498:, has important physiological implications. The measurements were taken with different types of electrodes and with stimulators having unknown output impedances. The chronaxie values for human arm sensory nerves range from 0.35 to 1.17 ms, a ratio of 3.3. The values were obtained with insufficient information to establish the cause of variability. The chronaxie values for human denervated skeletal muscle ranges from 9.5 to 30 ms at body temperature, representing a ratio of 3.16. A reduction in chronaxie occurs during reinnervation. The published values for chronaxie have a wide range. If chronaxie is the best descriptor of tissue excitability in a homogeneous tissue specimen, at a known temperature, it should be determined with a constant-current stimulator providing a rectangular cathodal stimulus waveform. Chronaxie is derived from the strength-duration curve for current and it shows that if the stimulus duration is shorter than chronaxie, more current is required to stimulate, with any type or location of electrodes with a stimulator of any known or unknown output impedance. In addition, the chronaxie value, however determined, identifies the pulse duration for minimum energy. In addition, the charge delivered at chronaxie, however determined, is 2, twice the minimum charge. Therefore, if minimum charge delivery is sought to prolong the life of a battery in an implanted stimulator, a pulse duration of less than the measured chronaxie should be selected; a duration of one-tenth chronaxie provides a charge that is only 10% above the minimum charge.
46:. Chronaxie varies across different types of tissue: fast-twitch muscles have a lower chronaxie, slow-twitch muscles have a higher one. Chronaxie is the tissue-excitability parameter that permits choice of the optimum stimulus pulse duration for stimulation of any excitable tissue. Chronaxie (c) is the Lapicque descriptor of the stimulus pulse duration for a current of twice rheobasic (b) strength, which is the threshold current for an infinitely long-duration stimulus pulse. Lapicque showed that these two quantities (c,b) define the strength-duration curve for current: I = b(1+c/d), where d is the pulse duration. However, there are two other electrical parameters used to describe a stimulus: energy and charge. The minimum energy occurs with a pulse duration equal to chronaxie. Minimum charge (bc) occurs with an infinitely short-duration pulse. Choice of a pulse duration equal to 10c requires a current of only 10% above rheobase (b). Choice of a pulse duration of 0.1c requires a charge of 10% above the minimum charge (bc).
516:
stimulation. Also, sensory fibers were shown to have a lower threshold for electric stimulation. Electric stimulation of the wrist by determined that when short pulses are used (less than 200 μs), motor fibers are more readily excitable, whereas for long pulse durations (greater than 1000 μs), sensory fibers are more prone to depolarization. A related observation is that electric stimulation preferentially activates sensory fibers compared to motor fibers for long pulse durations, and the inverse for short pulse durations. For magnetic stimulation, the motor fiber threshold was lower than that for sensory fibers.
20:
494:
a macro-electrode, which in the case of humans is a 1.5 Â 1.2-mm DBS electrode. Data derived from micro-electrode stimulation and physiological mapping of sensory thalamus are scarce. The two stimulation methods may result in significantly different results. Few studies have attempted to correlate chronaxie times with sensory perception, although understanding the neural elements that are involved in a subjective percept, such as
585:, has been suggested to reduce their muscular efficiency in performing a work exercise. Dieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide once widely used in crop protection and preservation. Among the diverse symptoms resulting from intoxication are muscular twitching, increasing in severity to epileptiform convulsions with loss of consciousness.
565:
could lead to the increased excitability to mechanical stimuli unless it is that these reactions are reflexes through the proprioceptive nerves. The chronaxie, on the other hand, does not depend on the interelectrode resistance but on the time relations of the excitation process, and when the chronaxie is increased, as in
507:
of the hand. In particular, most subjects reported sensations in either the medial or lateral digits. These observations suggest that electrical stimulation may preferentially activate cutaneous afferent nerve fibers whereas magnetic stimulation may preferentially activate deeper nerves, such as the ulnar or median nerve.
534:
of denervated muscles, these expressions being related to muscle growth and atrophy, respectively. The increase in myoD levels after denervation is possibly related not only to activation and proliferation of the satellite cells but also to regulation of the cell cycle. Several studies have suggested
506:
Electric and magnetic stimulation produced different sensations. For electric stimulation, sensation was typically described as localized directly below the electrodes on the surface of the skin. For magnetic stimulation, sensation was typically described as distributed throughout the palm and digits
493:
have been established using intracellular pulses that cannot be readily extrapolated to extra- cellular stimuli. Data reported in the literature use either motor response as the physiological threshold in humans or action potential generation in animals. These are largely based on stimulation through
1032:
Kern H, Carraro U, Adami N, Biral D, Hofer C, Forstner C, Mödlin M, Vogelauer M, Pond A, Boncompagni S, Paolini C, Mayr W, Protasi F, Zampieri S (Oct 2010). "Home-based functional electrical stimulation rescues permanently denervated muscles in paraplegic patients with complete lower motor neuron
564:
between the two electrodes as well as on the state of excitability of the stimulated motor point and therefore the decrease in the rheobase in tetany might imply no more than a decrease in the electrical resistance of the skin. It is difficult to see, however, how such an alteration of resistance
484:
have chronaxie times ranging from 50 to 100 μs and 30 to 200 μs, and neuronal cell bodies and dendrites have chronaxie times ranging from 1 to 10 ms or even up to 30 ms. The chronaxie times of grey matter were reported as being 380 +/- 191 ms and 200±700 ms. Interpretations of chronaxie times are
465:, the physiological factors responsible for this change being under the influence of the autonomic nervous system. This example of the preponderating influence which the condition of the skin and the underlying tissues may exert compels caution in judging the results of chronaxie measurements by
441:
which leads to a constant-charge approximation. The latter may fit well also more complex models of the excitable membrane, which take into account ion-channel gating mechanisms, as well as intracellular current flow, which may be the main contributors for deviations from both simple formulas.
529:
in denervated muscle fibers. 20 muscle contractions, induced by electrical stimulation using surface electrodes and applied on alternate days based on muscle excitability, similar to protocols used in human clinical rehabilitation, were able to reduce the accumulation of mRNA in the myoD and
515:
Other studies have compared the activation of sensory and motor fibers using electric and magnetic stimulation demonstrated through stimulation of nerve and muscle tissue that magnetic activation of intramuscular nerve fibers in the arm and leg occurs at a lower threshold than for electric
469:. A fresh and normal sartorius placed straight in a Ringer solution and stimulated through the solution without any direct contact with the electrodes is subject to give two very distinct strength-duration curves, one of them being spread over several hundredths of a second.
953:
Chronik, B. A., Recoskie, B. J., Scholl, T. J. (2009) The discrepancy between human peripheral nerve chronaxie times as measured using magnetic and electric field stimuli: the relevance to MRI gradient coil safety. Phys. Med. Biol. 54: 5965–5979. Retrieved from
65:
The above I(d) curve is usually attributed to Weiss (1901) - see e.g. (Rattay 1990). It is the most simplistic of the 2 'simple' mathematical descriptors of the dependence of current strength on duration, and it leads to Weiss' linear charge progression with d:
547:, a technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscle. Rheobase may not necessarily be the electric current of choice. Electromyography is used to diagnose neuropathies, myopathies, and neuromuscular junction diseases.
131:
Both
Lapicque's own writings and more recent work are at odds with the linear-charge approximation. Already in 1907 Lapicque was using a linear first-order approximation of the cell membrane, modeled using a single-RC equivalent circuit. Thus:
597:
selectively elevated the threshold convulsive dose of leptazol but not that of strychnine hydrochloride, indicating an anticonvulsant activity on the nervous pathway between the predominant locus of activity of leptazol and the hind limbs.
524:
The main value of chronaxie is comparing excitability across different experiments and measurements using the same standard, thus making data comparisons easier. Electrical stimulation based on chronaxie could regulate myoD
559:
of hypoparathyroidism. It must be remembered, however, that it is the rheobase which corresponds to the x.c.c. of electrical reactions and that that does show a definite reduction. The rheobase depends for its value on the
589:, which has a spinal locus of activity, causes tonic hind limb extension in mice, which is thought to be due to a removal of the effect of inhibitory interneurons on the nervous pathway to extensor muscles.
1014:
Adami et al. (2007) Permanent denervation of rat
Tibialis Anterior after bilateral sciatectomy: Determination of chronaxie by surface electrode stimulation during progression of atrophy up to one year.
38:
to stimulate a muscle or a neuron. Rheobase is the lowest intensity with indefinite pulse duration which just stimulated muscles or nerves. Chronaxie is dependent on the density of voltage-gated
303:
206:
477:
The chronaxie values for mammalian ventricles at body temperature range from 0.5 ms (human) to 2.0 to 4.1 ms (dog); this is an 8.2/1 ratio. It has been reported that large-diameter
436:
354:
126:
1124:
Natoff I. L., Reiff, B. (1967) The effect of diedrin (heod) on chronaxie and convulsion thresholds in rats and mice. Br. J. Pharmac. Chemother. 31: 197-204. Retrieved from
581:
decreases chronaxie, whereas chronic exposure to this chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide has the reverse effect. Chronic exposure of rats to the closely related epoxide,
445:
These 'subtleties' are clearly described by
Lapicque (1907, 1926 and 1931), but not too well by Geddes (2004) who emphasized the Weiss level, attributing it to Lapicque.
383:
238:
958:
569:, it means that the intensity of twice the rheobase must act on the tissues for a longer period than is normal before the excitation process is set going.
1155:
1078:"Chronaxie in tetany. The effect on the chronaxie of thyreoparathyreoidectomy, the administration of guanidin and of di-methyl guanidin"
457:
is inserted into the muscle of interest, which is then stimulated using surface current. Chronaxie values increase resulting from
1148:
561:
246:
1141:
593:, on the other hand, produces a similar tonic extension by an excitatory action predominantly on cerebral structures.
1318:
1313:
1196:
955:
1267:
976:"Electrical stimulation based on chronaxie reduces atrogin-1 and myod gene expression in denervated rat muscle"
138:
23:
Rheobase and chronaxie are points defined on the strength-duration curve for stimulus of an excitable tissue.
1125:
535:
that the function of denervation-induced myoD may be to prevent the muscle atrophy induced by denervation.
856:"Neural substrates of microstimulation-evoked tingling: a chronaxie study in human somatosensory thalamus"
395:
359:
Notice that the chronaxie (c) is not explicitly present here. Notice also that - with very short duration
308:
43:
855:
1404:
618:
72:
1272:
362:
1356:
1308:
1252:
1227:
214:
1191:
643:
1361:
1336:
905:
462:
8:
1351:
1257:
638:
1298:
1102:
1077:
1058:
936:
886:
831:
806:
782:
757:
738:
689:
677:
1341:
1288:
1107:
1050:
997:
928:
878:
874:
836:
787:
730:
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708:
681:
633:
566:
940:
890:
742:
693:
1303:
1262:
1244:
1133:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1062:
1042:
987:
920:
870:
826:
822:
818:
777:
773:
769:
720:
673:
544:
458:
31:
1347:
1020:
962:
613:
526:
956:
http://www.imaging.robarts.ca/scholl/sites/imaging.robarts.ca.scholl/files/2.pdf
1379:
1165:
486:
55:
39:
1398:
1046:
924:
386:
1111:
1054:
1001:
932:
882:
840:
807:"Has the muscular substance a longer chronaxie than the nervous substance?"
791:
734:
485:
further confounded by additional factors. The chronaxie times reported for
466:
685:
1184:
1126:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1476-5381.1967.tb01990.x/pdf
628:
623:
495:
240:
is the membrane time constant - in the 1st-order linear membrane model:
586:
992:
975:
594:
454:
19:
664:
Irnich W (1980). "The
Chronaxie Time and Its Practical Importance".
608:
590:
582:
490:
35:
1179:
1222:
1206:
578:
556:
531:
478:
1201:
1075:
481:
543:
Chronaxie and excitability values' medical application is
54:
The terms "chronaxie" and "rheobase" were first coined in
709:"The Terms "Chronaxie" and "Rheobase" are 100 Years Old"
758:"The effect of forced breathing on the motor chronaxie"
1031:
398:
365:
311:
249:
217:
141:
75:
1163:
298:{\displaystyle C{\frac {dv}{dt}}+{\frac {v}{R}}=I,}
430:
377:
348:
297:
232:
200:
120:
1396:
572:
1021:http://www.bio.unipd.it/bam/PDF/17-6/Adami.pdf
755:
1149:
903:
389:decomposition of the exponent (around d=0):
913:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
1156:
1142:
906:"Accuracy Limitations of Chronaxie Values"
804:
60:Définition expérimentale de l'excitabilité
1101:
991:
830:
781:
724:
1076:Buchanan D. N.; Garven H. S. D. (1926).
853:
706:
663:
18:
201:{\displaystyle I(d)=b/(1-e^{-d/\tau })}
1397:
973:
1137:
713:Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology
666:Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology
461:can be ascribed to a change in skin
431:{\displaystyle I(d)\approx b\tau /d}
30:is the minimum time required for an
510:
349:{\displaystyle v\equiv V-V_{rest}.}
13:
678:10.1111/j.1540-8159.1980.tb05236.x
14:
1416:
1197:Lateralization of brain function
1019:17 (6): 237-243. Retrieved from
875:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02793.x
863:European Journal of Neuroscience
726:10.1111/j.1540-8159.2009.02666.x
577:Acute intoxication of rats with
1268:Somatosensory evoked potentials
1118:
1069:
1025:
519:
42:in the cell, which affect that
1094:10.1113/jphysiol.1926.sp002343
1008:
967:
947:
897:
854:Anderson; et al. (2003).
847:
823:10.1113/jphysiol.1931.sp002806
798:
774:10.1113/jphysiol.1939.sp003761
756:Dijkstra B, Dirken MN (1939).
749:
700:
657:
555:Chronaxie is increased in the
538:
501:
448:
408:
402:
195:
165:
151:
145:
121:{\displaystyle Q(d)=Id=b(d+c)}
115:
103:
85:
79:
1:
650:
974:Freria; et al. (2007).
573:Drug interactions and toxins
62:that was published in 1909.
7:
601:
550:
34:double the strength of the
10:
1421:
1035:Neurorehabil Neural Repair
378:{\displaystyle d\ll \tau }
49:
1372:
1329:
1281:
1263:Auditory evoked potential
1243:
1236:
1215:
1172:
811:The Journal of Physiology
619:Epithelial sodium channel
472:
1047:10.1177/1545968310366129
925:10.1109/tbme.2003.820340
467:percutaneous stimulation
233:{\displaystyle \tau =RC}
16:Electrophysiology metric
1273:Visual evoked potential
1357:Long-term potentiation
1309:Postsynaptic potential
1253:Bereitschaftspotential
432:
379:
350:
299:
234:
202:
122:
24:
1192:Intracranial pressure
904:Geddes L. A. (2004).
644:Single-unit recording
562:electrical resistance
433:
380:
351:
300:
235:
203:
123:
22:
1362:Long-term depression
1337:Axoplasmic transport
639:Resting ion channels
396:
363:
309:
247:
215:
139:
73:
1352:Synaptic plasticity
1344:/Nerve regeneration
805:Lapicque L (1931).
58:'s famous paper on
44:cell's excitability
1299:Membrane potential
1164:Physiology of the
961:2014-02-07 at the
634:Potassium channels
428:
375:
346:
295:
230:
198:
118:
25:
1405:Electrophysiology
1392:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1342:Neuroregeneration
1289:Neurotransmission
993:10.1002/mus.20668
707:Irnich W (2010).
595:Diphenylhydantoin
567:parathyroidectomy
284:
271:
1412:
1304:Action potential
1282:Other short term
1245:Evoked potential
1241:
1240:
1158:
1151:
1144:
1135:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1105:
1073:
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851:
845:
844:
834:
802:
796:
795:
785:
753:
747:
746:
728:
704:
698:
697:
661:
614:Calcium channels
545:electromyography
511:Motor vs sensory
459:hyperventilation
437:
435:
434:
429:
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384:
382:
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376:
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32:electric current
1420:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1384:
1368:
1348:Neuroplasticity
1325:
1277:
1232:
1211:
1168:
1162:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1074:
1070:
1030:
1026:
1017:Basic Appl Myol
1013:
1009:
972:
968:
963:Wayback Machine
952:
948:
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898:
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848:
803:
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604:
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553:
541:
527:gene expression
522:
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328:
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216:
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185:
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74:
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52:
40:sodium channels
17:
12:
11:
5:
1418:
1408:
1407:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1380:Myelinogenesis
1376:
1374:
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1247:
1238:
1234:
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1219:
1217:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1169:
1166:nervous system
1161:
1160:
1153:
1146:
1138:
1130:
1129:
1117:
1088:(1): 115–128.
1068:
1024:
1007:
966:
946:
919:(1): 176–181.
896:
869:(3): 728–732.
846:
817:(2): 189–214.
797:
748:
719:(4): 491–496.
699:
672:(3): 292–301.
655:
654:
652:
649:
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646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
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56:Louis Lapicque
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15:
9:
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3:
2:
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1218:
1216:Primarily PNS
1214:
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1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1181:
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1177:
1175:
1173:Primarily CNS
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1087:
1083:
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1052:
1048:
1044:
1041:(8): 709–21.
1040:
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1022:
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989:
985:
981:
977:
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828:
824:
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793:
789:
784:
779:
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771:
768:(2): 109–17.
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387:Taylor series
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539:Medical use
502:Stimulation
449:Measurement
1319:Inhibitory
1314:Excitatory
762:J. Physiol
651:References
587:Strychnine
479:myelinated
1330:Long term
1294:Chronaxie
1228:Sensation
1082:J Physiol
1033:lesion".
532:atrogin-1
491:dendrites
463:impedance
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418:τ
412:≈
385:, by the
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370:≪
322:−
316:≡
219:τ
191:τ
180:−
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1399:Category
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551:Diseases
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887:S2CID
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482:axons
1258:P300
1237:Both
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489:and
487:soma
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