to reliable sources
1494:
750:theory. The trichromatic theory, or
699:and associative areas of the brain.
484:, which is defined by the number of
399:In very low light levels, vision is
4398:Jacobs GH, Deegan JF (April 2001).
3277:Conway BR, Tsao DY (October 2009).
2959:
1824:. The outer curved boundary is the
1406:), have trichromatic color vision.
56:perception is a part of the larger
13:
5730:Blueâgreen distinction in language
4840:
4555:(4th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth.
4221:. London: Routledge. p. 149.
3956:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1993.tb00738.x
3103:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-08-02768.2001
2834:American Journal of Human Genetics
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2495:
2128:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
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754:, proposed in the 19th century by
91:
14:
6495:
4791:. Vol. 29. pp. 159â214.
4789:Advances in the Study of Behavior
3810:Advances in the Study of Behavior
1094:Subjectivity of color perception
786:, is based on a demonstration of
475:
6106:
6097:
6096:
5887:International Colour Association
5470:
5102:
4404:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
4017:from the original on 2016-03-04.
2807:10.1097/00006324-198602000-00003
2652:
2247:10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01533.x
2225:European Journal of Neuroscience
2161:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
1499:
963:processes arise at the level of
771:and more recent work has led to
363:
4795:
4780:
4755:
4704:
4634:
4600:
4559:
4544:
4493:
4440:
4391:
4382:
4206:
4159:
4116:
4073:
3991:Journal of Experimental Biology
3978:
3935:
3910:
3880:
3826:
3798:
3760:
3737:
3714:
3660:
3628:
3565:
3467:
3418:
3329:
3154:
3127:
3078:
3031:
3004:
2953:
2870:
2821:
2767:
2736:
2664:
2616:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
2603:
2553:
1491:Mathematics of color perception
1318:is achieved through up to four
5882:International Color Consortium
5871:International Colour Authority
4643:Journal of Molecular Evolution
3443:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1890-11.2011
2939:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.127
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2436:
2385:
2326:
2269:
2197:
2148:
2115:
2066:
1186:chromatic adaptation transform
633:Physiology of color perception
571:most mammals and a quarter of
1:
5947:List of Crayola crayon colors
4920:Rogers A (26 February 2015).
4850:"What colors do animals see?"
3921:. Oxford Scholarship Online.
3866:. MIT Press. pp. 77â94.
3790:: CS1 maint: date and year (
3038:Michael, C. R. (1978-05-01).
2927:Annual Review of Neuroscience
2671:Land, Edwin (December 1977).
2059:
544:lack of any color perception
83:
76:in different animal taxa. In
6307:Perception as interpretation
4616:. New York: Norton. p.
4471:10.1016/0042-6989(93)90168-V
4050:10.1016/j.visres.2008.06.018
3350:10.1016/0006-8993(73)90227-8
3233:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.008
3179:Judd DB, Wyszecki G (1975).
3140:. Harvard University Press.
2982:10.1126/science.158.3803.942
1419:
924:color vision. Variations in
7:
5750:Traditional colors of Japan
5527:Achromatic colors (Neutral)
5410:Multi-primary color display
5184:Spectral power distribution
4696:. EducationGuardian.co.uk.
4692:Hambling D (May 30, 2002).
3431:The Journal of Neuroscience
3091:The Journal of Neuroscience
2037:
1305:Vertebrate animals such as
810:Cone cells in the human eye
778:A newer theory proposed by
729:
516:. However, many vertebrate
10:
6500:
3644:Progress in Colour Studies
3044:Journal of Neurophysiology
2746:The Reproduction of Colour
2589:. New York: Plenum Press.
2565:"Zur Lehre vom Lichtsinne"
2505:Zeki, Semir (2022-10-09).
2443:Jacobs GH (January 1996).
1693:), over the interval , of
1675:cone cells, respectively.
1429:
1423:
1166:
1145:), vivid blue and green (
1103:
1097:
989:lateral geniculate nucleus
938:Color in the primate brain
374:just-noticeable difference
6385:
6352:
6260:
6158:
6092:
6064:
5977:
5902:
5895:
5846:
5765:
5715:
5647:
5638:
5610:Color realism (art style)
5557:
5490:
5479:
5468:
5368:
5315:
5268:Evolution of color vision
5197:
5120:
5111:
5008:
4975:
4663:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9
4585:10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.036
4184:10.1017/S1464793102005985
4094:10.1007/s00359-003-0454-7
3694:"8. Chromatic Adaptation"
2902:The First Steps in Seeing
2780:Neuroscience. 2nd Edition
2585:Ali MA, Klyne MA (1985).
1426:Evolution of color vision
1404:Sminthopsis crassicaudata
1249:trichromatic color vision
1230:redâgreen color blindness
1208:Color vision in nonhumans
918:X chromosome inactivation
663:trichromatic color vision
439:such as blue and yellow.
90:
5927:List of colors (compact)
5745:Color in Chinese culture
5395:Digital image processing
5128:Electromagnetic spectrum
4357:10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00071
3085:Conway BR (April 2001).
3056:10.1152/jn.1978.41.3.572
2629:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00229
2073:Vorobyev M (July 2004).
1745:(which is an element in
547:Some mammals, including
6484:Mathematics in medicine
6428:Relational frame theory
6403:Higher nervous activity
5932:List of colors by shade
3860:"Color vision of birds"
3698:Color Appearance Models
3304:10.1073/pnas.0810943106
2511:Experimental Physiology
2355:10.1126/science.2937147
2210:Encyclopedia Britannica
2141:10.3389/fevo.2017.00034
1141:in Himba), very light (
738:Opponent process theory
415:: light is detected by
403:: light is detected by
6398:Experiential avoidance
5937:List of color palettes
4522:10.1098/rspb.1984.0071
4416:10.1098/rspb.2000.1421
4302:10.1098/rstb.2016.0066
3746:"Chromatic Adaptation"
3723:"Chromatic Adaptation"
3700:. Wiley. p. 146.
3541:10.1098/rstb.2005.1666
3396:10.1098/rspb.1983.0020
3161:McCann M, ed. (1993).
2294:10.1098/rspb.2014.2192
2173:10.1098/rspb.2016.2458
1829:
1635:Since each wavelength
1462:electronic transitions
1054:
965:retinal ganglion cells
959:
820:
752:YoungâHelmholtz theory
739:
708:microspectrophotometry
693:spectral sensitivities
659:spectral sensitivities
650:
642:
425:retinal ganglion cells
343:visible light spectrum
338:
97:
64:by light entering the
40:
6413:Ironic process theory
6178:Cognitive flexibility
5861:Color Marketing Group
5616:On Vision and Colours
5549:Tinctures in heraldry
5160:Structural coloration
4884:Gouras P (May 2009).
4551:Sternberg RJ (2006).
3692:Fairchild MD (2005).
2587:Vision in Vertebrates
2470:10.1073/pnas.93.2.577
1818:Adobe RGB color space
1811:
1625:. We call this space
1157:perceptual asynchrony
1098:Further information:
1048:
945:
817:
760:Hermann von Helmholtz
737:
648:
640:
329:
95:
24:
5942:List of color spaces
5834:Tint, shade and tone
5717:Cultural differences
5532:Polychromatic colors
5517:Complementary colors
5505:Monochromatic colors
4995:Intraocular pressure
4553:Cognitive Psychology
4003:10.1242/jeb.136.1.35
3898:on December 24, 2013
3833:Jamieson BG (2007).
3667:NĂ€nni, JĂŒrg (2008).
3523:Zeki S (June 2005).
2001:CIE 1931 color space
1523:improve this section
1383:, and both sexes of
1354:evolution of mammals
1169:Chromatic adaptation
1163:Chromatic adaptation
932:spectral sensitivity
684:or, more rarely, 11-
626:rare in vertebrates
437:complementary colors
396:can be much higher.
34:photographic filters
6443:Thought suppression
5922:List of colors: NâZ
5917:List of colors: GâM
5912:List of colors: AâF
4861:Feynman RP (2015).
4725:1991Natur.353..655J
4655:2008JMolE..66..130K
4514:1984RSPSB.222..373M
4213:Thompson E (1995).
4137:1989Natur.339..137C
3590:1980Natur.284..412Z
3480:Nature Neuroscience
3388:1983RSPSB.217..449Z
3295:2009PNAS..10618034C
3134:Dowling JE (2001).
2974:1967Sci...158..942D
2900:Rodieck RW (1998).
2689:1977SciAm.237f.108L
2677:Scientific American
2461:1996PNAS...93..577J
2406:1986Natur.323..623N
2347:1986Sci...232..193N
1929:physical test color
1266:have color vision.
744:trichromatic theory
443:Non-spectral colors
335:luminosity function
5969:List of web colors
5964:List of RAL colors
5370:Color reproduction
5335:LĂŒscher color test
5172:Color of chemicals
4613:How the Mind Works
3185:Wiley-Interscience
3011:Conway BR (2002).
2288:(1800): 20142192.
2167:(1856): 20162458.
1830:
1610:in its intensity
1400:fat-tailed dunnart
1055:
987:to synapse at the
983:, which enter the
960:
821:
740:
651:
643:
339:
98:
41:
6479:Visual perception
6456:
6455:
6215:Critical thinking
6183:Cognitive liberty
6120:
6119:
6060:
6059:
5842:
5841:
5634:
5633:
5624:Theory of Colours
5466:
5465:
5378:Color photography
5330:Color preferences
5273:Impossible colors
5263:Color vision test
5258:Color temperature
5236:Color calibration
5165:Animal coloration
5070:
5069:
4905:McEvoy B (2008).
4876:978-0-465-04085-8
4773:978-0-262-24036-9
4627:978-0-393-04535-2
4410:(1468): 695â702.
4248:Journal of Vision
4228:978-0-203-41767-6
3928:978-0-195-33465-4
3873:978-0-262-24036-9
3844:978-1-57808-386-2
3819:978-0-12-004529-7
3707:978-0-470-01216-1
3678:978-3-7212-0618-0
3653:978-90-272-9302-2
3584:(5755): 412â418.
3572:Zeki, S. (1980).
3535:(1458): 1145â83.
3437:(35): 12398â412.
3194:978-0-471-45212-6
3147:978-0-674-00462-7
3024:978-1-4020-7092-1
2911:978-0-87893-757-8
2760:978-0-470-02425-6
2729:978-0-471-02106-3
2596:978-0-306-42065-8
2517:(11): 1189â1208.
2341:(4747): 193â202.
1559:
1558:
1551:
1373:New World monkeys
1117:inverted spectrum
888:
887:
688:-dehydroretinal.
630:
629:
623:5D+ color vision
453:impossible colors
310:
309:
48:visual perception
6491:
6474:Image processing
6153:Mental processes
6147:
6140:
6133:
6124:
6123:
6110:
6109:
6100:
6099:
5900:
5899:
5766:Color dimensions
5755:Human skin color
5645:
5644:
5522:Analogous colors
5488:
5487:
5474:
5400:Color management
5317:Color psychology
5283:Opponent process
5199:Color perception
5118:
5117:
5097:
5090:
5083:
5074:
5073:
5035:Opponent process
4958:
4951:
4944:
4935:
4934:
4929:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4901:
4880:
4857:
4834:
4833:
4823:
4808:ACM Trans. Graph
4799:
4793:
4792:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4733:10.1038/353655a0
4708:
4702:
4701:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4604:
4598:
4597:
4587:
4563:
4557:
4556:
4548:
4542:
4541:
4508:(1228): 373â99.
4497:
4491:
4490:
4464:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4427:
4395:
4389:
4386:
4380:
4379:
4369:
4359:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4314:
4304:
4280:
4274:
4273:
4263:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4145:10.1038/339137a0
4131:(6220): 137â40.
4120:
4114:
4113:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4052:
4028:
4019:
4018:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3939:
3933:
3932:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3894:. Archived from
3884:
3878:
3877:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3789:
3781:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3752:. Archived from
3741:
3735:
3734:
3729:. Archived from
3718:
3712:
3711:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3641:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3598:10.1038/284412a0
3569:
3563:
3562:
3552:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3503:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3454:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3382:(1209): 449â70.
3371:
3362:
3361:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3316:
3306:
3274:
3263:
3262:
3244:
3212:
3199:
3198:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3114:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3008:
3002:
3001:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2885:. Archived from
2883:Post-Gazette.com
2874:
2868:
2867:
2857:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2743:Hunt RW (2004).
2740:
2734:
2733:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2668:
2662:
2656:
2651:
2641:
2631:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2582:
2573:
2572:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2523:10.1113/ep089760
2502:
2493:
2492:
2482:
2472:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2414:10.1038/323623a0
2389:
2383:
2382:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2313:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2240:
2231:(8): 1520â1528.
2220:
2214:
2213:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2184:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2094:
2070:
1582:topological cone
1554:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1534:
1503:
1495:
1480:cataract surgery
1358:gene duplication
1247:), resulting in
1214:visible spectrum
1100:Color appearance
884:564â580 nm
870:534â555 nm
856:420â440 nm
839:Peak wavelength
827:
826:
748:opponent process
674:prosthetic group
598:4D color vision
585:3D color vision
568:2D color vision
523:
522:
449:grayscale colors
321:dispersive prism
315:discovered that
290:
266:
242:
218:
194:
170:
146:
88:
87:
6499:
6498:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6459:
6458:
6457:
6452:
6381:
6348:
6256:
6235:Problem solving
6220:Decision-making
6154:
6151:
6121:
6116:
6088:
6056:
5973:
5891:
5848:
5838:
5761:
5740:Blue in culture
5711:
5630:
5577:Secondary color
5553:
5510:black-and-white
5482:
5475:
5462:
5364:
5350:National colors
5345:Political color
5325:Color symbolism
5311:
5241:Color constancy
5219:Color blindness
5193:
5150:Spectral colors
5107:
5101:
5071:
5066:
5018:Color blindness
5004:
4971:
4962:
4932:
4911:
4909:
4877:
4843:
4841:Further reading
4838:
4837:
4821:10.1145/2714573
4800:
4796:
4785:
4781:
4774:
4760:
4756:
4719:(6345): 655â6.
4709:
4705:
4690:
4686:
4639:
4635:
4628:
4605:
4601:
4572:Current Biology
4564:
4560:
4549:
4545:
4498:
4494:
4462:10.1.1.568.1560
4455:(13): 1773â83.
4449:Vision Research
4445:
4441:
4396:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4332:
4328:
4281:
4277:
4240:
4236:
4229:
4211:
4207:
4164:
4160:
4121:
4117:
4088:(11): 791â800.
4078:
4074:
4043:(20): 2042â51.
4037:Vision Research
4029:
4022:
3983:
3979:
3940:
3936:
3929:
3915:
3911:
3901:
3899:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3874:
3856:
3852:
3845:
3831:
3827:
3820:
3803:
3799:
3783:
3782:
3778:
3766:
3765:
3761:
3742:
3738:
3719:
3715:
3708:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3665:
3661:
3654:
3639:
3633:
3629:
3570:
3566:
3521:
3517:
3492:10.1038/nn.2676
3472:
3468:
3423:
3419:
3372:
3365:
3334:
3330:
3289:(42): 18034â9.
3275:
3266:
3213:
3202:
3195:
3187:. p. 388.
3177:
3173:
3159:
3155:
3148:
3132:
3128:
3083:
3079:
3036:
3032:
3025:
3009:
3005:
2968:(3803): 942â4.
2958:
2954:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2898:
2894:
2877:Roth M (2006).
2875:
2871:
2826:
2822:
2791:
2787:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2716:
2712:
2669:
2665:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2583:
2576:
2558:
2554:
2503:
2496:
2441:
2437:
2400:(6089): 623â5.
2390:
2386:
2331:
2327:
2274:
2270:
2221:
2217:
2202:
2198:
2153:
2149:
2120:
2116:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2040:
1960:
1951:
1942:
1914:
1905:
1896:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1799:
1789:
1782:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1751:
1688:
1631:
1623:Euclidean space
1605:
1579:
1563:spectral colors
1555:
1544:
1538:
1535:
1520:
1504:
1493:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1241:color receptors
1210:
1202:Adobe Photoshop
1196:with different
1179:color constancy
1175:color constancy
1171:
1165:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1032:color constancy
940:
904:color blindness
881:500â700 nm
867:450â630 nm
812:
788:color constancy
732:
720:RGB color model
635:
543:
542:1D color vision
529:Characteristic
478:
457:metallic colors
445:
429:Purkinje effect
390:spectral colors
366:
347:Spectral colors
297:
288:
273:
264:
249:
240:
225:
216:
201:
192:
177:
168:
153:
144:
133:
122:
111:
86:
46:, a feature of
17:
12:
11:
5:
6497:
6487:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6454:
6453:
6451:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6423:Mental fatigue
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6389:
6387:
6383:
6382:
6380:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6358:
6356:
6350:
6349:
6347:
6346:
6341:
6340:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6304:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6283:
6282:
6272:
6266:
6264:
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6257:
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6254:
6249:
6248:
6247:
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6185:
6180:
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6162:
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6150:
6149:
6142:
6135:
6127:
6118:
6117:
6115:
6114:
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6090:
6089:
6087:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6070:
6068:
6062:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6054:
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6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5983:
5981:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5955:
5954:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5908:
5906:
5897:
5893:
5892:
5890:
5889:
5884:
5879:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5852:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5825:
5824:
5819:
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5804:
5794:
5793:
5792:
5782:
5781:
5780:
5769:
5767:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5759:
5758:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5736:Color history
5734:
5733:
5732:
5721:
5719:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5653:
5651:
5642:
5636:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5629:
5628:
5620:
5619:(Schopenhauer)
5612:
5607:
5604:Color analysis
5601:
5599:Color triangle
5596:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5563:
5561:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5513:
5512:
5496:
5494:
5485:
5477:
5476:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5446:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5419:
5418:
5417:
5412:
5405:Color printing
5402:
5397:
5392:
5391:
5390:
5385:
5374:
5372:
5366:
5365:
5363:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5340:Kruithof curve
5337:
5332:
5327:
5321:
5319:
5313:
5312:
5310:
5309:
5302:
5297:
5296:
5295:
5290:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5254:
5253:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5232:
5231:
5226:
5216:
5215:
5214:
5212:Sonochromatism
5203:
5201:
5195:
5194:
5192:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5180:
5179:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5162:
5152:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5124:
5122:
5115:
5109:
5108:
5100:
5099:
5092:
5085:
5077:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5032:
5031:
5030:
5028:Köllner's rule
5025:
5014:
5012:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4981:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4961:
4960:
4953:
4946:
4938:
4931:
4930:
4917:
4907:"Color vision"
4902:
4886:"Color Vision"
4881:
4875:
4863:"Color Vision"
4858:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4794:
4779:
4772:
4754:
4703:
4684:
4633:
4626:
4599:
4558:
4543:
4492:
4439:
4390:
4381:
4326:
4275:
4261:10.1167/9.3.27
4254:(3): 27.1â11.
4234:
4227:
4205:
4158:
4115:
4072:
4020:
3977:
3934:
3927:
3909:
3879:
3872:
3850:
3843:
3825:
3818:
3797:
3776:
3759:
3756:on 2011-09-26.
3736:
3733:on 2011-08-18.
3713:
3706:
3684:
3677:
3659:
3652:
3627:
3564:
3515:
3486:(12): 1542â8.
3466:
3417:
3363:
3338:Brain Research
3328:
3264:
3200:
3193:
3171:
3153:
3146:
3126:
3097:(8): 2768â83.
3077:
3050:(3): 572â588.
3030:
3023:
3003:
2952:
2917:
2910:
2892:
2889:on 2006-11-08.
2869:
2846:10.1086/423287
2820:
2785:
2766:
2759:
2735:
2728:
2710:
2663:
2602:
2595:
2574:
2552:
2494:
2435:
2384:
2325:
2268:
2238:10.1.1.486.616
2215:
2196:
2147:
2114:
2085:(4â5): 230â8.
2064:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2039:
2036:
2026:, mixtures of
1956:
1947:
1938:
1910:
1901:
1892:
1870:
1861:
1852:
1834:psychophysical
1826:spectral locus
1797:
1787:
1780:
1770:
1763:
1756:
1749:
1686:
1629:
1603:
1577:
1557:
1556:
1507:
1505:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1454:animal kingdom
1424:Main article:
1421:
1418:
1410:Marine mammals
1398:, such as the
1385:howler monkeys
1209:
1206:
1167:Main article:
1164:
1161:
1095:
1092:
1084:ventral stream
1020:Torsten Wiesel
1016:David H. Hubel
1008:occipital lobe
948:ventral stream
939:
936:
922:tetrachromatic
886:
885:
882:
879:
876:
872:
871:
868:
865:
862:
858:
857:
854:
848:
845:
841:
840:
837:
834:
831:
811:
808:
784:Retinex Theory
731:
728:
634:
631:
628:
627:
624:
621:
614:
613:
599:
596:
590:
589:
586:
583:
577:
576:
569:
566:
560:
559:
545:
540:
534:
533:
530:
527:
514:tetrachromatic
508:(expressed in
477:
476:Dimensionality
474:
444:
441:
421:mesopic vision
394:chromaticities
365:
362:
308:
307:
304:
301:
298:
287:
284:
283:
280:
277:
274:
263:
260:
259:
256:
253:
250:
239:
236:
235:
232:
229:
226:
215:
212:
211:
208:
205:
202:
191:
188:
187:
184:
181:
178:
167:
164:
163:
160:
157:
154:
143:
140:
139:
128:
117:
106:
100:
99:
85:
82:
62:photoreceptors
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6496:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6464:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6384:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6362:Consolidation
6360:
6359:
6357:
6355:
6351:
6345:
6342:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6324:
6323:
6320:
6318:
6315:
6313:
6310:
6308:
6305:
6302:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6281:
6278:
6277:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6265:
6263:
6259:
6253:
6250:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6210:Consciousness
6208:
6206:
6205:Comprehension
6203:
6201:
6198:
6194:
6191:
6190:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6165:
6163:
6161:
6157:
6148:
6143:
6141:
6136:
6134:
6129:
6128:
6125:
6113:
6105:
6103:
6095:
6094:
6091:
6085:
6082:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6072:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6063:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5984:
5982:
5980:
5976:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5953:
5950:
5949:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5901:
5898:
5894:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5853:
5851:
5849:organizations
5845:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5799:
5798:
5795:
5791:
5790:Pastel colors
5788:
5787:
5786:
5783:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5768:
5764:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5737:
5735:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5726:
5723:
5722:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5654:
5652:
5650:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5637:
5626:
5625:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5572:Primary color
5570:
5569:
5568:
5565:
5564:
5562:
5560:
5556:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5539:Light-on-dark
5537:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5506:
5503:
5502:
5501:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5478:
5473:
5459:
5458:Color mapping
5456:
5454:
5451:
5445:
5442:
5441:
5440:
5437:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5407:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5383:Color balance
5381:
5380:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5371:
5367:
5361:
5360:Chromotherapy
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5322:
5320:
5318:
5314:
5308:
5307:
5303:
5301:
5300:Tetrachromacy
5298:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5252:
5249:
5248:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5224:Achromatopsia
5222:
5221:
5220:
5217:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5208:
5207:Chromesthesia
5205:
5204:
5202:
5200:
5196:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5178:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5170:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5121:Color physics
5119:
5116:
5114:
5113:Color science
5110:
5105:
5098:
5093:
5091:
5086:
5084:
5079:
5078:
5075:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5055:Tetrachromacy
5053:
5051:
5050:Pentachromacy
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5033:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5023:Achromatopsia
5021:
5020:
5019:
5016:
5015:
5013:
5011:
5007:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4985:Accommodation
4983:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4969:visual system
4966:
4959:
4954:
4952:
4947:
4945:
4940:
4939:
4936:
4927:
4923:
4918:
4908:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4882:
4878:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4846:
4845:
4831:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4790:
4783:
4775:
4769:
4765:
4758:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4699:
4695:
4688:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4637:
4629:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4614:
4609:
4603:
4595:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4578:(6): R193-4.
4577:
4573:
4569:
4562:
4554:
4547:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4496:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4443:
4435:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4394:
4385:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4339:
4330:
4322:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4279:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4230:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4209:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4178:(1): 81â118.
4177:
4173:
4169:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4027:
4025:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3950:(3): 413â71.
3949:
3945:
3938:
3930:
3924:
3920:
3913:
3902:September 28,
3897:
3893:
3889:
3883:
3875:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3854:
3846:
3840:
3836:
3829:
3821:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3793:
3787:
3779:
3777:9780716601227
3773:
3769:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3750:Lindbloom.com
3747:
3744:Lindbloom B.
3740:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3721:SĂŒsstrunk S.
3717:
3709:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3688:
3680:
3674:
3670:
3663:
3655:
3649:
3645:
3638:
3631:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3560:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3462:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3368:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3227:(3): 560â73.
3226:
3222:
3218:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3205:
3196:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3175:
3167:
3165:
3164:Edwin H. Land
3157:
3149:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3034:
3026:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3007:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2956:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2913:
2907:
2903:
2896:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2840:(3): 363â75.
2839:
2835:
2831:
2824:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2801:(2): 97â103.
2800:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2762:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2739:
2731:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2683:(6): 108â28.
2682:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2655:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2579:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2499:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2455:(2): 577â81.
2454:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2211:
2207:
2200:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Achromatopsia
2042:
2041:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1762:
1755:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1572:
1571:Hilbert space
1568:
1564:
1553:
1550:
1542:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1508:This section
1506:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1456:, especially
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1336:pentachromats
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1316:tetrachromacy
1313:
1308:
1307:tropical fish
1303:
1301:
1300:mantis shrimp
1298:(such as the
1297:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1264:invertebrates
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:color balance
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1160:
1158:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1101:
1091:
1089:
1088:dorsal stream
1085:
1081:
1080:temporal lobe
1076:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1036:Edwin H. Land
1034:explained by
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1004:visual cortex
1001:
996:
992:
990:
986:
982:
978:
977:optic chiasma
974:
969:
966:
957:
956:visual cortex
953:
952:dorsal stream
949:
944:
935:
933:
929:
928:
923:
919:
915:
911:
910:
905:
901:
896:
893:
883:
880:
877:
874:
873:
869:
866:
863:
860:
859:
855:
853:
849:
846:
843:
842:
838:
835:
832:
829:
828:
825:
816:
807:
805:
804:visual cortex
801:
800:natural scene
796:
793:
792:natural scene
789:
785:
781:
780:Edwin H. Land
776:
774:
768:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
736:
727:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
700:
698:
697:visual cortex
694:
689:
687:
683:
682:-hydroretinal
681:
675:
671:
666:
664:
660:
656:
647:
639:
625:
622:
619:
618:Pentachromacy
616:
615:
612:
608:
604:
600:
597:
595:
594:Tetrachromacy
592:
591:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
574:
570:
567:
565:
562:
561:
558:
554:
550:
546:
541:
539:
536:
535:
531:
528:
525:
524:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
498:invertebrates
495:
491:
487:
483:
473:
469:
466:
463:
460:
458:
454:
450:
440:
438:
432:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
364:Hue detection
361:
359:
355:
350:
348:
344:
336:
332:
328:
324:
322:
318:
314:
305:
302:
299:
296:
295:
286:
285:
281:
278:
275:
272:
271:
262:
261:
257:
254:
251:
248:
247:
238:
237:
233:
230:
227:
224:
223:
214:
213:
209:
206:
203:
200:
199:
190:
189:
185:
182:
179:
176:
175:
166:
165:
161:
158:
155:
152:
151:
142:
141:
137:
132:
131:Photon energy
129:
126:
121:
118:
115:
110:
107:
105:
102:
101:
94:
89:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
58:visual system
55:
51:
49:
45:
39:
36:as imaged by
35:
32:
28:
23:
19:
6469:Color vision
6274:
5822:Fluorescence
5785:Colorfulness
5778:Dichromatism
5622:
5614:
5584:Chromaticity
5567:Color mixing
5559:Color theory
5492:Color scheme
5355:Chromophobia
5304:
5198:
5045:Monochromacy
5010:Color vision
5009:
5000:Visual field
4925:
4910:. Retrieved
4889:
4866:
4854:Web Exhibits
4853:
4811:
4807:
4797:
4788:
4782:
4763:
4757:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4687:
4649:(2): 130â7.
4646:
4642:
4636:
4612:
4602:
4575:
4571:
4561:
4552:
4546:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4452:
4448:
4442:
4407:
4403:
4393:
4384:
4347:
4343:
4337:
4329:
4292:
4288:
4278:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4218:
4208:
4175:
4171:
4161:
4128:
4124:
4118:
4085:
4081:
4075:
4040:
4036:
3997:(1): 35â52.
3994:
3990:
3980:
3947:
3943:
3937:
3918:
3912:
3900:. Retrieved
3896:the original
3891:
3882:
3863:
3853:
3834:
3828:
3809:
3800:
3767:
3762:
3754:the original
3749:
3739:
3731:the original
3726:
3716:
3697:
3687:
3668:
3662:
3643:
3630:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3483:
3479:
3469:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3379:
3375:
3344:(2): 422â7.
3341:
3337:
3331:
3286:
3282:
3224:
3220:
3180:
3174:
3162:
3156:
3136:
3129:
3094:
3090:
3080:
3047:
3043:
3033:
3017:. Springer.
3013:
3006:
2965:
2961:
2955:
2930:
2926:
2920:
2901:
2895:
2887:the original
2882:
2872:
2837:
2833:
2823:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2779:
2769:
2745:
2738:
2719:
2713:
2680:
2676:
2666:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2586:
2568:
2555:
2514:
2510:
2452:
2448:
2438:
2397:
2393:
2387:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2228:
2224:
2218:
2209:
2199:
2164:
2160:
2150:
2131:
2127:
2117:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2049:Color theory
2016:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1802:chromaticity
1794:
1792:
1784:
1777:
1775:
1767:
1760:
1753:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1634:
1626:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1596:
1594:
1574:
1567:vector space
1560:
1545:
1536:
1521:Please help
1509:
1485:
1477:
1466:
1442:hummingbirds
1435:
1414:monochromats
1408:
1403:
1393:
1381:monochromats
1370:
1351:
1340:
1324:photopigment
1304:
1289:
1282:hymenopteran
1275:
1261:
1234:
1227:
1211:
1198:white points
1194:ICC profiles
1185:
1183:
1172:
1154:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:Himba people
1131:
1121:
1109:
1077:
1056:
1024:Bevil Conway
1012:
997:
993:
981:optic tracts
970:
961:
925:
907:
897:
889:
822:
799:
797:
791:
777:
769:
764:Ewald Hering
756:Thomas Young
741:
724:
701:
690:
685:
679:
667:
652:
588:most humans
538:Monochromacy
479:
470:
467:
464:
461:
446:
433:
398:
367:
351:
340:
313:Isaac Newton
311:
292:
268:
244:
220:
196:
172:
149:
52:
44:Color vision
43:
42:
18:
6252:Prospection
6225:Imagination
6188:Forecasting
6168:Association
5959:Color chart
5817:Iridescence
5649:Basic terms
5640:Color terms
5594:Color wheel
5589:Color solid
5453:Color space
5439:subtractive
5422:Color model
5293:Unique hues
5189:Colorimetry
5155:Chromophore
5060:Trichromacy
2206:"Human eye"
1595:An element
1450:ultraviolet
1438:herbivorous
1377:owl monkeys
1366:dichromatic
1328:oil droplet
1312:bird vision
1296:stomatopods
1253:trichromats
1127:ideasthesia
1123:Synesthesia
1073:color space
973:optic nerve
914:polymorphic
706:receptors,
620:and higher
581:Trichromacy
573:color blind
532:Occurrence
494:vertebrates
358:ultraviolet
317:white light
25:Colorless,
6463:Categories
6433:Mental set
6312:Peripheral
6262:Perception
6245:strategies
5979:Shades of:
5812:Brightness
5544:Web colors
5500:Color tool
5483:philosophy
5388:Color cast
5288:Afterimage
5278:Metamerism
5251:Color code
5246:Color task
5229:Dichromacy
5040:Dichromacy
4965:Physiology
4912:2012-03-30
4350:(71): 71.
3806:Cuthill IC
3768:World Book
2933:: 127â53.
2060:References
1875:) for the
1725:), and of
1430:See also:
1396:marsupials
1277:Osmia rufa
1272:bumblebees
1257:dichromats
1245:cone cells
1243:(known as
1237:Catarrhini
1113:John Locke
1104:See also:
1060:Semir Zeki
900:chromosome
655:cone cells
564:Dichromacy
526:Dimension
512:), so was
490:photopsins
417:cone cells
382:blue-green
306:1.65â1.98
282:1.98â2.10
258:2.10â2.19
234:2.19â2.48
210:2.48â2.56
186:2.56â2.75
162:2.75â3.26
109:Wavelength
84:Wavelength
6408:Intention
6393:Attention
6327:Harmonics
6280:RGB model
6230:Intuition
6200:Foresight
6193:affective
6173:Awareness
6160:Cognition
5829:Grayscale
5802:Lightness
5797:Luminance
5606:(fashion)
5306:The dress
4890:Webvision
4814:(3): 15.
4457:CiteSeerX
4011:0022-0949
3786:cite book
3606:1476-4687
3166:'s Essays
3064:0022-3077
2547:252335063
2531:0958-0670
2302:0962-8452
2233:CiteSeerX
2054:The dress
2017:spectral
1584:over the
1510:does not
1446:nocturnal
1420:Evolution
1379:are cone
1362:Eutherian
1268:Honeybees
1071:found in
1051:human eye
1000:synapsing
830:Cone type
767:diagram.
676:: either
557:Xenarthra
553:Cetaceans
549:Pinnipeds
506:rhodopsin
486:primaries
405:rod cells
120:Frequency
74:evolution
6448:Volition
6438:Thinking
6418:Learning
6367:Encoding
6102:Category
6084:Lighting
5807:Darkness
5627:(Goethe)
5427:additive
5415:Quattron
4898:21413395
4830:14960893
4698:Archived
4679:23837628
4671:18217181
4610:(1997).
4608:Steven P
4594:16546067
4538:24416536
4434:11321057
4376:32477078
4321:28193811
4295:(1717).
4270:19757966
4192:12620062
4110:25685593
4102:14520495
4067:12025276
4059:18627773
4015:Archived
3972:24172719
3892:Skeptive
3559:16147515
3510:21076422
3461:21880901
3412:39700958
3323:19805195
3259:11724926
3251:17988638
3121:11306629
2947:10845061
2864:15252758
2648:28539878
2563:(1872).
2561:Hering E
2539:36114718
2379:34321827
2320:25540280
2263:16062564
2255:11328346
2191:28615496
2109:40234800
2101:15312027
2038:See also
1590:centroid
1539:May 2016
1394:Several
1286:sawflies
1235:In most
1042:theory.
985:thalamus
850:400â500
746:and the
730:Theories
607:reptiles
518:lineages
496:but not
413:photopic
401:scotopic
354:infrared
331:Photopic
303:400â480
300:625â750
279:480â510
276:590â625
255:510â530
252:565â590
231:530â600
228:500â565
207:600â620
204:485â500
183:620â670
180:450â485
159:670â790
156:380â450
78:primates
6372:Storage
6240:methods
6066:Related
6027:Magenta
5952:history
5856:Pantone
5143:Visible
5138:Rainbow
4967:of the
4749:4283145
4741:1922382
4721:Bibcode
4651:Bibcode
4530:6149558
4510:Bibcode
4487:3745725
4479:8266633
4425:1088658
4367:7235192
4338:Xenopus
4312:5312016
4200:7610125
4153:4367079
4133:Bibcode
3964:8347768
3622:4310049
3614:6767195
3586:Bibcode
3550:1609195
3501:3005205
3452:3171995
3404:6134287
3384:Bibcode
3358:4196224
3314:2764907
3291:Bibcode
3242:8162777
3112:6762533
2998:1108881
2990:6054169
2970:Bibcode
2962:Science
2855:1182016
2815:3953765
2685:Bibcode
2639:5423953
2622:: 229.
2489:8570598
2457:Bibcode
2430:4316301
2422:3773989
2402:Bibcode
2371:2937147
2343:Bibcode
2335:Science
2311:4298209
2182:5474062
2024:purples
1999:of the
1822:kelvins
1816:of the
1586:simplex
1531:removed
1516:sources
1473:diurnal
1458:insects
1352:In the
1334:may be
1332:Pigeons
1291:Papilio
1040:retinex
1038:in his
991:(LGN).
975:to the
575:humans
504:) plus
407:of the
380:in the
6377:Recall
6354:Memory
6344:Visual
6337:Speech
6317:Social
6297:Haptic
6270:Amodal
6079:Qualia
6074:Vision
6022:Purple
6017:Violet
5997:Yellow
5992:Orange
5687:Orange
5682:Purple
5672:Yellow
5106:topics
4977:Vision
4896:
4873:
4828:
4770:
4747:
4739:
4713:Nature
4677:
4669:
4624:
4592:
4536:
4528:
4485:
4477:
4459:
4432:
4422:
4374:
4364:
4319:
4309:
4268:
4225:
4198:
4190:
4151:
4125:Nature
4108:
4100:
4065:
4057:
4009:
3970:
3962:
3925:
3870:
3841:
3816:
3774:
3704:
3675:
3650:
3620:
3612:
3604:
3578:Nature
3557:
3547:
3508:
3498:
3459:
3449:
3410:
3402:
3356:
3321:
3311:
3257:
3249:
3239:
3221:Neuron
3191:
3144:
3119:
3109:
3070:
3062:
3021:
2996:
2988:
2945:
2908:
2862:
2852:
2813:
2757:
2726:
2705:929159
2703:
2646:
2636:
2593:
2545:
2537:
2529:
2487:
2477:
2428:
2420:
2394:Nature
2377:
2369:
2363:169687
2361:
2318:
2308:
2300:
2261:
2253:
2235:
2189:
2179:
2107:
2099:
2032:violet
1883:, and
1844:, and
1709:), of
1671:, and
1343:geckos
1222:nectar
998:After
927:OPN1MW
909:OPN1LW
906:. The
819:fovea.
782:, the
555:, and
455:, and
409:retina
386:yellow
372:; the
291:
289:
270:orange
267:
265:
246:yellow
243:
241:
219:
217:
195:
193:
171:
169:
150:violet
147:
145:
38:camera
29:, and
6386:Other
6332:Pitch
6322:Sound
6301:Touch
6287:Depth
6275:Color
6112:Index
6052:Black
6042:White
6037:Brown
6002:Green
5904:Lists
5896:Names
5878:(CIE)
5847:Color
5707:Brown
5702:White
5692:Black
5662:Green
5481:Color
5177:Water
5133:Light
5104:Color
4926:Wired
4826:S2CID
4745:S2CID
4675:S2CID
4534:S2CID
4483:S2CID
4196:S2CID
4149:S2CID
4106:S2CID
4063:S2CID
3968:S2CID
3640:(PDF)
3618:S2CID
3408:S2CID
3255:S2CID
3072:96222
2994:S2CID
2543:S2CID
2480:40094
2426:S2CID
2375:S2CID
2359:JSTOR
2259:S2CID
2105:S2CID
2019:locus
1814:gamut
1798:color
1788:color
1781:color
1771:color
1764:color
1757:color
1750:color
1687:color
1630:color
1604:color
1578:color
1389:opsin
1347:frogs
1262:Many
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