708:
556:
22:
274:. Such minority groups, and those with records of loyalty in revolt, were often designated as 'martial races'; their supposedly superior fighting qualities propagandised, and their communities rewarded with special status. The colonial power might face however a dilemma: when military developments made numbers a priority, it had to either trust the majority and so risk loss of control, or alternatively to rely on minorities combined with large numbers of expensive European or other non-local troops. The French
440:
168:
132:
751:
saw mixed outcomes for colonial troops. Where the transition was a relatively peaceful one the existing colonial units were likely to form the basis of the new national armies. Where there had been extended conflict those locally recruited troops who had remained loyal to their former colonial rulers
352:
The advantages of locally-recruited troops in colonial warfare were several. They had familiarity with local terrain, language and culture. They were likely to be immune from disease in areas such as the West Indies and West Africa, which were notoriously unhealthy for
European troops until the early
546:
The selective recruitment of particular ethnic groups for service in the colonial military was frequently influenced by the perception of their military abilities and loyalty towards the colonial regime. On occasion, these restrictions were overturned due to a lack of manpower, especially during and
84:
At the beginning of the modern colonial period such troops were predominantly
Europeans from the home army of the country concerned, but locally raised "native" troops were soon recruited. The latter normally served in separate units, at first under their own leaders, later under European officers.
497:
of the French Army had to be withdrawn to southern France for recuperation and training during the harsh winters of the
Western Front. All Indian troops, with the exception of some cavalry regiments, were withdrawn from the Western Front in October 1915, to serve in
344:. A large portion of the forces maintained by Spain and Portugal in South and Central America until the early 19th century were locally recruited. Colonial militias in Australia, Canada and New Zealand formed the origins of the modern armies of these countries.
698:
in general. They were usually trained by the United States military and initially led by
American officers. Philippine colonial soldiers were amongst the first members of the U.S. Army to engage in direct combat against the Japanese during World War II.
530:
more or less on their own but were sometimes accompanied by a substantial
British presence. In the early stages of the First World War (November 1914), a British-Indian expeditionary force suffered a major defeat by well-trained and well-led German
679:. The demographic composition of the 65th stayed generally the same after 1917 (though composed of U.S. citizens it was no longer be a "colonial" regiment), and went onto to serve with distinction in every major U.S. conflict since.
357:
or other groups that had long-established martial traditions. It was not uncommon for colonial armies to favour the races that had shown the fiercest opposition to the initial conquest of a given territory (examples being the
513:
On the other hand, the regiments of the Indian Army were an army in their own right with responsibilities in the wider Empire. They were equipped as such, apart from lacking certain specialist capabilities, and took on the
456:
Colonial troops were usually more lightly equipped than their metropolitan counterparts, who were usually given priority when new weaponry was issued. This apparent discrimination sometimes arose from the actual
67:
Such colonies may lie overseas or in areas dominated by neighbouring land powers such as
Imperial China or Tsarist Russia. Colonial troops have been used by Imperial powers whether ancient (such as Carthage and
492:
Even earlier, the
African and Indian troops that had been sent to France in 1914 encountered a climate, diet and general conditions of service greatly different from those with which they were familiar. The
489:. The relative lack of up-to-date weaponry and training put colonial troops at an initial disadvantage when they faced modern opponents such as the German or Japanese armies of the Second World War.
72:), or modern (such as Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Denmark, the United States, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, and Portugal). Sometimes they have been recruited under local leaders, as
373:
Colonial troops could be used to garrison or subdue other territories than those in which they were recruited to avoid problems of conflicting loyalties. For example, Italy used
Eritrean
96:
were an early example. By the mid 18th century, these troops were beginning to be directly recruited by the
Company, allowing more systematic provisioning, drill and tactics, forming the
627:
during 1936; Eritrean troops were also used in the occupation of Libya from 1911 to 1935 and a full division of Libyan infantry participated in the
Ethiopian campaign. Portugal employed
421:
309:
rotated large numbers of its regular troops through India and other overseas possessions, augmenting the local colonial forces. However it is notable that British forces in
175:
In the larger colonial possessions the garrison was likely to comprise both locally recruited and white troops. The latter might be from the home or metropolitan army, from
571:
By the 20th Century, colonial troops were often being used outside the boundaries of their territories of origin. Troops from France's North African colonies served in the
313:
and other West African territories were under normal circumstances nearly all locally recruited, except for officers, some non-commissioned officers and a few specialists.
715:
Colonial troops sometimes served as symbols or icons of Imperial power. Representative detachments of Indian and other Empire forces came to London to parade as part of
543:, in East Africa, but two divisions of Indian infantry also fought with distinction in France in a type of war and a climate for which they had been little prepared.
711:
Modern French soldiers of the 1st Regiment of Tirailleurs - formerly recruited in Algeria and still retaining their historic ceremonial North African uniforms.
316:
Changes in colonial ruler usually meant the continuation of local recruitment - often from the same sources. Both the Spanish and United States rulers of the
595:. Indian troops served in Europe in large numbers during both World Wars, as well as in the Middle East, Malaya, Burma and North Africa in World War II. The
1386:" U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971) (codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)")
370:
from metropolitan regiments would be politically unpopular. Also, the use of local troops often made the actual colonization more palatable for the locals.
731:
each year until 1962. Until at least the 1930s, British Indian and French, Italian and Spanish North African regiments were notable for their picturesque
675:
enlistees and a mix of American and Puerto Rican officers. The unit was formed in 1899, immediately following America's annexation of the colony in the
1024:
hen Scipio carried the war into Africa, the most useful local auxiliaries of Carthage, the Numidians, went over to the Romans, and victory with them.
739:, cloaks and sashes. Such features were an aid to voluntary recruiting as well as ensuring a high-profile for the overseas territories represented.
235:
were recruited from outside British-controlled territory. In Burma, the British recruited primarily from the Hill dwelling minorities such as the
1397:
1184:
Christopher M. Andrew, page 236 "France Overseas. The Great War and the Climax of French Imperial Expansion", 1981 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London
259:
people from joining the colonial military service; this was due to the perception that they were unsympathetic towards the colonial government.
199:
comprised all of these elements. The Dutch had a similar mix of locally recruited and metropolitan troops composing their garrison in the
683:
279:
869:
1503:
1094:
668:
1665:
1446:
1407:
1169:
1144:
1267:
1242:
398:
336:
Colonial troops may comprise local forces drawn from settlers in colonies where these were numerous. In the 18th century
894:
1710:
1642:
1603:
1572:
1541:
1353:
1332:
1308:
1287:
1221:
1198:
1119:
1073:
1049:
1010:
949:
794:
643:
until the 1950s. During the 19th century several thousand West African soldiers were recruited under the name of
405:
at various times in the 19th and the early 20th centuries. In the 1950s, the Portuguese used African troops from
183:
or occasionally from mercenaries recruited outside the territories of the colonial power concerned. The French "
1720:
889:
196:
560:
477:
or mechanised units rarely had indigenous troops although the Italian colonial army maintained a number of
1260:
Swords Trembling in Their Scabbards. The Changing status of Indian officers in the Indian Army, 1757-1947
1235:
Swords Trembling in Their Scabbards. The Changing status of Indian officers in the Indian Army, 1757-1947
954:
1282:
Philip Mason, "A Matter of Honour - an Account of the Indian Army, its Officers and Men", pages 412-413
632:
612:
390:
366:
tribesmen of Morocco). Colonial units could be employed in campaigns or conditions in which the use of
1619:
Colonial Army Systems of the Netherlands, Great Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Italy, and Belgium
1413:
919:
799:
608:
386:
756:
and subject to reprisals after independence. This was particularly the case in Algeria in 1962 (see
1705:
844:
676:
231:" making up the bulk of the Indian Army were recruited from British subjects, the ten regiments of
101:
707:
874:
789:
691:
648:
337:
267:
184:
485:
and Libyan mule artillery batteries, and there were locally-recruited mountain batteries in the
809:
660:
494:
466:
1564:
1558:
695:
299:
282:
from 1920 to 1943, this force of about 10,000 men (in 1938) was predominantly recruited from
105:
320:
employed Filipino troops from the same regions and tribal groups. In the 1830s the original
104:, or "Sepoy Mutiny", many of the sepoys rebelled against the Company, leading to the end of
944:
52:
270:(NEI), to counterbalance majority populations seen as potentially rebellious, such as the
8:
959:
784:
686:
from 1901 until 1946 when the Philippines became independent. These troops including the
588:
576:
486:
156:
140:
117:
1377:
Piero Crociani, "Le Uniformi dell'A.O.I" (Somalia 1889-1941), pages 24-25 la Roccia 1980
1005:. Library of conservative thought. Transaction Publishers (published 1993). p. 11.
1690:
1670:
1464:
Historia y Tradiciones: Guardia Nacional de Puerto Rico – Cinco Centurias... En Guardia
829:
774:
719:
or other major celebrations during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. French
664:
620:
503:
482:
275:
93:
26:
21:
1715:
1638:
1623:
1599:
1568:
1537:
1442:
1403:
1349:
1328:
1304:
1283:
1263:
1238:
1217:
1194:
1165:
1140:
1115:
1090:
1069:
1045:
1006:
974:
924:
879:
849:
687:
604:
414:
402:
394:
97:
1511:
555:
1675:
934:
753:
748:
640:
636:
523:
470:
341:
310:
180:
152:
1617:
1593:
1436:
1000:
996:
600:
540:
527:
478:
271:
30:
939:
834:
814:
628:
515:
458:
444:
291:
252:
192:
188:
49:
31:
colonies of North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia) had been reconquered by the Allies
1699:
1478:
839:
761:
672:
644:
519:
449:
428:
378:
240:
228:
131:
1612:
Karl Hack and Tobias Rettig, eds. (2006), Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia.
1660:
1627:
909:
728:
592:
584:
536:
532:
306:
148:
34:
1655:
1637:
Philip Mason (1974), A Matter of Honour - an account of the Indian Army.
1595:
Guardians of Empire: The Armed Forces of the Colonial Powers C. 1700-1964
929:
720:
580:
572:
507:
499:
325:
317:
295:
244:
200:
171:
Locally recruited riflemen of the French Colonial Army in Indochina, 1884
109:
73:
1035:
Karl Hack and Tobias Rettig 2006, eds, Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia
682:
The U.S. Army also organized and trained multiple colonial units during
716:
406:
367:
256:
1368:
Hugh Thomas, pages 357-360 "The Spanish Civil War", Penguin Books 2003
1685:
884:
864:
859:
615:
during the period of colonial rule in both countries. Italy employed
596:
474:
465:
roles required of colonial forces, which were intended primarily for
262:
Many colonial powers sought to recruit minority peoples, such as the
120:, some of which survive to the present day in the national armies of
732:
624:
564:
420:
382:
263:
224:
208:
176:
136:
121:
113:
56:
439:
417:) for service in the East Indies during much of the 19th century.
1680:
969:
824:
819:
736:
462:
374:
321:
283:
216:
212:
69:
964:
899:
854:
804:
779:
757:
616:
469:
against poorly-armed opponents in difficult terrain. Until the
424:
354:
236:
232:
76:; and at other times organised directly by the colonial power.
1479:"Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment "Special Announcements""
663:
in 1917, granting full U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans, the
647:
by the Dutch colonial authorities for military service in the
914:
904:
724:
623:, together with Eritrean and Libyan units in the conquest of
359:
287:
278:
provided an example of the latter option. Raised to garrison
248:
204:
125:
89:
220:
167:
1214:
Zwarte Hollanders; Afrikaanse soldaten in Nederlands-Indië
1187:
353:
20th century. "Native" troops were usually recruited from
1399:
Honor and Fidelity: The 65th Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953
735:
which incorporated indigenous features such as colourful
410:
363:
1193:
Jean-Louis Larcade, page 15, "Zouaves et Tirailleurs",
298:
minorities, augmented by North African, Senegalese and
1598:(illustrated ed.). Manchester University Press.
1434:
1622:. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
1441:. Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario. p. 370.
328:for both the Turkish and French rulers of Algeria.
324:were volunteers from a tribal group which provided
1592:Killingray, David; Omissi, David E., eds. (1999).
1044:J.M. Roberts, page 399 "The Triumph of the West",
427:trooper (of the Italian colonial cavalry) in 1939
1697:
1591:
583:in France itself. France used African troops in
247:while preventing the plain dwelling majority of
1634:R. Hure (1977), L' Armee d' Afrique 1830-1962.
550:
1395:
1087:French Naval & Colonial Troops 1872-1914
1062:
684:the American colonization of the Philippines
16:Troops from colonial territories of a nation
1301:Burma/Myanmar: what everyone needs to know
1162:Royal Netherlands East Indies Army 1936-42
1137:Royal Netherlands East Indies Army 1936-42
25:Call-up ad inviting citizens to enlist in
1550:
1298:
1208:
1206:
1159:
1134:
1084:
995:
706:
607:of 1936-39. Japan recruited levies from
554:
438:
419:
166:
130:
20:
870:Military of Macau under Portuguese rule
547:in the run-up to the Second World War.
162:
1698:
1615:
1531:
1504:"Sharp, William Frederick (1885–1947)"
1257:
1232:
1203:
1109:
635:, also using them in the garrisons of
62:
1556:
1461:
1343:
1616:Herron, J. S., ed. (November 1901).
1237:. Helion Limited. pp. 139–140.
1212:Kessel, Ineke van (Amsterdam 2005).
579:and most notably in the trenches of
108:. After the British government took
1508:The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia
1462:Norat, José Angel (27 March 1987).
413:, and the Dutch had West Africans (
13:
1585:
1557:Horne, Alistair (12 August 1978).
1476:
1396:Villahermosa, Gilberto N. (2009).
1323:Charles Lavauzelle, pages 289-291
1258:Creese, Miachel (12 August 2023).
1233:Creese, Miachel (12 August 2023).
1160:Lohnstein, Marc (21 August 2018).
1135:Lohnstein, Marc (21 August 2018).
1085:Chartrand, Rene (23 August 2018).
895:Royal Netherlands East Indies Army
752:might find themselves regarded as
599:(Moorish infantry and cavalry) of
331:
14:
1732:
742:
59:troops in, colonial territories.
1139:. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 4–5.
950:United States Army Indian Scouts
795:Colonial Guard of Spanish Guinea
654:
434:
1525:
1496:
1470:
1466:. Esmaco Printers. p. 125.
1455:
1438:Historia militar de Puerto Rico
1428:
1389:
1380:
1371:
1362:
1337:
1317:
1292:
1276:
1251:
1226:
1064:Les Troupes de Marine 1622–1984
393:). Indian regiments garrisoned
112:in 1858, the sepoys formed the
110:direct control of British India
1435:Héctor Andrés Negroni (1992).
1402:. Government Printing Office.
1344:Bueno, Jose (12 August 1989).
1262:. Helion Limited. p. 83.
1178:
1153:
1128:
1103:
1089:. Bloomsbury. pp. 21–22.
1078:
1054:
1038:
1029:
988:
890:Royal Corps of Colonial Troops
1:
1164:. Bloomsbury USA. p. 4.
1114:. Bloomsbury USA. p. 8.
981:
347:
1299:Steinberg, David I. (2009).
1110:Sumner, Ian (17 July 1995).
702:
659:Prior to the passage of the
7:
1649:
1534:1er Regiment de Tirailleurs
1303:. Oxford University Press.
955:West African Frontier Force
767:
603:played a major role in the
551:Use outside areas of origin
10:
1737:
1216:. KIT Publishers. p. 213.
631:troops from Mozambique in
587:and during the subsequent
381:and during both wars with
79:
1536:. p. 146 & 149.
920:Special Groups (Portugal)
800:Corps of Colonial Marines
633:Angola during World War I
1711:Types of military forces
1563:. Viking Press. p.
727:paraded in Paris on the
102:Indian Rebellion of 1857
1532:Dufour, Pierre (1999).
1112:The French Army 1914-18
875:Natal Native Contingent
692:Philippine Constabulary
649:Netherlands East Indies
268:Netherlands East Indies
159:also recruited sepoys.
1348:. Aldaba. p. 41.
1063:
810:French Colonial Forces
712:
669:65th Infantry Regiment
568:
563:soldier served in the
495:Senegalese tirailleurs
453:
431:
172:
144:
38:
27:French Colonial Forces
1721:Wartime collaboration
1560:A Savage War of Peace
1325:Les Troupes de Marine
845:King's African Rifles
710:
558:
467:low intensity warfare
442:
423:
340:units were raised in
300:French Foreign Legion
170:
134:
106:Company rule in India
24:
945:Troupes de la Marine
790:Chasseurs d' Afrique
690:(most notably), the
677:Spanish–American War
559:A recruited African
163:Basis of recruitment
994:Note for example:
960:West India Regiment
785:British Indian Army
694:and eventually the
577:Franco-Prussian War
157:Indian subcontinent
141:British Indian Army
63:Colonial background
1691:Irregular military
1671:Foreign volunteers
1514:on 12 October 2007
1416:on 8 November 2010
1096:978-1-4728-2-617-6
1002:God of the Machine
830:Indian auxiliaries
775:Aboriginal tracker
713:
661:Jones–Shafroth Act
621:Italian Somaliland
569:
454:
432:
276:Army of the Levant
173:
145:
94:East India Company
48:refers to various
39:
1483:www.valerosos.com
1448:978-84-7844-138-9
1409:978-0-16-083324-3
1171:978-1-4728-3375-4
1146:978-1-4728-3375-4
975:Zwarte Hollanders
925:Tiradores de Ifni
880:Philippine Scouts
850:Kikuyu Home Guard
688:Philippine Scouts
671:, was made up of
605:Spanish Civil War
415:Zwarte Hollanders
362:of India and the
280:Syria and Lebanon
98:presidency armies
55:from, or used as
1728:
1676:Military legions
1631:
1609:
1579:
1578:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1510:, archived from
1500:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1412:. Archived from
1393:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1341:
1335:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1296:
1290:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1269:9-781909-9828-19
1255:
1249:
1248:
1244:9-781909-9828-19
1230:
1224:
1210:
1201:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1082:
1076:
1066:
1058:
1052:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1019:
997:Paterson, Isabel
992:
935:Tonkinese Rifles
764:during 1973/74.
749:colonial empires
637:Portuguese India
471:Second World War
448:soldiers in the
342:Colonial America
181:military service
155:enclaves in the
1736:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1706:Colonial troops
1696:
1695:
1652:
1606:
1588:
1586:Further reading
1583:
1582:
1575:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1530:
1526:
1517:
1515:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1485:
1477:Nieves, Danny.
1475:
1471:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1410:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1342:
1338:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1297:
1293:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1231:
1227:
1211:
1204:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1083:
1079:
1059:
1055:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1017:
1015:
1013:
993:
989:
984:
979:
770:
747:The end of the
745:
705:
696:Philippine Army
657:
601:Spanish Morocco
553:
541:Battle of Tanga
437:
350:
334:
332:Settler militia
165:
82:
65:
42:Colonial troops
17:
12:
11:
5:
1734:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1666:Foreign legion
1663:
1658:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1635:
1632:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1573:
1549:
1542:
1524:
1495:
1469:
1454:
1447:
1427:
1408:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1361:
1354:
1336:
1316:
1309:
1291:
1275:
1268:
1250:
1243:
1225:
1202:
1186:
1177:
1170:
1152:
1145:
1127:
1120:
1102:
1095:
1077:
1053:
1037:
1028:
1011:
986:
985:
983:
980:
978:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
940:Tropas Nomadas
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
835:Indios reyunos
832:
827:
822:
817:
815:Force Publique
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
771:
769:
766:
744:
743:End of empires
741:
704:
701:
656:
653:
552:
549:
526:and later the
459:light infantry
445:Force Publique
436:
433:
349:
346:
333:
330:
187:" garrisoning
185:Army of Africa
164:
161:
81:
78:
64:
61:
50:military units
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1733:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
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581:World War I
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508:East Africa
500:Mesopotamia
487:Indian Army
326:mercenaries
318:Philippines
227:and other "
201:East Indies
118:Indian Army
74:auxiliaries
1700:Categories
1488:11 October
1018:10 January
982:References
717:coronation
407:Mozambique
368:conscripts
348:Advantages
296:Circassian
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461:or light
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733:uniforms
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565:Java War
528:Japanese
524:Italians
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302:units.
272:Javanese
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