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1151:, which flows north of the citadel. The location of the river also offered protection against attack from that side of the citadel. The Nahr Aqrabani, a canal branching off the Barada, flowed immediately below the northern wall and provided additional protection. The dry moats on the other sides of the citadel could be filled from these streams. Another branch of the Barada, the Nahr Banyas, entered the city under the citadel. Hydraulic structures below that made control of the flow of water into Damascus possible from within the citadel were probably constructed under Al-Adil. The citadel was fully integrated into the defences of Damascus, with the city walls abutting the citadel on its southwest and northeast corners.
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to the collapse of the western defences of the citadel, with the western towers not being rebuilt afterwards. The central northern tower, which once housed the north gate of the citadel, and the southwest corner tower have also largely disappeared. Of the former, only the west wall remains while of the southwest tower only parts of the basement can still be seen. The other 10 towers have been preserved up to their original height, which ranges between 15 and 25 metres (49 and 82 ft). The northern corner towers are square while the southern ones are L-shaped. All the other towers are rectangular with their broad sides parallel to the walls of the citadel. All towers are crowned by a double
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the east wall to 43 metres (141 ft) for the curtain wall connecting the northwest corner tower with the next tower east of it. Where the walls are preserved up to their original height, which is on the south side of the citadel, they measure 11.5 metres (38 ft), while their thickness ranges between 3.65–4.90 metres (12.0–16.1 ft). Along the inside of the curtain walls ran vaulted galleries that allowed quick access to all parts of the citadel. These galleries had arrowslits from which an approaching enemy could be shot. The walls were crowned by a walkway that was protected by
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Ayyubid citadel encloses an uneven rectangular area of 230 by 150 metres (750 by 490 ft). The outer walls, constructed by Al-Adil, were pierced by three gates and originally protected by 14 towers, although only 12 of these remain. Except for the western part of the curtain wall, the defensive works of the citadel that are still standing are primarily of
Ayyubid date, with extensive Mamluk restorations. The walls are partly obscured from sight by the urban fabric of Damascus, which has encroached upon the citadel during the 19th and 20th centuries. The shops along the north side of the
906:, Damascus, except for the citadel, changed hands to the Mongols in 1300. The Mongols besieged the citadel and set up a trebuchet in the court of the Umayyad Mosque, but they withdrew from Damascus before the citadel could be taken. In the following decades, extensive reconstruction work took place on the citadel. The damage done to the citadel during the siege, primarily on its east side, was repaired. The mosque was reconstructed and enlarged, the towers were repaired, and the Blue Dome was covered with lead plates as the tiles themselves had been destroyed.
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1025:, who opposed Ottoman overlordship, invaded Syria in 1771, the city of Damascus surrendered to him without a fight, except for the citadel. Ali Bey withdrew after a short siege. Two further sieges took place in 1787 and 1812, both successful and both initiated because the citadel's garrison had revolted against the governor of Damascus. The last siege of the citadel took place in 1831. In that year, the citizens of Damascus and the local garrison of Janissaries revolted against governor
752:. In that year, Saladin rode from Egypt past the Crusader states to Damascus with only 700 horsemen. The city opened its gates to Saladin without resistance, except for the citadel, which surrendered to him later that year. Saladin added a tower to the citadel and refurbished the residential buildings. Like his predecessor Nur ad-Din, Saladin died of an illness in the citadel on 4 March 1193. He was initially buried inside the citadel, but later reburied in a
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1018:—Ottoman infantry units. In 1738 and in 1746, they were involved in conflicts with the governors of Damascus; the Janissaries temporarily lost control of the citadel in 1746. The north gate of the citadel collapsed in 1752, and sustained heavy damage due to a severe earthquake in 1759. According to contemporary accounts, both the western and southern walls collapsed, but the damage was quickly repaired in 1761.
982:. The citadel was bombarded by trebuchet and cannon. The siege ended when a treaty of surrender was signed. In 1461, the southwest tower collapsed in a fire when missiles were fired from it to force the rebellious governor of Damascus to leave the city. This tower and four others were rebuilt in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, indicating that the repairs of 1407 had been carried out in haste.
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analysis carried out between 2002 and 2006, it has been shown that it predates Al-Adil's refortification of the citadel and must have been an addition to the defences of the Seljuq citadel. The function of this building after it was incorporated into Al-Adil's new walls, and thus after losing its defensive function, remains unclear as the archaeological analysis did not reveal any
1065:, the Ottoman authorities fled and left Damascus in the control of a committee of citizens. The newly appointed Ottoman military governor released 4,000 prisoners from the citadel, who subsequently started pillaging and killing sick and disabled Ottoman soldiers who had been left behind in the city. These riots only stopped with the entrance into the city of the
1014:, a Mamluk who had submitted to Selim I. When Selim I died in 1520, al-Ghazali revolted and took the citadel. He marched upon Aleppo to expand his realm, but had to retreat and was eventually defeated and killed in the vicinity of Damascus in 1521. Damascus again changed hands, to the Ottomans. From 1658 onward, the citadel was controlled by the
1087:, the area immediately south of the citadel—where Syrian rebels were supposed to be present—from positions in the hills to the north of the city, and from the citadel itself. This bombardment resulted in widespread destruction. After the French Mandate period, the citadel continued to serve as a prison and barracks until 1986.
1045:. Descriptions and photographs of the citadel by nineteenth-century European travellers indicate that the defences remained in relatively good shape until 1895, but that the structures inside the walls were reduced to complete ruins. In 1895, substantial damage was done to the citadel because it was quarried for stone to build
1122:. This mission started working in the citadel in 2007. Much attention will be given to the reinforcement of damaged or structurally weak parts in the architecture. It is expected by the Syrian–Italian mission that, once renovations are finished, the citadel will be used for cultural and social events and activities.
787:, ruler of Aleppo, allied themselves against Al-Adil and marched on Damascus. Al-Afdal and Az-Zahir besieged Damascus in 1200 and 1201, but both attempts were unsuccessful. Al-Adil eventually negotiated a peace with Al-Afdal and Az-Zahir, who recognized Al-Adil's suzerainty as sultan of Egypt and emir of Damascus.
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The citadel erected under the
Seljuqs occupied an area measuring 210 by 130 metres (690 by 430 ft). Parts of the Seljuq walls were integrated in the rebuilding undertaken by Al-Adil. In this way, a second inner ring of defence was provided, as Al-Adil's walls enclosed a slightly larger area. The
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in 1260. When the Mongol army left
Damascus to quell rebellions in the countryside, the Ayyubid garrison of the citadel revolted, as they had been instructed to do by An-Nasir. In response, the Mongols besieged the citadel in 1260. The garrison surrendered after heavy bombardments and without hope of
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has disappeared and a street now runs through the western arch that still survives, while the vaulted passage that led into the citadel is now used as a mosque. The east and north gate complexes were connected through a 68 metres (223 ft) long vaulted passage that can also be dated to the reign
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Today, the citadel has 12 towers. There is one tower on each corner, three in between along the north and south walls and two facing east. Originally, the citadel had two more towers on the western wall, as reported by
European travellers until 1759. The earthquake that hit Damascus in that year led
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room and from there through a long vaulted passage before reaching the courtyard. This large gate complex also incorporated the gate structures of the old Seljuq citadel. Based on stylistic evidence and inscriptions found in the citadel, the original construction of the
Ayyubid gate can be dated to
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is located, has been occupied since at least 9000 BC, but there is no evidence for settlement within the area that is today enclosed by the city walls before the 1st millennium BC. The area occupied by the later citadel was most likely outside this first settlement. The presence of a citadel during
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of the citadel connect the towers with each other. Given that during the design of the citadel so much emphasis was placed on the massive towers, the curtain walls are relatively short. They range between 10 metres (33 ft) in length for the curtain wall that connects the two central towers of
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During the rule of the Burid dynasty (1104–1154), work was carried out on the citadel in response to multiple attacks on
Damascus by Crusader and Muslim armies. In 1126, a Crusader army approached Damascus, but their advance was stopped 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the city. A second attempt by
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enclosing an area of 230 by 150 metres (750 by 490 ft). The walls were originally protected by 14 massive towers, but today only 12 remain. The citadel has gates on its northern, western and eastern flanks. The current citadel dates primarily to the
Ayyubid period while incorporating parts of
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In the southwest corner of the courtyard, built parallel to the southern wall, is a two-storey building measuring 90 by 10 metres (295 by 33 ft) and reaching a height of 16 metres (52 ft). The date of this building has long been unclear, but based on the archaeological and architectural
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After his position as sultan of Egypt and emir of
Damascus was secured, Al-Adil started an extensive rebuilding programme of the citadel. Between 1203 and 1216, the old fortifications were razed and a larger castle was built at the same location, incorporating parts of the old Seljuq citadel. The
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surrounding the citadel, and numerous closely spaced, high, massive towers. Unlike the older towers, these were square rather than round in design. The towers contained platforms on which trebuchets could be placed. Due to their high position, these trebuchets could outrange enemy artillery and
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Nur ad-Din ruled as Zengid emir of
Damascus from 1154 until his death in 1174. He took up residence in the citadel and rebuilt or refurbished its residential structures. After an earthquake hit Damascus in 1170, Nur ad-Din built a wooden house for sleeping and prayer next to the original stone
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The western gate was originally protected by two square towers that were probably built during the reign of
Baibars. After the 1759 earthquake, which led to the collapse of the western defences of the citadel, these towers were not rebuilt. Unlike the other two gates, this gate has a straight
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The citadel's three gates are located on the north, east and west sides of the citadel. The first two are the work of Al-Adil, although the northern gate has been repaired in the Mamluk period, while the current west gate is of later date. The northern gate was primarily reserved for military
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After Al-Adil's death in 1218, intense power struggles broke out among his sons and other Ayyubid princes. Between 1229 and 1246, Damascus switched hands regularly and was attacked five times by different Ayyubid armies. During this period, the citadel was only once taken by force—through
1111:(IFPO). Between 2000 and 2006, this mission carried out extensive archaeological and art-historical research in the citadel, as well as further restoration works. In celebration of these restorations, a ceremony was held on 1 July 2006 which was attended by Syrian President
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The northern gate, or Bab al-Hadid ("Iron Gate"), was built with a primary emphasis on military matters. It originally consisted of arched entrances in the east and west walls of a tower in the middle of the northern curtain wall. These entrances led to a central
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lower Ayyubid princes were each required to finance and build one of the large towers of the citadel. Several of Al-Adil's Ayyubid successors rebuilt many of the administrative and domestic structures inside the citadel, including residences, palaces, and a pool.
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matters; the eastern gate was in civic use. During the Mamluk period, the eastern gate was one of two locations, the other being the Umayyad Mosque, where official decrees were posted, and this is reflected in a number of inscriptions that have been found here.
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The eastern gate, constructed between 1213 and 1215, is the only one that opens toward the area enclosed by the city walls of Damascus. It is located in one of the citadel's square towers and protected by another tower immediately south of the gate tower and a
521:, who had succeeded the Ayyubids as rulers of Egypt, Damascus came under Mamluk rule. Except for brief periods in 1300 and 1401, when the Mongols conquered Damascus, the Mamluks controlled the citadel until 1516. In that year, Syria fell into the hands of the
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gate running through vaulted passages before reaching the courtyard. Behind it is a square hall in which four columns support a central unusually shaped dome. It incorporates a gate tower from the old Seljuq citadel. The gate lacks defensive structures like
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1911:
About the agreement between the government of the Italian Republic and the government of the Syrian Arab Republic on the financing of the initiative "Renovation and reorganization of the National Museum of Damascus and rehabilitation of the Citadel of
702:, ruler of Aleppo and the son of Zengi, threatened the besieging Crusaders, forcing them to withdraw. After unsuccessful attacks in 1150 and 1151, Nur ad-Din finally captured Damascus in 1154. The citadel was only surrendered to Nur ad-Din after
902:. The latter had a structure called the Blue Dome built in the citadel. It was the first dome in Syria that was decorated with coloured tiles on the outer surface, a tradition imported from Iran. Following the Mamluk defeat in the
894:, who succeeded Qutuz as sultan of Egypt (1260–1277). During Baibars' reign, the citadel was rebuilt and the northern wall was moved 10 metres (33 ft) to the north. More rebuilding was completed during the reigns of the sultan
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but was defeated in 1077. The Fatimids subsequently built on their victory over Atsiz and besieged Damascus in 1077 and again in 1078, but both attempts to take the city were unsuccessful. The siege of 1078 was eventually lifted by
508:. After his death, power struggles broke out between the other Ayyubid princes and although Damascus switched hands several times, the citadel was taken by force only once, in 1239. The citadel remained in Ayyubid hands until the
636:, to whom Atsiz had appealed for help. After the Fatimid besiegers had left, Tutush I took over the city and, distrusting Atsiz, had him assassinated in 1078. The construction of the citadel was finished under Tutush I.
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to Timur, except for the citadel, which Timur besieged. Towers with trebuchets were set up around the citadel and in the Umayyad Mosque. The garrison surrendered after the northwestern tower was brought down through
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in 1979. Since 1986 restoration works have been carried out by various Syrian and foreign missions with the aim of opening the citadel to the public. Until 1999, the restorations were carried out by the Syrian
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and the threat that other Ayyubid princes continued to pose toward Al-Adil. The most likely motivation is that the defences of the old citadel became obsolete due to the introduction in the 12th century of the
1159:
are built against the citadel's southern façade, while parts of the eastern defences are also obscured by buildings. The buildings that stood against the western and northern walls were cleared in the 1980s.
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captured Damascus in 1260, thereby ending Ayyubid rule in Syria. After an unsuccessful revolt broke out in the citadel, the Mongols had most of it dismantled. After the defeat of the Mongols in 1260 by the
533:—Ottoman infantry units. The citadel started to fall into disrepair in the 19th century and its last military use was in 1925, when French soldiers shelled the old city from the citadel in response to the
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The damage to the citadel, especially to its northern and western walls, was only repaired in 1407. In 1414, governor of Damascus Nawruz al-Hafizi, sought refuge in the citadel against the army of Sultan
718:, and it is possible that he also strengthened the defences of the citadel. Nur ad-Din died of an illness in the citadel on 15 May 1174 and was buried there; his body was later transferred to the
1143:. Whereas most medieval Arabic castles are located on prominent hilltops, the citadel of Damascus was built on flat ground at the same level as the rest of the city, a feature it shares with the
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Crusaders in 1129 advanced to within 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of the city before they had to retreat. Crusader incursions prompted some improvements to the castle in the 1130s by
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easily capable of reducing thick stone walls to rubble. The new citadel introduced a number of important changes to the defensive system, including higher and thicker walls, a wide
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of one of its walls—in 1239. This occurred when the citadel's garrison had been reduced to below the number needed to defend a castle of that size. Following the murder in 1250 of
1029:, who took refuge in the citadel. He was promised safe passage after a siege lasting 40 days but was murdered before he could leave the city. In 1860, Christian refugees from the
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In 2004 an agreement was signed between the DGAM and the Italian General Direction for Development Cooperation for a joint mission to renovate and reorganize the citadel and the
974:. The defenders were slaughtered and a heavy tribute was imposed on the citizens of Damascus. When they failed to deliver, the city was sacked and the Umayyad Mosque was burned.
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933:. After Yalbugha switched sides and teamed up with Barquq, Mintash was killed in 1393, leaving Damascus and its city under the control of Barquq. Also during this time, the
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captured Damascus, except for the citadel, where Al-Afdal had taken refuge. After negotiations, Al-Afdal surrendered the citadel and his titles to Al-Aziz and was exiled to
783:. Al-Adil recognized the overlordship of Al-Aziz and became ruler of Damascus. At the death of Al-Aziz in 1198, several members of Saladin's family, including Al-Afdal and
767:, Saladin's eldest son and emir of Damascus, was initially recognized by the younger sons as their overlord. However, hostilities broke out in 1194 between Al-Afdal and
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population. There was a massacre of the Christian population, many of whom sought refuge in the citadel and eventually fled the city with the help of the
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to the south, arguing that if Damascus were conquered, these states would fall as well. Crusader armies attacked Damascus a third time in 1148 during the
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residence of the citadel. In addition, he built a mosque and a fountain in the citadel. Between 1165 and 1174, Nur ad-Din re-fortified Damascus with a
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656:. During Duqaq's reign (1095–1104), additional work was carried out on the citadel. In 1096, Radwan besieged the citadel but failed to capture it.
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and is more decorated than the northern gate, which must be related to the fact that the gate faces the city. The gate is decorated with a superb
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in 1260, An-Nasir fled from Damascus, leaving the city virtually undefended. The notables of Damascus started negotiations with the Mongol ruler
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dynasties carried out modifications and added new structures to it. During this period, the citadel and the city were besieged several times by
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the older Seljuq fortress. Extensive repairs in response to sieges and earthquakes were carried out in the Mamluk and Ottoman periods.
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At Saladin's death in 1193, rival Ayyubid factions led by Saladin's sons established themselves in Egypt, Aleppo, Damascus, and Iraq.
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Die ayyūbidischen Toranlangen der Zitadelle von Damaskus. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des mittelalterlichen Festungsbauwesen in Syrien
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Street along the northern wall of the citadel, the gate in the background was once part of the northern gate of the citadel
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619:, who established himself as the ruler of the city and began the construction of the citadel. He then tried to invade the
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Possible motivations for this complete rebuilding by Al-Adil include the damage the old citadel may have sustained from
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921:. The city and the citadel were besieged several times during this period. During these sieges, both sides made use of
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period, but whether it was located on the site of the present citadel is uncertain and subject to scholarly debate.
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Berthier, Sophie (2006), "La Citadelle de Damas: les apports d'une étude archéologique", in Kennedy, Hugh (ed.),
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in Cairo, on one side and on the other side Saif al-Din Yalbugha, governor of Aleppo, and Mintash, governor of
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in 1260. Damascus now came under Mamluk influence. In the same year, Qutuz was assassinated by his commander
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1192:. These parapets surrounded and thereby protected the large platforms from which trebuchets were operated.
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During the last two decades of the 14th century, a civil war raged in the Mamluk sultanate between Sultan
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1107:(DGAM). In 1999 a joint French-Syrian mission was initiated under the supervision of the DGAM and the
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Adorni, Elisa; Venturelli, Giampiero (2010), "Mortars and Stones of the Damascus Citadel (Syria)",
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771:, Saladin's second-oldest son and Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. In 1196, Al-Aziz and Saladin's brother
525:. Damascus surrendered without a fight and from the 17th century onward the citadel functioned as
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2565:"Les chantiers de construction de la citadelle de Damas: méthodologie et résultats préliminaires"
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in 1516, Damascus and the citadel surrendered peacefully to the Ottomans. Damascus was given to
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The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the old walled city of Damascus, between the
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Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria: From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period
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rebuilt the citadel completely between 1203 and 1216 in response to the development of the
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Phillips, Jonathan (2001), "The Latin East 1098–1291", in Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.),
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being relieved by An-Nasir. The defences of the citadel were then largely dismantled.
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periods. After the assassination of Atsiz bin Uvak, the project was finished by the
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When the British and Arab forces marched on Damascus in the final year of the
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The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the city walls, between the
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1887:(in French), Ministère des affaires étrangères et européennes, archived from
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started. As of 2011, excavation and restoration efforts are still ongoing.
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The location of the current citadel was first fortified in 1076 by the
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A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the later Crusades
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The Ancient City of Damascus, including the citadel, was listed as a
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One of the bastions of the Citadel of Damascus protected by multiple
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1237:
1046:
937:, a conspiracy to overthrow Barquq, was discovered at the Citadel.
870:
629:
608:
582:
526:
479:
467:
429:
421:
41:
990:
3899:
3894:
3814:
3404:
3267:
1181:
1038:
1033:
in Lebanon spilled into Damascus, resulting in tensions with the
1003:
965:, the son of Barquq, failed to lift the siege. In 1401, the city
958:
918:
895:
891:
858:
776:
742:
590:
period is uncertain. Damascus certainly had a citadel during the
574:
513:
487:
425:
388:
380:
267:
2375:
From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260
1147:. The location of the citadel ensured that it could control the
3824:
3819:
3454:
3444:
3439:
3282:
3262:
1274:
material from which the building's use could be reconstructed.
1168:
1148:
1096:
1034:
930:
926:
910:
879:
780:
679:
653:
578:
518:
483:
437:
251:
842:. He was in control of most of Syria until the arrival of the
3429:
3414:
1255:
canopy that is now hidden because the outer door is blocked.
946:
883:
849:
When the Mongols invaded Syria and threatened Damascus after
683:
661:
624:
433:
273:
183:
45:
1052:
730:
573:
It is uncertain whether a building stood on the site of the
3977:
Buildings and structures inside the walled city of Damascus
2637:
954:
822:
707:
1163:
The walls and towers of the citadel are constructed from
994:
Detail of a wall showing a small gate and a re-used stone
1072:
French military forces occupied the citadel during the
805:
was the only successor who also modified the defences.
2519:
Wright, Quincy (1926), "The Bombardment of Damascus",
2275:, Ann Arbor: U.M.I. Dissertation Information Service,
796:
Construction by Al-Adil and dismantling by the Mongols
560:. The citadel consists of a more or less rectangular
3997:
13th-century establishments in the Ayyubid Sultanate
2355:, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp.
1227:
the period between 1210 and 1212. Most of the outer
415:
3137:
Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology
3122:
International University for Science and Technology
2394:(1964), "The Capture of Damascus, 1 October 1918",
940:
59:
Courtyard and south wall of the Citadel of Damascus
2458:The Second Crusade 1148: Disaster Outside Damascus
1597:
1595:
602:
3948:
3589:2002 West Asian Football Federation Championship
2633:Additional pictures from the restoration project
2441:Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
2186:
2008:
1171:that were quarried in the vicinity of Damascus.
2563:Bessac, Jean-Claude; Boqvist, Marianne (2005),
2189:International Journal of Architectural Heritage
2103:
2101:
1592:
1558:
1556:
1554:
826:thereby prevent them from breaching the walls.
2477:The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades
2163:
1966:
1954:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1105:Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums
123:Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums
3703:
2653:
2562:
1361:
1359:
486:armies. In 1174, the citadel was captured by
2480:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.
2293:, Berkeley: University of California Press,
2098:
1551:
30:
2345:
2324:
1978:
1936:
1835:
1637:
1413:
1090:
3962:Buildings and structures completed in 1216
3957:Buildings and structures completed in 1076
3710:
3696:
2660:
2646:
2434:
2413:
2352:The Second Crusade: Scope and Consequences
1661:
1509:
1485:
1356:
857:; the city was handed over to his general
639:
2580:
2505:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2372:
2311:(in German), Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert,
2270:
2157:
2107:
2092:
2080:
2068:
2056:
2044:
2032:
2020:
1996:
1948:
1805:
1769:
1757:
1745:
1733:
1721:
1697:
1685:
1673:
1649:
1625:
1613:
1601:
1586:
1574:
1562:
1533:
1521:
1497:
1461:
1449:
1389:
1365:
1350:
1053:World War I and the French Mandate period
2596:
2497:
2473:
2390:
2286:
2234:
2169:
2130:
2128:
1984:
1972:
1960:
1846:
1817:
1545:
1473:
1425:
1076:period in Syria (1920–1946). During the
989:
961:. A Mamluk army from Egypt under Sultan
869:
729:
698:ended within a week when an army led by
2947:Syriac Catholic Cathedral of Saint Paul
2455:
2306:
2145:
2119:
1437:
3949:
2942:Cathedral of Our Lady of the Dormition
2518:
1829:
1240:running between these towers. It is a
1130:
3691:
3142:Higher Institute of Music in Damascus
2641:
2521:American Journal of International Law
2420:A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages
2252:
2214:
2134:
2125:
1793:
1781:
1709:
1401:
1377:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1302:
1262:
725:
568:
3967:Buildings and structures in Damascus
3717:
3152:National Institute of Administration
2872:Ibn 'Arabi Mosque (Salimiyya Mosque)
4002:Establishments in the Seljuk Empire
2627:List of publications on the citadel
405:
31:
13:
3147:Higher Institute for Dramatic Arts
2556:
2330:The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
1109:Institut français du Proche-Orient
14:
4018:
2620:
2600:(1930), "La citadelle de Damas",
985:
3923:
3672:
3671:
2983:Syriac Cathedral of Saint George
2423:, New York: Charles Scribner's,
1195:
1125:
941:Siege by Timur and its aftermath
865:
577:before the 11th century AD. The
53:
2290:Arab Historians of the Crusades
2221:, Occidental: Solipsist Press,
2179:
2151:
2139:
2113:
2086:
2074:
2062:
2050:
2038:
2026:
2014:
2002:
1990:
1942:
1930:
1902:
1875:
1852:
1823:
1811:
1799:
1787:
1775:
1763:
1751:
1739:
1727:
1715:
1703:
1691:
1679:
1667:
1655:
1643:
1631:
1619:
1607:
1580:
1568:
1539:
1527:
1515:
1503:
1491:
1479:
1467:
1455:
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
998:After the Mamluk defeat by the
945:In 1400, the Mongol army under
632:, brother of the Seljuq sultan
603:Construction of the old citadel
2373:Humphreys, R. Stephen (1977),
1864:, UNESCO World Heritage Centre
1395:
1383:
1371:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1296:
886:, defeated the Mongols in the
790:
597:
470:. The emirs of the subsequent
1:
3982:Ayyubid architecture in Syria
3629:January 2012 al-Midan bombing
3132:Arab International University
2569:Arquelogía de la Arquitectura
1289:
646:Abu Nasr Shams al-Muluk Duqaq
4007:Military history of Damascus
3604:2008 Arab Capital of Culture
2784:Al-Shamiyah al-Kubra Madrasa
2667:
2287:Gabrieli, Francesco (1984),
2009:Adorni & Venturelli 2010
1059:Sinai and Palestine Campaign
810:earthquakes in 1200 and 1201
7:
3564:International Film Festival
3206:Four Seasons Hotel Damascus
3097:National Museum of Damascus
3059:Sulayman Pasha Caravansarai
2897:Sulaymaniyya Takiyya Mosque
2743:Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
2307:Hanisch, Hanspeter (1996),
1915:, DGAM/DGCS, archived from
1277:
1120:National Museum of Damascus
904:Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
416:
10:
4023:
3181:Bakdash (ice cream parlor)
2257:, Milton Park: Routledge,
1884:Présentation de la mission
1069:troops on 1 October 1918.
913:, who had established the
581:, the wider area in which
290:UNESCO World Heritage Site
3932:
3921:
3725:
3667:
3483:
3390:
3342:
3298:
3291:
3255:
3214:
3173:
3157:Damascus Community School
3127:Syrian Private University
3117:Syrian Virtual University
3102:Al-Assad National Library
3087:
3041:
2995:
2973:
2955:
2922:
2915:
2847:
2771:
2675:
2444:, London: G.P. Putnam's,
2408:10.1080/00263206408700005
2201:10.1080/15583050903121851
1174:
370:
365:
361:
357:
347:
337:
322:
314:
306:
296:
287:
280:
257:
243:
235:
221:
213:
208:
200:
190:
129:
118:
113:
105:
68:
64:
52:
39:
28:
23:
16:Castle in Damascus, Syria
3311:Al-Fayhaa Sports Complex
3054:As'ad Pasha Caravansarai
2714:Grand Serail of Damascus
2582:10.3989/arq.arqt.2005.85
2271:Chevedden, Paul (1986),
1861:Ancient City of Damascus
1284:List of castles in Syria
1212:
1091:Restoration and research
1043:Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri
301:Ancient City of Damascus
3609:2008 Arab League summit
3594:2004 WABA Champions Cup
3559:World Military Cup 1977
3161:Lycée Charles de Gaulle
3042:Souqs and caravanserais
2932:Chapel of Saint Ananias
2614:10.3406/syria.1930.3486
2456:Nicolle, David (2009),
2332:, New York: Routledge,
2273:The Citadel of Damascus
2148:, pp. 31ff., 83ff.
1031:Druze-Maronite conflict
815:counterweight trebuchet
640:From Seljuqs to Zengids
539:French Mandate of Syria
506:counterweight trebuchet
217:1076–1078 and 1203–1216
169:French Mandate of Syria
90:33.511667°N 36.301944°E
3870:Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi
3865:Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi
3569:1981 Azbakiyah bombing
3335:Al-Fayhaa Sports Arena
3196:Beit al-Mamlouka Hotel
2794:Al-Mujahidiyah Madrasa
2396:Middle Eastern Studies
2377:, Albany: SUNY Press,
2122:, pp. 3ff., 83ff.
1067:Australian Light Horse
995:
875:
738:
3745:Al-Sheikh Deeb Castle
3549:International Airport
3064:Al-Harir Caravansarai
2772:Madrasas and takiyyas
2723:Nur al-Din Bimaristan
2215:Allen, Terry (1999),
993:
873:
733:
670:Shams al-Mulk Isma'il
611:was conquered by the
424:fortified palace and
3247:Yusuf al-Azma Square
3107:Damascus Opera House
2937:Chapel of Saint Paul
2839:Sulaymaniyya Takiyya
2824:Al-Zahiriyah Library
2799:Al-Qilijiyah Madrasa
2763:October War Panorama
2700:Mausoleum of Saladin
2253:Burns, Ross (2005),
2218:Ayyubid Architecture
1080:in 1925, the French
1008:Battle of Marj Dabiq
836:Al-Muazzam Turanshah
650:Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan
512:under their general
366:Garrison information
184:Syrian Arab Republic
179:United Arab Republic
95:33.511667; 36.301944
3790:Citadel of Damascus
3780:Krak des Chevaliers
3639:April 2012 bombings
3634:March 2012 bombings
3579:1992 Pan Arab Games
3554:1976 Pan Arab Games
3392:Municipal districts
3331:Al-Muhafaza Stadium
3237:Sabaa Bahrat Square
3215:Streets and squares
3112:Damascus University
3049:Jaqmaq Caravansarai
2965:Mariamite Cathedral
2819:Al-Sibaiyah Madrasa
2804:Al-Rukniyah Madrasa
2789:Al-Fathiyah Madrasa
2779:Al-Adiliyah Madrasa
2733:Hejaz Train Station
2710:Citadel of Damascus
2436:Lane-Poole, Stanley
2415:Lane-Poole, Stanley
2347:Hillenbrand, Carole
2326:Hillenbrand, Carole
2255:Damascus: A History
2083:, pp. 179, 198
2071:, pp. 179, 238
2035:, pp. 176, 231
1131:Location and layout
1100:World Heritage Site
1078:Great Syrian Revolt
1041:–Damascene notable
1012:Janbirdi al-Ghazali
888:Battle of Ain Jalut
720:Nur ad-Din Madrasah
535:Great Syrian Revolt
441:World Heritage Site
398:Citadel of Damascus
86: /
24:Citadel of Damascus
3755:Bani Qahtan Castle
3306:Abbasiyyin Stadium
2829:Nur al-Din Madrasa
2460:, Oxford: Osprey,
2172:, pp. 161–163
2160:, pp. 244–245
2047:, pp. 173–174
2023:, pp. 241–245
1975:, pp. 153–154
1963:, pp. 156–158
1939:, pp. 480–481
1808:, pp. 138–142
1772:, pp. 131–134
1760:, pp. 128–131
1748:, pp. 126–127
1736:, pp. 124–125
1724:, pp. 113–122
1712:, pp. 218–219
1700:, pp. 101–107
1664:, pp. 296–297
1640:, pp. 225–226
1628:, pp. 351–354
1604:, pp. 294–295
1536:, pp. 103–104
1512:, pp. 366–367
1380:, pp. 141–142
1263:Southwest building
1027:Mehmed Selim Pasha
1002:army under Sultan
996:
980:Al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh
876:
739:
726:Saladin to Al-Adil
569:Before the citadel
500:Saladin's brother
338:Reference no.
318:i, ii, iii, iv, vi
130:Controlled by
3944:
3943:
3915:Citadel of Tartus
3905:Qalaat al-Shaghur
3785:Citadel of Aleppo
3685:
3684:
3654:July 2012 bombing
3644:May 2012 bombings
3624:2011–2012 clashes
3386:
3385:
3316:Al-Fayhaa Stadium
3079:Al-Buzuriyah Souq
3074:Al-Hamidiyah Souq
3069:Midhat Pasha Souq
2991:
2990:
2975:Oriental Orthodox
2887:Sayyidah Ruqayyah
2834:Salimiyya Takiyya
2814:Salimiyya Madrasa
2809:Al-Sahiba Madrasa
2748:Temple of Jupiter
2738:Statue of Saladin
2512:978-0-521-34772-3
2491:978-0-19-285428-5
2467:978-1-84603-354-4
2384:978-0-87395-263-7
2366:978-0-7190-5711-3
2339:978-0-415-92914-1
2300:978-0-520-05224-6
1688:, pp. 98–100
1157:Al-Hamidiyah Souq
882:sultan of Egypt,
851:conquering Aleppo
704:Mujir ad-Din Abaq
696:siege of Damascus
666:Taj al-Muluk Buri
621:Fatimid Caliphate
414:
394:
393:
262:Siege of Damascus
4014:
3972:Castles in Syria
3938:Castles in Syria
3927:
3719:Castles in Syria
3712:
3705:
3698:
3689:
3688:
3675:
3674:
3614:2008 car bombing
3326:Tishreen Stadium
3321:Al-Jalaa Stadium
3296:
3295:
3201:Blue Tower Hotel
2957:Eastern Orthodox
2920:
2919:
2690:Khan As'ad Pasha
2662:
2655:
2648:
2639:
2638:
2616:
2593:
2584:
2551:
2515:
2499:Runciman, Steven
2494:
2470:
2452:
2431:
2410:
2387:
2369:
2342:
2321:
2303:
2283:
2267:
2249:
2231:
2211:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2132:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1937:Hillenbrand 2000
1934:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1676:, pp. 97–98
1671:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1652:, pp. 85–95
1647:
1641:
1638:Hillenbrand 2000
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1616:, pp. 67–77
1611:
1605:
1599:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1577:, pp. 59–61
1572:
1566:
1560:
1549:
1548:, pp. 81–82
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1500:, pp. 49–51
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1464:, pp. 45–47
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1414:Hillenbrand 2001
1411:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1145:Citadel of Bosra
1023:Ali Bey of Egypt
963:Faraj ibn Barquq
900:Al-Ashraf Khalil
898:(1279–1290) and
700:Nur ad-Din Zangi
419:
409:
407:
377:Nur ad-Din Zangi
333:
204:Partially ruined
159:Mamluk Sultanate
114:Site information
101:
100:
98:
97:
96:
91:
87:
84:
83:
82:
79:
57:
48:
34:
33:
21:
20:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4012:
4011:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3928:
3919:
3880:Qulay'ah Castle
3875:Qasr Ibn Wardan
3860:Qalaat al-Madiq
3795:Citadel of Homs
3740:Castle of al-Al
3721:
3716:
3686:
3681:
3663:
3487:
3479:
3382:
3338:
3287:
3251:
3210:
3186:Bawabet Dimashq
3169:
3089:
3083:
3037:
2987:
2969:
2951:
2911:
2843:
2767:
2758:Al-Shaab Palace
2753:Tishreen Palace
2695:Straight Street
2678:other landmarks
2677:
2671:
2666:
2623:
2559:
2557:Further reading
2554:
2533:10.2307/2188917
2513:
2492:
2468:
2385:
2367:
2340:
2319:
2301:
2265:
2247:
2229:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2156:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2099:
2091:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2043:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1922:
1920:
1919:on 27 July 2011
1908:
1907:
1903:
1894:
1892:
1891:on 22 June 2011
1881:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1865:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1845:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1816:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1740:
1732:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1662:Lane-Poole 1901
1660:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1593:
1585:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1561:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1510:Lane-Poole 1906
1508:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1486:Lane-Poole 1906
1484:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1400:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1364:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1280:
1265:
1215:
1198:
1177:
1165:carbonate rocks
1133:
1128:
1113:Bashar al-Assad
1093:
1055:
988:
943:
868:
798:
793:
750:sultan of Egypt
728:
716:concentric wall
688:Crusader states
642:
605:
600:
571:
495:sultan of Egypt
387:
383:
379:
372:
327:
292:
271:
265:
193:the public
192:
182:
177:
174:Syrian Republic
172:
167:
162:
157:
154:Ayyubid dynasty
152:
147:
142:
137:
94:
92:
88:
85:
80:
77:
75:
73:
72:
60:
40:
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4020:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3992:Forts in Syria
3989:
3987:Ruins in Syria
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3942:
3941:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3922:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3912:
3910:Qal'at Sukkara
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3845:Palmyra Castle
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3810:Khariba Castle
3807:
3805:Al-Kahf Castle
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3760:Bourzey castle
3757:
3752:
3750:Areimeh Castle
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3715:
3714:
3707:
3700:
3692:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3495:
3493:
3490:List of rulers
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3396:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3362:
3360:Al-Muhafaza SC
3357:
3352:
3346:
3344:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3302:
3300:
3293:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3242:Umayyad Square
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3222:Baghdad Street
3218:
3216:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3165:Shami Hospital
3162:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3093:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3008:Bab al-Jabiyah
3005:
3003:Bab al-Faradis
2999:
2997:
2996:Historic gates
2993:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2979:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2961:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2712:
2707:
2705:Umayyad Mosque
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2685:Al-Azem Palace
2681:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2665:
2664:
2657:
2650:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2630:
2622:
2621:External links
2619:
2618:
2617:
2598:Sauvaget, Jean
2594:
2575:(4): 237–249,
2558:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2527:(2): 263–280,
2516:
2511:
2495:
2490:
2471:
2466:
2453:
2432:
2411:
2392:Kedourie, Elie
2388:
2383:
2370:
2365:
2343:
2338:
2322:
2317:
2304:
2299:
2284:
2268:
2263:
2250:
2245:
2232:
2227:
2212:
2195:(4): 337–350,
2183:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2162:
2158:Chevedden 1986
2150:
2138:
2124:
2112:
2108:Chevedden 1986
2097:
2093:Chevedden 1986
2085:
2081:Chevedden 1986
2073:
2069:Chevedden 1986
2061:
2057:Chevedden 1986
2049:
2045:Chevedden 1986
2037:
2033:Chevedden 1986
2025:
2021:Chevedden 1986
2013:
2001:
1999:, pp. 3–4
1997:Chevedden 1986
1989:
1977:
1965:
1953:
1949:Chevedden 1986
1941:
1929:
1901:
1874:
1851:
1834:
1822:
1810:
1806:Chevedden 1986
1798:
1786:
1774:
1770:Chevedden 1986
1762:
1758:Chevedden 1986
1750:
1746:Chevedden 1986
1738:
1734:Chevedden 1986
1726:
1722:Chevedden 1986
1714:
1702:
1698:Chevedden 1986
1690:
1686:Chevedden 1986
1678:
1674:Chevedden 1986
1666:
1654:
1650:Chevedden 1986
1642:
1630:
1626:Humphreys 1977
1618:
1614:Chevedden 1986
1606:
1602:Chevedden 1986
1591:
1587:Chevedden 1986
1579:
1575:Chevedden 1986
1567:
1563:Humphreys 1977
1550:
1538:
1534:Humphreys 1977
1526:
1522:Humphreys 1977
1514:
1502:
1498:Chevedden 1986
1490:
1478:
1466:
1462:Chevedden 1986
1454:
1450:Chevedden 1986
1442:
1430:
1418:
1406:
1394:
1390:Chevedden 1986
1382:
1370:
1366:Chevedden 1986
1355:
1351:Chevedden 1986
1343:
1331:
1319:
1307:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1279:
1276:
1264:
1261:
1214:
1211:
1197:
1194:
1186:machicolations
1184:equipped with
1176:
1173:
1141:Bab al-Jabiyah
1137:Bab al-Faradis
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1092:
1089:
1074:French Mandate
1054:
1051:
987:
986:Ottoman period
984:
951:subdued Aleppo
942:
939:
925:, trebuchets,
867:
864:
840:An-Nasir Yusuf
803:As-Salih Ayyub
797:
794:
792:
789:
785:Az-Zahir Ghazi
769:Al-Aziz Uthman
758:Umayyad Mosque
727:
724:
692:Second Crusade
682:of Aleppo and
641:
638:
617:Atsiz ibn Uwaq
604:
601:
599:
596:
570:
567:
558:Bab al-Jabiyah
554:Bab al-Faradis
523:Ottoman Empire
452:Atsiz bin Uvak
392:
391:
374:
368:
367:
363:
362:
359:
358:
355:
354:
349:
345:
344:
339:
335:
334:
324:
320:
319:
316:
312:
311:
308:
304:
303:
298:
294:
293:
288:
285:
284:
282:
278:
277:
259:
255:
254:
248:Carbonate rock
245:
241:
240:
237:
233:
232:
226:Atsiz bin Uvak
223:
219:
218:
215:
211:
210:
206:
205:
202:
198:
197:
194:
188:
187:
164:Ottoman Empire
149:Zengid dynasty
139:Seljuq dynasty
134:Atsiz bin Uvak
131:
127:
126:
120:
116:
115:
111:
110:
107:
103:
102:
70:
66:
65:
62:
61:
58:
50:
49:
37:
36:
29:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4019:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3954:
3952:
3939:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3890:Sahyun Castle
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3850:Qal'at Ja'bar
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3840:Nimrod Castle
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3830:Masyaf Castle
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3820:Maniqa Castle
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3775:Chastel Rouge
3773:
3771:
3770:Chastel Blanc
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3735:Aleika Castle
3733:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3724:
3720:
3713:
3708:
3706:
3701:
3699:
3694:
3693:
3690:
3678:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3660:
3659:2017 bombings
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3649:Battle (2012)
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3619:2011 bombings
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3574:1986 bombings
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3544:Battle (1941)
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3514:Burid dynasty
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3273:Mount Qasioun
3271:
3269:
3268:Pharpar River
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3227:Marjeh Square
3225:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3174:Entertainment
3172:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3086:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3013:Bab al-Saghir
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2862:Darwish Pasha
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2718:Khadra Palace
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2658:
2656:
2651:
2649:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2604:(in French),
2603:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2571:(in French),
2570:
2566:
2561:
2560:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2478:
2472:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2368:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2341:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2318:3-88226-886-7
2314:
2310:
2305:
2302:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2285:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2264:0-415-27105-3
2260:
2256:
2251:
2248:
2246:90-04-14713-6
2242:
2238:
2233:
2230:
2228:0-944940-02-1
2224:
2220:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2184:
2171:
2170:Berthier 2006
2166:
2159:
2154:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2121:
2116:
2110:, p. 210
2109:
2104:
2102:
2095:, p. 175
2094:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2070:
2065:
2059:, p. 174
2058:
2053:
2046:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2022:
2017:
2011:, p. 337
2010:
2005:
1998:
1993:
1987:, p. 154
1986:
1985:Berthier 2006
1981:
1974:
1973:Berthier 2006
1969:
1962:
1961:Berthier 2006
1957:
1951:, p. 167
1950:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1905:
1890:
1886:
1885:
1878:
1863:
1862:
1855:
1849:, p. 153
1848:
1847:Berthier 2006
1843:
1841:
1839:
1832:, p. 264
1831:
1826:
1819:
1818:Kedourie 1964
1814:
1807:
1802:
1796:, p. 252
1795:
1790:
1784:, p. 248
1783:
1778:
1771:
1766:
1759:
1754:
1747:
1742:
1735:
1730:
1723:
1718:
1711:
1706:
1699:
1694:
1687:
1682:
1675:
1670:
1663:
1658:
1651:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1627:
1622:
1615:
1610:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1588:
1583:
1576:
1571:
1565:, p. 147
1564:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1547:
1546:Runciman 1987
1542:
1535:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1488:, p. 136
1487:
1482:
1475:
1474:Gabrieli 1984
1470:
1463:
1458:
1451:
1446:
1439:
1434:
1428:, p. 123
1427:
1426:Phillips 2001
1422:
1416:, p. 117
1415:
1410:
1404:, p. 155
1403:
1398:
1391:
1386:
1379:
1374:
1367:
1362:
1360:
1352:
1347:
1341:, p. 144
1340:
1335:
1329:, p. 141
1328:
1323:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1260:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1225:
1219:
1210:
1208:
1207:crenellations
1203:
1202:curtain walls
1196:Curtain walls
1193:
1191:
1188:and numerous
1187:
1183:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1158:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1126:Citadel today
1123:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
992:
983:
981:
975:
973:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
938:
936:
935:Zahiri Revolt
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
915:Burji dynasty
912:
907:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
872:
866:Mamluk period
863:
860:
856:
852:
847:
845:
841:
837:
833:
827:
824:
820:
816:
811:
806:
804:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
761:
760:in Damascus.
759:
755:
751:
748:
744:
737:
732:
723:
722:in Damascus.
721:
717:
711:
709:
705:
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697:
693:
689:
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681:
677:
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584:
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473:
469:
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461:
457:
453:
449:
444:
442:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
420:) is a large
418:
417:Qalʿat Dimašq
412:
403:
399:
390:
386:
382:
378:
375:
369:
364:
360:
356:
353:
350:
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331:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
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299:
297:Official name
295:
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283:
279:
275:
269:
263:
260:
256:
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249:
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227:
224:
222:Built by
220:
216:
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207:
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199:
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170:
165:
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155:
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145:
144:Burid dynasty
140:
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112:
108:
104:
99:
71:
67:
63:
56:
51:
47:
43:
38:
27:
22:
19:
3934:
3789:
3765:Burj al-Sabi
3519:Siege (1148)
3509:Jund Dimashq
3465:Al-Salihiyah
3400:Old Damascus
3368:Al-Shorta SC
3263:Barada River
3232:Rawda Square
3088:Culture and
3018:Bab al-Salam
2728:Maktab Anbar
2709:
2676:Historic and
2608:(1): 59–90,
2605:
2601:
2572:
2568:
2524:
2520:
2502:
2476:
2457:
2440:
2419:
2402:(1): 66–83,
2399:
2395:
2374:
2351:
2329:
2308:
2289:
2272:
2254:
2236:
2217:
2192:
2188:
2180:Bibliography
2165:
2153:
2146:Hanisch 1996
2141:
2120:Hanisch 1996
2115:
2088:
2076:
2064:
2052:
2040:
2028:
2016:
2004:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1921:, retrieved
1917:the original
1910:
1904:
1893:, retrieved
1889:the original
1883:
1877:
1866:, retrieved
1860:
1854:
1825:
1820:, p. 76
1813:
1801:
1789:
1777:
1765:
1753:
1741:
1729:
1717:
1705:
1693:
1681:
1669:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1589:, p. 65
1582:
1570:
1541:
1529:
1524:, p. 94
1517:
1505:
1493:
1481:
1476:, p. 68
1469:
1457:
1452:, p. 34
1445:
1440:, p. 78
1438:Nicolle 2009
1433:
1421:
1409:
1397:
1392:, p. 35
1385:
1373:
1368:, p. 31
1353:, p. 30
1346:
1334:
1322:
1317:, p. 85
1310:
1298:
1269:
1266:
1257:
1250:
1247:murder-holes
1234:
1232:of Al-Adil.
1220:
1216:
1199:
1178:
1162:
1153:
1149:Barada River
1134:
1117:
1094:
1071:
1056:
1020:
997:
976:
944:
923:siege towers
908:
877:
848:
828:
819:siege engine
807:
799:
762:
740:
712:
674:
658:
643:
634:Malik Shah I
606:
572:
562:curtain wall
551:
547:restorations
537:against the
499:
445:
397:
395:
258:Battles/wars
209:Site history
191:Open to
181:(1958–1961)
176:(1946–1958)
171:(1920–1946)
166:(1516–1918)
161:(1260–1516)
156:(1174–1260)
151:(1154–1174)
146:(1104–1154)
141:(1078–1104)
136:(1076–1078)
18:
3855:Qal'at Najm
3835:Montferrand
3800:Hama Castle
3599:Declaration
3504:Siege (634)
3460:Rukn al-Din
3425:Al-Shaghour
3373:Al-Wahda SC
3364:Al-Nidal SC
3350:Al-Jaish SC
3278:Salera Hill
3191:Havana Cafe
2892:Sinan Pasha
2882:Nabi Habeel
2877:Murad Pasha
2629:(in French)
1830:Wright 1926
1305:, p. 2
1063:World War I
1016:Janissaries
967:surrendered
855:Hulagu Khan
791:New citadel
598:Old citadel
588:Hellenistic
543:excavations
531:Janissaries
456:Hellenistic
352:Arab States
236:In use
93: /
69:Coordinates
3951:Categories
3730:Abu Qubays
3435:Kafr Sousa
3355:Al-Majd SC
3028:Bab Sharqi
2135:Allen 1999
1794:Burns 2005
1782:Burns 2005
1710:Burns 2005
1402:Burns 2005
1378:Burns 2005
1339:Burns 2005
1327:Burns 2005
1315:Burns 2005
1303:Burns 2005
1290:References
1229:gate tower
1190:arrowslits
373:commanders
323:Designated
239:Until 1986
81:36°18′07″E
78:33°30′42″N
3935:Also See:
3470:Muhajreen
3378:Barada SC
3090:education
3023:Bab Kisan
2591:1989-5313
2549:147129628
2450:448994737
2429:455336208
2281:640193186
1912:Damascus"
1259:passage.
1242:bent-axis
1085:Al-Hariqa
756:near the
754:mausoleum
736:bretèches
607:In 1076,
443:in 1979.
411:romanized
406:قلعة دمشق
385:Al-Adil I
272:Siege by
266:Siege by
244:Materials
230:Al-Adil I
201:Condition
32:قلعة دمشق
3885:Al-Rahba
3677:Category
3534:Protocol
3485:Timeline
3420:Al-Midan
3033:Bab Tuma
2924:Catholic
2916:Churches
2907:Yalbugha
2867:Hanabila
2669:Damascus
2501:(1987),
2438:(1906),
2417:(1901),
2328:(2000),
2209:95733766
1923:16 March
1895:16 March
1868:16 March
1278:See also
1252:muqarnas
1238:barbacan
1139:and the
1047:barracks
1039:Algerian
878:The new
765:Al-Afdal
664:rulers,
630:Tutush I
615:warlord
609:Damascus
583:Damascus
556:and the
529:for the
527:barracks
480:Crusader
468:Tutush I
450:warlord
430:Damascus
422:medieval
315:Criteria
310:Cultural
42:Damascus
3900:Shmemis
3895:Shaizar
3815:Khawabi
3475:Yarmouk
3410:Qanawat
3405:Sarouja
2902:Umayyad
2849:Mosques
2541:2188917
2482:112–140
2357:111–132
1271:in situ
1224:vaulted
1182:parapet
1082:shelled
1006:in the
1004:Selim I
1000:Ottoman
959:Baalbek
931:cannons
927:rockets
919:Malatya
896:Qalawun
892:Baibars
859:Kitbuqa
844:Mongols
779:in the
777:Salkhad
773:Al-Adil
747:Ayyubid
743:Saladin
694:. This
613:Turkman
575:citadel
519:Mamluks
514:Kitbuqa
510:Mongols
502:Al-Adil
492:Ayyubid
488:Saladin
448:Turkman
426:citadel
413::
389:Baibars
381:Saladin
330:session
270:(1260)
268:Kitbuqa
264:(1148)
186:(1961–)
3825:Margat
3584:Spring
3529:Affair
3524:Eyalet
3455:Qaboun
3450:Barzeh
3445:Dummar
3440:Mezzeh
3299:Venues
3283:Ghouta
3256:Nature
2589:
2547:
2539:
2509:
2488:
2464:
2448:
2427:
2381:
2363:
2336:
2315:
2297:
2279:
2261:
2243:
2225:
2207:
1175:Towers
1169:basalt
1097:UNESCO
1035:Muslim
972:mining
957:, and
911:Barquq
880:Mamluk
832:mining
781:Hauran
745:, the
680:atabeg
678:, the
654:Aleppo
579:Ghouta
490:, the
484:Muslim
476:Zengid
466:ruler
464:Seljuq
438:UNESCO
402:Arabic
348:Region
281:Events
276:(1401)
252:basalt
125:(DGAM)
109:Castle
3539:State
3430:Qadam
3415:Jobar
3343:Clubs
3292:Sport
2857:Aqsab
2602:Syria
2545:S2CID
2537:JSTOR
2205:S2CID
1213:Gates
1021:When
947:Timur
884:Qutuz
684:Mosul
676:Zengi
662:Burid
625:Egypt
592:Roman
472:Burid
460:Roman
434:Syria
328:(3rd
326:1979
274:Timur
214:Built
119:Owner
46:Syria
3499:Aram
2587:ISSN
2507:ISBN
2486:ISBN
2462:ISBN
2446:OCLC
2425:OCLC
2379:ISBN
2361:ISBN
2334:ISBN
2313:ISBN
2295:ISBN
2277:OCLC
2259:ISBN
2241:ISBN
2223:ISBN
1925:2011
1897:2011
1870:2011
1200:The
1167:and
955:Hama
929:and
823:moat
817:, a
708:Homs
668:and
648:and
586:the
545:and
482:and
474:and
458:and
396:The
371:Past
307:Type
228:and
106:Type
2610:doi
2577:doi
2529:doi
2404:doi
2197:doi
1061:in
623:in
428:in
196:Yes
3953::
2606:11
2585:,
2567:,
2543:,
2535:,
2525:20
2523:,
2484:,
2398:,
2359:,
2203:,
2191:,
2127:^
2100:^
1837:^
1594:^
1553:^
1358:^
1209:.
1115:.
1049:.
953:,
846:.
710:.
672:.
432:,
408:,
404::
342:20
250:,
44:,
3711:e
3704:t
3697:v
3492:)
3488:(
2661:e
2654:t
2647:v
2612::
2579::
2573:4
2531::
2406::
2400:1
2199::
2193:4
400:(
332:)
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