203:
272:. This was complemented with data showing that developed countries have contributed far more to climate change than developing countries, with the latter being most at risk of its negative effects. This evidence was used to support the argument that developed countries owe a climate debt to developing countries that must be repaid in the form of reduced emissions as agreed upon in the Copenhagen Accord. Further support was provided with the assertion that developing countries have a right to their share of
17:
296:
emissions they have made, they should not bear the guilt or owe debts; the negative effects of carbon emissions were not understood until recently, and therefore any emissions made before this understanding should not be a source of guilt; countries should not bear the guilt for the actions of their ancestors, over which the current generation had no control. Statements that align with these arguments were made by the United States' chief climate negotiator, Todd Stern, at the 2009 Copenhagen conference.
2547:
2535:
323:
2571:
2559:
299:
One criticism is that the foundational principles of a political climate debt framework are not based on science. Analyst
Olivier Godard claims that the idea of a climate debt requires a priori judgment decisions to be made about debt, responsibility, and their place in international relations. These
189:
Disasters from climate change disproportionately affect poorer and tropical regions and have caused the majority of disasters and trillions of dollars worth of economic losses since around the start of the 21st century. Poorer countries also lack the necessary infrastructure, development, and capital
65:
The main components of climate debt are adaptation debt and emissions debt. Adaptation debt is claimed to be owed by developed countries to developing countries to assist them in their adaptation to climate change. Emissions debt is claimed to be owed by developed countries for their disproportionate
303:
Another criticism is that climate debt is based on the egalitarian view that the atmosphere is a global commons, a view that is applied to a few other finite resources. This climate-centric view disregards all the credit that should be owed to developed countries for their positive contributions to
214:
The capacity to absorb emissions by the environment is termed as the total carbon space; the emissions debt concept argues that developed countries have overused their fair allocation of this space. As a result, there is not enough carbon space left for poorer countries to release emissions during
238:, which aims to assist developing nations in reducing the emissions of their development and economic processes. It will also help them adapt to the consequences of climate change. The target of this initiative is to contribute $ 100 billion to the Green Climate Fund every year starting in 2020.
161:
We, the people attending the World People’s
Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth in Cochabamba, Bolivia, demand to the countries that have over-consumed the atmospheric space to acknowledge their historic and current responsibilities for the causes and adverse effects of
295:
Commonly, criticisms attempt to invalidate the idea that a debt is owed from developed countries to developing countries as compensation for historical emissions and ecological damage. Arguments used to support this claim include the following: although countries are responsible for the
226:
To repay the emissions debt, developed countries would need to help developing countries industrialize in ways that reduce the strain on the environment and keep climate change in check. They would also need to lead efforts in reducing global carbon emissions. Emissions debt also calls for a
193:
Adaptation debt aims to have rich countries adopt the responsibility of helping developing nations that have suffered the negative environmental effects of their industrialization and carbon emissions. As noted in the UNFCCC, this can be done through providing financial assistance to affected
177:
Adaptation debt is the compensation that developing countries claim they are owed due to the damage they feel from the environmental effects of the developed world. This is based on the idea that poorer nations face the most damaging consequences of climate change, for which they had little
291:
Criticisms of the idea of climate debt are purported by developed countries and some independent political analysts. Developed nations are generally negatively predisposed to the concept of climate debt because under such a framework they would need to quickly curtail emissions and provide
47:, largely by developed countries, pose significant threats to developing countries, who are less able to deal with climate change's negative effects. Therefore, some consider developed countries to owe a debt to developing ones for their disproportionate contributions to climate change.
210:
Emissions debt is a debt owed by developed countries based upon their majority contribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, despite having relatively lower populations. Because of their contributions, the amount of carbon emissions that the Earth can currently absorb is lower.
267:
In a formal presentation of the idea of climate debt at the
Copenhagen conference, Bolivia provided evidence that their nation has been negatively affected by climate change in the form of threatened water supplies from glacial retreat, drought, floods, and negative
246:
Support for climate debt generally comes from developing countries and environmentalist NGOs, with criticisms of climate debt usually coming from developed nations. Independent analysts hold a variety of views on the matter, both supporting and criticizing the idea.
73:
Since the introduction of the concept of climate debt, there has been an on-going debate about the proper interpretation of climate debt. Developed countries and developing countries, as well as independent stakeholders, have taken a variety of stands on the issue.
255:
Support for the implementation of a climate debt framework is led by developing countries that have and will continue to feel severe negative impacts due to climate change. Other primary supporters outside of the global south include various environmental
307:
Many critics have claimed that, although the concept of climate debt may be ethically sound, it may actually undermine political negotiations regarding climate change due to its "adversarial" basis, and negotiations should instead use a different framework.
185:
that are spurred by the emissions from the developed world, people of poorer countries suffer an increasing amount of natural disasters and economic damages. This environmental destruction harms the economy and livelihood of the people in poorer nations.
222:
alone has contributed to 25% of all carbon emissions and developed countries in total have contributed to 70% of all emissions. It is estimated that the average
American may owe up to $ 12000 in emissions debt for carbon emissions between 1970 and 2013.
190:
to be able to bounce back from a disaster, forcing them to borrow money at higher interests to aid their recovery from the destruction. This in turn worsens the opportunities, development, and life quality of those living in poorer regions.
98:
South Summit in Havana in 2000, developing countries advocated the recognition of the climate debt owed by the Global North as the basis of solutions to climate issues. However, the concept of climate debt was not explicitly defined at the
162:
climate change, and to honor their climate debts to developing countries, to vulnerable communities in their own countries, to our children’s children and to all living beings in our shared home – Mother Earth.
150:
made a proposal that evaluated developed countries' historical climate debt to developing countries. The proposal analyzed the cause of climate change and explained adaptation debt and emissions debt.
311:
In response to some of these criticisms, supporters of climate debt claim that critics are few in number, and that the majority of political analysts are in support of enforcing climate debt.
982:
2271:
227:
redistribution of the carbon space among the developed and developing nations and aims to allocate the carbon space in accordance with the population of each country.
2447:
166:
The People's
Agreement states that climate debt is owed by not only financial compensation but also restorative justice. It clearly rejected the Copenhagen Accord.
2115:
1572:
373:"Commitments for Annex I Parties under paragraph 1(b)(i) of the Bali Action Plan: Evaluating developed countries' historical climate debt to developing countries"
872:"Subverting the status quo? Climate debt, vulnerability and counter-hegemonic frame integration in United Nations climate politics – a framework for analysis"
2288:
276:
that developed countries have encroached upon with their excessive emissions, and that the repayment of the climate debt is a means to achieving this space.
100:
1724:
1545:
1719:
1587:
419:
1519:
154:
1228:
786:
107:
55:
989:
1461:
1345:
1609:
1562:
816:
2488:
1604:
1184:
169:
Apart from official agreements between nations, climate debt has been appearing in public media with both supporters and opponents.
1819:
1535:
1253:
1030:
2175:
1964:
1127:
738:
1824:
1787:
1641:
1626:
1540:
1189:
1133:
2483:
1621:
202:
513:
130:, stating that industrialized countries did not want to take responsibility for climate change. At the conference, Bolivia,
2602:
2505:
1456:
1451:
544:
300:
preemptive judgments invalidate the idea because they over-simplify complex ethical, historical, and political realities.
1986:
1764:
1582:
1509:
1499:
1482:
1389:
1196:
279:
The earliest group of nations to propose the ideas that would become the foundation of the climate debt argument was the
1514:
304:
the world, such as the inventions of governments, philosophies, and technologies that have benefitted the entire world.
2415:
2276:
2233:
1729:
372:
269:
2342:
2218:
2035:
1233:
457:
2575:
2213:
2193:
2140:
2092:
1149:
2332:
2283:
1709:
1671:
1616:
1081:
280:
194:
countries and also through spending resources in aiding poorer countries to better cope with natural disasters.
2597:
2400:
1684:
1436:
576:
2510:
2045:
1577:
257:
83:
2493:
2165:
1694:
1689:
1594:
1466:
1023:
1704:
1552:
2563:
2327:
2130:
2087:
1860:
1782:
1636:
2432:
2107:
2082:
2055:
2017:
1934:
1752:
1599:
1557:
1307:
1076:
1071:
1066:
679:
Khan, Mizan; Robinson, Stacy-ann; Weikmans, Romain; Ciplet, David; Roberts, J. Timmons (2020-07-01).
1947:
2442:
2437:
2427:
2368:
2208:
1714:
1679:
1567:
1494:
1335:
1164:
1100:
1061:
67:
44:
620:
2551:
2473:
2383:
2125:
2097:
1777:
1431:
1409:
1016:
94:
a debt for their contributions to climate change. Support from nations soon followed. During the
2150:
1970:
1912:
1829:
1814:
1699:
1340:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
2539:
2185:
2062:
1870:
1325:
1248:
328:
918:
841:
433:
2378:
2256:
1917:
1487:
1414:
692:
32:
8:
2395:
2170:
1399:
1394:
761:
273:
36:
696:
283:. Most of the Least Developed Countries were early to support these ideas as well.
2223:
2155:
2072:
1922:
1887:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1404:
956:
938:
899:
648:
235:
739:"Ecological Debt and Historical Responsibility Revisited - The Case of Climate Change"
2457:
2120:
1865:
1631:
1419:
1382:
1169:
1123:
942:
903:
891:
710:
652:
640:
413:
396:
341:
215:
their industrialization process, placing a burden on their development and survival.
127:
2500:
2067:
2050:
1991:
1882:
1646:
1365:
1238:
1174:
930:
883:
700:
632:
887:
2452:
2373:
2337:
2266:
2240:
2228:
2145:
2077:
1952:
1809:
1426:
1377:
1355:
636:
336:
261:
157:
and the Rights of Mother Earth and reached the People's
Agreement, which states:
51:
871:
2405:
2261:
2203:
2198:
2040:
1929:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1504:
1441:
1179:
1159:
1118:
1039:
705:
680:
346:
40:
16:
2591:
2478:
2410:
2135:
1957:
1942:
1877:
1772:
934:
895:
714:
644:
219:
206:
World fossil carbon dioxide emissions of six top countries and confederations
514:"Climate debt: The basis of a fair and effective solution to climate change"
2363:
2160:
1794:
1446:
1330:
1243:
919:"Decolonizing the Atmosphere: The Climate Justice Movement on Climate Debt"
91:
87:
480:
World People's
Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth
2390:
1907:
1899:
1154:
95:
39:
for the damage caused by their disproportionately large contributions to
681:"Twenty-five years of adaptation finance through a climate justice lens"
2422:
1799:
475:
1372:
182:
147:
143:
115:
139:
135:
54:. It has received increased attention since its submission to the
1350:
1008:
983:"In Defense of Climate Debt Ethics: A Response to Olivier Godard"
787:"Everyone in the US and Australia owes $ 12,000 in CO2 emissions"
111:
82:
The concept of climate debt was first introduced in the 1990s by
59:
625:
2358:
621:"On the concept of climate debt: its moral and political value"
181:
Scientists and researchers cite that as a result of the rising
123:
50:
The concept of climate debt is part of the broader concept of
2272:
Cooperative
Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
1360:
119:
24:
emissions by country measured between the years 1950 and 2000
153:
In 2010, Bolivia and other developing countries hosted the
131:
678:
394:
2448:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
397:"Who owes who? Climate change, debt, equity and survival"
234:
nations vowed support and financial contributions to the
231:
817:"Green fund pledges at G20 may herald climate consensus"
292:
significant financial support to developing countries.
2289:
United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
458:"Bolivia provides resistance and hope at Brokenhagen"
318:
762:"Who has contributed most to global CO2 emissions?"
20:Cumulative per capita anthropogenic atmospheric CO
2589:
2489:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
619:Pickering, Jonathan; Barry, Christian (2012).
618:
1229:History of climate change policy and politics
1024:
108:2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference
86:. Advocates of climate debt claimed that the
56:2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference
923:The Journal of Environment & Development
418:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1346:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
961:World People's Conference on Climate Change
577:"Is the 'climate debt' discussion helpful?"
155:World People's Conference on Climate Change
2570:
2558:
2015:
1031:
1017:
2310:
2116:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
1254:United Nations Climate Change conferences
980:
916:
876:Review of International Political Economy
704:
1820:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
542:
201:
62:, sought the repayment of climate debt.
15:
2176:National Adaptation Programme of Action
1965:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
574:
218:Data shows that since around 1750, the
2590:
1825:Economics of climate change mitigation
1788:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
1306:
1134:Scientific consensus on climate change
869:
736:
241:
2484:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
2309:
2014:
1750:
1305:
1217:
1098:
1050:
1012:
865:
863:
861:
810:
808:
806:
732:
730:
728:
726:
724:
674:
672:
670:
668:
666:
664:
662:
58:, where developing countries, led by
2506:Representative Concentration Pathway
1452:Tipping points in the climate system
1128:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
839:
614:
612:
610:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
570:
568:
566:
564:
538:
536:
534:
532:
508:
506:
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
367:
365:
363:
361:
2277:Nationally determined contributions
1987:Individual action on climate change
1197:World energy supply and consumption
395:N Robins, A Meyer, A Simms (1999).
13:
2416:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1038:
858:
840:Fund, Green Climate (2020-05-21).
814:
803:
784:
721:
659:
543:Bassetti, Francesco (2019-10-29).
264:movements in the developed world.
172:
14:
2614:
2343:Satellite temperature measurement
1948:forestry for carbon sequestration
1234:History of climate change science
593:
561:
545:"The Cruel Irony of Climate Debt"
529:
493:
358:
2569:
2557:
2546:
2545:
2533:
2194:Climate Change Performance Index
1573:Destruction of cultural heritage
917:Warlenius, Rikard (2017-12-09).
321:
197:
2333:Instrumental temperature record
2284:Sustainable Development Goal 13
974:
949:
910:
833:
778:
754:
281:Alliance of Small Island States
31:is the debt said to be owed to
2401:Climate variability and change
1751:
1437:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
468:
450:
426:
388:
84:non-governmental organizations
1:
2511:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
2046:Climate emergency declaration
888:10.1080/09692290.2017.1392336
575:Roberts, David (2009-12-17).
352:
2494:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
1720:Middle East and North Africa
1051:
870:Ciplet, David (2017-11-02).
637:10.1080/13698230.2012.727311
434:"Havana Programme of Action"
286:
126:refused the adoption of the
7:
2603:Global environmental issues
1218:
314:
10:
2619:
2328:Global surface temperature
2219:Popular culture depictions
2131:Ecosystem-based adaptation
1861:Carbon capture and storage
1783:Carbon offsets and credits
1099:
981:Warlenius, Rikard (2013).
706:10.1007/s10584-019-02563-x
250:
77:
2540:Climate change portal
2527:
2466:
2433:Extreme event attribution
2351:
2320:
2316:
2305:
2249:
2184:
2106:
2056:School Strike for Climate
2028:
2024:
2010:
1979:
1935:Climate-smart agriculture
1896:
1853:
1763:
1759:
1746:
1670:
1528:
1475:
1318:
1314:
1301:
1224:
1213:
1142:
1111:
1107:
1094:
1077:Climate change adaptation
1072:Climate change mitigation
1067:Effects of climate change
1057:
1046:
2443:Global warming potential
2250:International agreements
1897:Preserving and enhancing
1336:Arctic methane emissions
1258:Years in climate change
1165:Greenhouse gas emissions
1062:Causes of climate change
935:10.1177/1070496517744593
737:Godard, Olivier (2012).
68:greenhouse gas emissions
45:greenhouse gas emissions
2474:Climate change scenario
2126:Disaster risk reduction
1778:Carbon emission trading
1588:U.S. insurance industry
1563:Civilizational collapse
1410:sea surface temperature
842:"Resource Mobilisation"
462:Transnational Institute
2467:Research and modelling
2151:Nature-based solutions
1971:Nature-based solutions
1913:Carbon dioxide removal
1830:Fossil fuel divestment
1815:Climate risk insurance
1725:Small island countries
1341:Arctic sea ice decline
230:In November 2014, the
207:
164:
110:, countries including
25:
2598:Climate change policy
2428:Earth's energy budget
2311:Background and theory
2199:Climate crisis (term)
1871:Fossil fuel phase-out
1765:Economics and finance
1730:by individual country
1672:By country and region
1647:Security and conflict
1642:Psychological impacts
1326:Abrupt climate change
1249:Charles David Keeling
1082:By country and region
329:Climate change portal
205:
159:
19:
2257:Glasgow Climate Pact
1918:Carbon sequestration
1488:Mass mortality event
43:. Historical global
33:developing countries
2396:Climate sensitivity
2171:The Adaptation Fund
1627:Infectious diseases
1529:Social and economic
697:2020ClCh..161..251K
476:"Peoples Agreement"
274:environmental space
242:Political discourse
37:developed countries
1967:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
1939:Forest management
1923:Direct air capture
1888:Sustainable energy
1845:Net zero emissions
1840:Low-carbon economy
1835:Green Climate Fund
1622:Indigenous peoples
1520:Plant biodiversity
1308:Effects and issues
846:Green Climate Fund
236:Green Climate Fund
208:
26:
2585:
2584:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2458:Radiative forcing
2301:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2121:Adaptive capacity
2006:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1866:Energy transition
1742:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1457:Tropical cyclones
1383:Urban heat island
1297:
1296:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1170:Carbon accounting
1124:Greenhouse effect
1090:
1089:
963:. 6 February 2010
815:Slezak, Michael.
785:Slezak, Michael.
766:Our World in Data
342:Copenhagen Accord
128:Copenhagen Accord
2610:
2573:
2572:
2561:
2560:
2549:
2548:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2501:Paleoclimatology
2318:
2317:
2307:
2306:
2068:Ecological grief
2051:Climate movement
2026:
2025:
2012:
2011:
1992:Plant-based diet
1883:Renewable energy
1761:
1760:
1748:
1747:
1583:Economic impacts
1510:Invasive species
1366:Coastal flooding
1316:
1315:
1303:
1302:
1239:Svante Arrhenius
1215:
1214:
1185:from agriculture
1175:Carbon footprint
1160:Greenhouse gases
1109:
1108:
1096:
1095:
1048:
1047:
1033:
1026:
1019:
1010:
1009:
1004:
1003:
1001:
1000:
994:
988:. Archived from
987:
978:
972:
971:
969:
968:
953:
947:
946:
914:
908:
907:
882:(6): 1052–1075.
867:
856:
855:
853:
852:
837:
831:
830:
828:
827:
812:
801:
800:
798:
797:
782:
776:
775:
773:
772:
758:
752:
751:
749:
748:
743:
734:
719:
718:
708:
676:
657:
656:
616:
591:
590:
588:
587:
572:
559:
558:
556:
555:
540:
527:
526:
524:
523:
518:
510:
491:
490:
488:
487:
472:
466:
465:
454:
448:
447:
445:
444:
430:
424:
423:
417:
409:
407:
406:
401:
392:
386:
385:
383:
382:
377:
369:
331:
326:
325:
324:
270:economic impacts
2618:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2534:
2532:
2515:
2462:
2453:Orbital forcing
2347:
2312:
2293:
2267:Paris Agreement
2245:
2241:Warming stripes
2180:
2146:Managed retreat
2141:Loss and damage
2102:
2036:Business action
2020:
1998:
1975:
1898:
1892:
1849:
1810:Climate finance
1755:
1734:
1666:
1524:
1500:Extinction risk
1476:Flora and fauna
1471:
1432:Permafrost thaw
1427:Ozone depletion
1356:Extreme weather
1310:
1293:
1220:
1201:
1138:
1103:
1086:
1053:
1042:
1037:
1007:
998:
996:
992:
985:
979:
975:
966:
964:
955:
954:
950:
915:
911:
868:
859:
850:
848:
838:
834:
825:
823:
813:
804:
795:
793:
783:
779:
770:
768:
760:
759:
755:
746:
744:
741:
735:
722:
685:Climatic Change
677:
660:
617:
594:
585:
583:
573:
562:
553:
551:
541:
530:
521:
519:
516:
512:
511:
494:
485:
483:
474:
473:
469:
456:
455:
451:
442:
440:
432:
431:
427:
411:
410:
404:
402:
399:
393:
389:
380:
378:
375:
371:
370:
359:
355:
337:Paris Agreement
327:
322:
320:
317:
289:
262:climate justice
253:
244:
200:
175:
173:Adaptation debt
80:
52:ecological debt
23:
12:
11:
5:
2616:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2567:
2555:
2543:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2408:
2406:Cloud feedback
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2361:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2314:
2313:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2264:
2262:Kyoto Protocol
2259:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2216:
2214:Media coverage
2211:
2206:
2204:Climate spiral
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2112:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2093:Public opinion
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2043:
2041:Climate action
2038:
2032:
2030:
2022:
2021:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1953:REDD and REDD+
1950:
1945:
1937:
1932:
1930:Carbon farming
1927:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1910:
1904:
1902:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1863:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1780:
1775:
1769:
1767:
1757:
1756:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1676:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1664:
1662:Water security
1659:
1657:Water scarcity
1654:
1652:Urban flooding
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1591:
1590:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1505:Forest dieback
1502:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1442:Sea level rise
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1415:stratification
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1320:
1312:
1311:
1299:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1211:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1180:Carbon leakage
1177:
1172:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1121:
1119:Climate system
1115:
1113:
1105:
1104:
1092:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1044:
1043:
1040:Climate change
1036:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1013:
1006:
1005:
973:
957:"Climate Debt"
948:
929:(2): 131–155.
909:
857:
832:
802:
777:
753:
720:
691:(2): 251–269.
658:
631:(5): 667–685.
592:
560:
528:
492:
467:
449:
425:
387:
356:
354:
351:
350:
349:
347:Kyoto Protocol
344:
339:
333:
332:
316:
313:
288:
285:
252:
249:
243:
240:
199:
196:
178:contribution.
174:
171:
79:
76:
41:climate change
21:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2615:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2578:
2577:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2530:
2529:
2526:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2479:Climate model
2477:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2411:Cloud forcing
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2304:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2186:Communication
2183:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2166:Vulnerability
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2136:Flood control
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2009:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1958:reforestation
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1943:afforestation
1941:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1878:Nuclear power
1876:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1773:Carbon budget
1771:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1610:Mental health
1608:
1607:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1547:
1546:United States
1544:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1400:deoxygenation
1398:
1396:
1395:acidification
1393:
1392:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1223:
1216:
1212:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1190:from wetlands
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1150:Deforestation
1148:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1022:
1020:
1015:
1014:
1011:
995:on 2020-11-02
991:
984:
977:
962:
958:
952:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
913:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
866:
864:
862:
847:
843:
836:
822:
821:New Scientist
818:
811:
809:
807:
792:
791:New Scientist
788:
781:
767:
763:
757:
740:
733:
731:
729:
727:
725:
716:
712:
707:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
675:
673:
671:
669:
667:
665:
663:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
615:
613:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
582:
578:
571:
569:
567:
565:
550:
546:
539:
537:
535:
533:
515:
509:
507:
505:
503:
501:
499:
497:
481:
477:
471:
464:. 2010-01-08.
463:
459:
453:
439:
435:
429:
421:
415:
398:
391:
374:
368:
366:
364:
362:
357:
348:
345:
343:
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338:
335:
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312:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
284:
282:
277:
275:
271:
265:
263:
259:
248:
239:
237:
233:
228:
224:
221:
220:United States
216:
212:
204:
198:Emission debt
195:
191:
187:
184:
179:
170:
167:
163:
158:
156:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
97:
93:
89:
85:
75:
71:
69:
63:
61:
57:
53:
48:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
18:
2574:
2562:
2550:
2531:
2364:Carbon cycle
2321:Measurements
2016:Society and
1900:carbon sinks
1805:Climate debt
1804:
1795:Carbon price
1617:Human rights
1447:Season creep
1405:heat content
1331:Anoxic event
1244:James Hansen
997:. Retrieved
990:the original
976:
965:. Retrieved
960:
951:
926:
922:
912:
879:
875:
849:. Retrieved
845:
835:
824:. Retrieved
820:
794:. Retrieved
790:
780:
769:. Retrieved
765:
756:
745:. Retrieved
688:
684:
628:
624:
584:. Retrieved
580:
552:. Retrieved
548:
520:. Retrieved
484:. Retrieved
482:. 2010-01-05
479:
470:
461:
452:
441:. Retrieved
437:
428:
403:. Retrieved
390:
379:. Retrieved
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
278:
266:
254:
245:
229:
225:
217:
213:
209:
192:
188:
180:
176:
168:
165:
160:
152:
105:
92:Global South
88:Global North
81:
72:
64:
49:
29:Climate debt
28:
27:
2391:Carbon sink
2369:atmospheric
2234:video games
1908:Blue carbon
1536:Agriculture
1515:Marine life
1462:Water cycle
1420:temperature
1155:Fossil fuel
438:www.g77.org
96:Group of 77
2592:Categories
2423:Cryosphere
2384:permafrost
2156:Resilience
2108:Adaptation
2083:Litigation
2073:Governance
2018:adaptation
1800:Carbon tax
1753:Mitigation
1690:Antarctica
1578:Disability
999:2020-10-30
967:2020-10-30
851:2020-10-30
826:2020-10-30
796:2020-10-30
771:2020-10-30
747:2020-10-30
586:2020-10-30
554:2020-10-30
522:2020-10-30
486:2020-10-30
443:2020-10-30
405:2020-10-30
381:2020-10-29
353:References
183:sea levels
66:amount of
2438:Feedbacks
2209:Education
1710:Caribbean
1705:Australia
1632:Migration
1595:Fisheries
1541:Livestock
1467:Wildfires
1373:Heat wave
943:158837319
904:158416196
896:0969-2290
715:1573-1480
653:144693329
645:1369-8230
549:Foresight
287:Criticism
148:Venezuela
144:Nicaragua
116:Venezuela
90:owes the
2564:Glossary
2552:Category
2374:biologic
2088:Politics
1980:Personal
1685:Americas
1553:Children
1319:Physical
1112:Overview
1052:Overview
414:cite web
315:See also
140:Honduras
136:Dominica
2379:oceanic
2229:fiction
2078:Justice
2029:Society
1637:Poverty
1351:Drought
1219:History
1143:Sources
693:Bibcode
251:Support
112:Bolivia
106:At the
78:History
60:Bolivia
2359:Albedo
2352:Theory
2063:Denial
1854:Energy
1715:Europe
1695:Arctic
1680:Africa
1605:Health
1600:Gender
1558:Cities
1483:Biomes
1390:Oceans
1378:Marine
1101:Causes
941:
902:
894:
713:
651:
643:
146:, and
124:Tuvalu
122:, and
101:UNFCCC
2576:Index
2338:Proxy
2098:Women
1568:Crime
1495:Birds
1361:Flood
993:(PDF)
986:(PDF)
939:S2CID
900:S2CID
742:(PDF)
649:S2CID
581:Grist
517:(PDF)
400:(PDF)
376:(PDF)
120:Sudan
2161:Risk
1700:Asia
1287:2024
1282:2023
1277:2022
1272:2021
1267:2020
1262:2019
892:ISSN
711:ISSN
641:ISSN
420:link
260:and
258:NGOs
132:Cuba
2224:art
931:doi
884:doi
701:doi
689:161
633:doi
232:G20
35:by
2594::
959:.
937:.
927:27
925:.
921:.
898:.
890:.
880:24
878:.
874:.
860:^
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764:.
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709:.
699:.
687:.
683:.
661:^
647:.
639:.
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627:.
623:.
595:^
579:.
563:^
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717:.
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655:.
635::
589:.
557:.
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489:.
446:.
422:)
408:.
384:.
22:2
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
