Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia

613:, replaced Aksumite Christian with Syriac loanwords. However, some have rejected this thesis, on the basis of the small number of inscriptions it is based on and the unlikelihood that any 6th or 7th-century sect of Christianity, especially one that used biblical literature, would have rejected Jesus' sonship. The use of the phrase "Rahmanan and his son Christ the conqueror" in inscriptions from this time owes to the use of the Syriac loanword Masīḥ. More broadly, the separation of Abraha's Himyar from the Akumsite kingdom corresponded to its greater alignment with the Christianity espoused in 3446: 475:, many of which contain Christian iconography, including large and ornate crosses, establishing a notable Christian community in the region which had produced them. For example, Ḥimà-al-Musammāt PalAr 5 contains a cross and describes a figure named "῾Abd al-Masīḥ" ("the servant of Christ"). The Christian community of Najran was also linked with Syriac Christianity and some of the clerics located at Najran were trained in Syriac monasteries. 634: 763:. Discoveries of Christian sites have also been made at Jubayl, Thaj, and finally Kilwa, the latter being the only Christian site discovered in eastern Arabia that is not either on an island or directly on the coast. Although some have dated it to the fourth century, more recently, it has been redated to the mid-7th century. 589:, besides invoking/mentioning the Messiah, Spirit, and celebrations hosted by a priest at another church. Abraha celebrated the construction of the dam by holding mass in the city church and inviting ambassadors from Rome and Persia. Later Islamic historiography also ascribes to Abraha the construction of a church at 699:. The signatory Qatari bishop of this synod was stated to have replaced an earlier bishop, pushing back the date of organized Christianity in this region to the late fourth century. The Synodicon shows that four dioceses existed in the region connected to Persia. The earliest and largest of these dioceses was 712:) and was founded during the 410 synod. It was led by the bishop Paul. The third diocese, Hajar, was founded during the Synod of 576 under Bishop Isaac. The 676 synod divided it into two, the Hajar and Hatta dioceses. During this event, Hatta became the fourth and last diocese to be founded in Qatar. Later, 315:

describes al-Harith as playing a role in the appointment of two bishops named Jacob Baradeus and Theodore, the latter being described as the bishop of ‟Hirta de Tayyaye” (the camp of the Saracens). Furthermore, it was said that al-Harith exercised authority in the "southern and countries and in the

825:

Western Arabia does not feature in episcopal lists or in ecclesiastical hagiography and until recently it has been argued that there is little concrete evidence for the presence of Christians in this region, including near Mecca and Medina. Although no Christian inscriptions are yet known from the

894:

appears to be familiar with a range of Christian beliefs in its environment in Western Arabia and presupposes a form of institutionalized Christianity in this region. The Quran is familiar with Christian religious institutions as well as authorities like the priests and overseers of the Christian

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were built and formed points of contact with Byzantine Christianity as well as allowed local Christian leaders to display their benefaction, communicate with the local population, and meet with various officials. At present, it is believed that Christianity had attained a significant presence in

667:

records, indicating the presence of many Christian communities in the area. Whereas textual records continue to mention Christian communities until the seventh century, evidence for Christian populations unearthed archaeologically additionally attests to their presence from the seventh to ninth

585:, but now these inscriptions are accompanied with crosses and references to Christ as the Messiah and the Holy Spirit. For example, one (damaged) inscription, as for example in Ist 7608 bis. Another extensive inscription, CIH 541, documents Abraha sponsoring the construction of a church at 738:

Several Christian sites have been discovered in Qatar and other Gulf countries in recent decades, and they have been dated between the sixth to ninth centuries. Unfortunately, the lack of inscriptions to accompany these discoveries have presented difficulties in dating their remains.

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Arabia by the fifth century at the latest, that its largest presence was in Southern Arabia (Yemen) prominently including the city of Najran, and that the Eastern Arab Christian community (along the Gulf coast) communicated with the Christianity of the Levant region through Syriac.

73:") to Christianity in the context of interactions with monks and other holy men, followed by renunciations of polytheism and idols. Many of these events are described as having been followed up with the construction of a church. Such descriptions appear in narratives of the bishop 537:

chronicle of the persecution and martyrdom of the Christians of Najran. This event to a significant counterattack by the Ethiopian kingdom, leading to the conquest of Himyar in 525 and the end of the Jewish leadership of southern Arabia and the beginning of Christian rule.

328:, which appealed strongly to Arabs. In turn, the Miaphysite leaders took significant interest in sending missions into the Arabian peninsula. Epigraphic evidence also suggests they sponsored a shrine of St Sergius and basilica in al-Ruṣāfa, likely during the leadership of 470:

between the fourth and sixth centuries. A Greek inscription, likely Christian, has been found north of Najran which reads "Lord, protect me." More recently, a large number of inscriptions were discovered near Najran during the 2010s and published in 2014 known as the

166:. He was said to have freed many of their members from the possession of demons, after which they began to flock to him, asking to be blessed. They ceased their idol worship, and he helped lay out the plans for the construction of a church prior to leaving. 184:

Another figure, Ahudemmeh, was said to "visit all the camps of the Arabs, instructing and teaching them in many sermons .... establishing in every tribe a priest and a deacon ... and founding churches and naming them after tribal chiefs."

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Robin, Christian; al-Ghabbān, ʿAlī Ibrāhīm; al-Saʿīd, Saʿīd Fāyiz (2014). "Inscriptions antiques de la région de Najran (Arabie Séoudite meridionale): nouveaux jalons pour l'histoire de l'écriture, de la langue et du calendrier Arabes".

266:. The establishment of this monastery likely belongs to the period of the eve of Islam, and its presence in the arid desert environment is an indication of the conversion of nomadic Arab tribes that had already taken place by that time. 503:, which describes the burning of a church and slaughtering of Abyssinians (Ethiopian Christians), claiming thousands of deaths and prisoners. These events are also discussed in several contemporary Christian sources: in the writings of 907:, the capital of the Arab Lakhmid tribe located in southern Mesopotamia, acted as a meeting point between Arabic, Syriac, and Persian. In addition, it controlled trans-Arabian commerce crossing from Mesopotamia into southern Arabia. 2719: 657:

Christianity had become present along the Eastern coast of the Arabian peninsula by the late fourth century, and shows evidence of substantial organization by the fifth century when it first appears in the records of

887:. They date from the second and fourth centuries, and some are evidently Christian. For example, UJadhGr 10 contains an inscribed cross. ArGr1 reads "Remember Petros!", which refers to a typical Christian name. 703:

mentioned at the 410 synod, led by the bishop Elijah (Elias). The last known "bishop and metropolitan of the land of Qaṭar" was named Thomas, who signed his name on the synod in 676. The second largest diocese,

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being held by the international Christian communities in starting at 410. From then on, bishops and monasteries continue to be mentioned in the Gulf by chronicles, synodic acts, hagiographies and letters all in

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Fiema, Zbigniew .T; al-Jallad, Ahmad; MacDonald, Michael C.A.; Nehmé, Laïla (2015). "Provincia Arabia: Nabataea, the Emergence of Arabic as a Written Language, and Graeco-Arabica". In Fisher, Greg (ed.).

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was approached by Aspebetos, an Arab belonging to the Persian army, to cure the ailment of his son. Upon being cured, he converted to Christianity and defected to the Romans along with his clan.

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region immediately around Mecca or Medina, this is likely due to the fact that no systematic epigraphic surveys or archaeological excavations of pre-Islamic sites have been done in these areas.

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and Syria. Inscriptions from this region disappear after 560. Abraha's influence would end up extending across the regions he conquered, including regions of eastern Arabia, central Arabia,

593:. Robin has argued that Abraha's inscriptions bear a relatively low Christology, perhaps meant to assuage the Jewish population, and their formulae resemble descriptions of Jesus in the 278:

would convert to Christianity between the fourth and sixth centuries. Conversion was often a requirement for the kings or leaders of these tribes to become clients to the Roman Empire.

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During the Ethiopian Christian period, Christianity appears to have become the official religion. Many churches began to be built. For example, the inscription RIÉ 191, discovered in

817:

The dating of these archaeological sites is contentious. The new dating suggests their construction in the Islamic era, although this view does not presently have unanimous support.

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Zellentin, Holger (2016). "Aḥbār and Ruhbān: Religious Leaders in the Qurʾān in Dialogue with Christian and Rabbinic Literature". In Neuwirth, Angelika; Sells, Michael (eds.).

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script likely dating to the fourth century. This inscription invokes the help of Jesus to aid the maternal uncle of the inscriptions author. It also uses the grammatical form

228:. The latter was discovered located on the pillars base of a basalt slab in the northern part of the "Double Church" (so-named by the excavators) at the site of Umm al-Jimal. 189: 684:(Syriac-originating term for "territory of the Qataris") around the year 225. However, this is unlikely and the document is considered a forgery by modern specialists. 3056:

Toral-Niehof, Isabel (2010). "The ʿIbād of al-Ḥīra: An Arab Christian Community in Late Antique Iraq". In Neuwirth, Angelika; Sinai, Nicolai; Marx, Michael (eds.).

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Several additional archaeological findings have been made elsewhere in the Gulf countries. In the mid-seventh century, the Patriarch of the Church of the East,

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Hoyland, Robert (2022). "ʿArabī and aʿjamī in the Qurʾān: The Language of Revelation in Muḥammad's Ḥijāz". In Donner, Fred McGraw; Hasselbach, Rebecca (eds.).

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Le royaume de Ḥimyar à l'époque monothéiste. L'histoire de l'Arabie du Sud ancienne de la fin du IVe siècle de l'ère chrétienne jusqu'à l'avènement de l'Islam

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Le royaume de Ḥimyar à l'époque monothéiste. L'histoire de l'Arabie du Sud ancienne de la fin du IVe siècle de l'ère chrétienne jusqu'à l'avènement de l'Islam

783:, a diocese was established by the name of Bet-Mazunaye in the Synod of 424 under the Bishop John. It was mentioned again at the synods of 544, 576, and 767. 553:

is said to have sent a delegation to the Najrani Christian community, and there is a fable claiming that the Christians of Najran were expelled by the caliph

609:), and made use of Trinitarian formulae, Abraha began to only describe Jesus as God's "Messiah" (but not Son) and, in aligning himself more closely with 438:. From the fifth and sixth centuries, the Miaphysite church displayed a significant interest in expanding missionary activity in the Himyarite Kingdom. 1101: 529:

related a letter from another contemporary, Mar Simeon, directed to Abbot von Gabula about the events. In addition, an anonymous author produced the

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also claims Euphemius was responsible, although he presents a different story as to how Euphemius went about introducing the religion. According to

360:. Several other inscriptions have been found at martyria whose sponsors have Arab names, including two dating to the fifth century from the site of 104:

has begun to play a significant role in the understanding of pre-Islamic Arabian Christianity. Recent years have witnessed discoveries of Christian

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Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2020). "The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia: Context for the Qur'an". In Shah, Mustafa; Haleem, M.A.S. Abdel (eds.).

605:.) Whereas Abraha's predecessor more explicitly denoted Jesus as the Son of Rahmanan and as "Victor" (corresponding to Aksumite description under 914:, was a site of Aramaic-Arabic bilingualism. Furthermore, two of the three Arabic inscriptions from pre-Islamic Syria also contain a Greek text. 725: 41:, especially from the north due to the missionary activities of Syrian Christians and the south due to the entrenchment of Christianity with the 849:

which originated among Arabian Christians. Christians may have used this uncontracted form as an isomorphism or calque for the Greek expression

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sources, Christianity was introduced by a merchant named Hannan or Hanyan who began by converting his family, and then the rest of the peoples.

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to convert the people to Christianity. According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital

2549:"The lost churches of the Arabian Gulf: recent discoveries on the islands of Sir Bani Yas and Marawah, Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates" 903:

Multiple Christian cities north of the Arabian peninsula acted as contact points between speakers of Arabic and other languages. For example,

3199: 775:, sent a letter to Qataris wherein he described the presence of several faithful communities, including Talun, which is a now an island of 700: 192:

dating to 569/570, composed in Greek but preserved in Syriac, demonstrates the presence and distribution of episcopal sees from its 137

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Robin, Christian Julien (2015). "Ḥimyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity: The Epigraphic Evidence". In Fisher, Greg (ed.).

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Chatonnet, Françoise Briquel; Robin, Christian Julien (2000). "La persécution des chrétiens de Nagran et la chronologie himyarite".

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In 2018, eleven inscriptions written in Greek were published deriving from the regions of ʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh, northwest of

705: 716:(613–700), also known as Isaac of Qatar, would grow up in Qatar before he was ordained and became a monk in Iraq. Other prominent 2165:

Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2022). "A pre-Islamic basmala: reflections on its first epigraphic attestation and its original significance".

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of that monastery. As in the Himyarite period, Christian inscriptions continue to refer to the monotheistic deity using the name

93:. These texts, which had which were partly or entirely literary in nature, which are overwhelmingly Syriac and Iraq in origins. 1529:. Late antique and medieval islamic near east. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 109–110. 3105: 3080: 3040: 3000: 2960: 2891: 2816: 2791: 2766: 2702: 2605: 2492: 2390: 2351: 2326: 2294: 2250: 2208: 2149: 2124: 2094: 2052: 2016: 1981: 1956: 1911: 1890:

Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

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Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

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Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

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Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

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Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

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Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

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Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01),

982: 225: 2872:""May God be Mindful of Yazīd the King": Further Reflections on the Yazīd Inscription and the Development of Arabic Scripts" 2693:

Wood, Philip (2023). "Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula and Possible Contexts for the Qurʾān". In Dye, Guillaume (ed.).

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Wood, Philip (2023). "Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula and Possible Contexts for the Qurʾān". In Dye, Guillaume (ed.).

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Wood, Philip (2023). "Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula and Possible Contexts for the Qurʾān". In Dye, Guillaume (ed.).

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Shoemaker, Stephen (2018). "Jewish Christianity, Non-Trinitarianism and the Beginnings of Islam". In Mimouni, Simon (ed.).

876:. It is also likely that another pre-Islamic inscription from Dumat al-Jandal, DaJ000NabAr1, was composed by a Christian. 3712: 573:, describes the construction of a church off the coast of Yemen. The Marib Dam inscription from 548 mentions a priest, a 2978:

The Darb al-Bakrah. A Caravan Route in North-West Arabia Discovered by Ali I. al-Ghabban. Catalogue of the Inscriptions

3035:. Routledge studies in the Qurʼān. London New York (N.Y.): Routledge, Taylor & Francis group. pp. 258–289. 1202:

Hoyland, Robert (2018). Río Sánchez, Francisco del; Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (eds.).

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Hoyland, Robert (2018). Río Sánchez, Francisco del; Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (eds.).

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is another South Arabian Christian graffito dating to the sixth century and containing a pre-Islamic variant of the

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invaded the Arabian peninsula, overthrowing the Himyarite king and installing in his place the hardline Jewish king

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Villeneuve, François (2018). "The Greek inscriptions at al-ʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh". In Nehmé, Laila (ed.).

2834:"New dated inscriptions (Nabataean and pre-Islamic Arabic) from a site near al-Jawf,ancient Dūmah, Saudi Arabia" 3695: 3477: 3271: 3266: 681: 472: 117: 34: 3762: 3482: 923: 496: 24: 3165: 1814:. The transformation of the classical heritage. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 100–121. 3590: 3465: 329: 86: 519:. Jacob sent a letter of consolation to the Christians of Najran in their time of persecution, titled the 3843: 3492: 3185: 2587: 1998: 1721: 1067: 834: 42: 3445: 2913: 451:

Several legends have been produced to explain how Christianity was introduced into Najran. According to

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whole of the desert and in Arabia and Palestine" (the reference to Arabia likely being a reference to

3512: 2372: 1501:. Oxford early Christian studies. Oxford New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. pp. 120–126. 864:. This uncontracted form continued to be used by Christians until the tenth century even as the form 19:

This article is about Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia. For monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia, see

880: 756: 521: 2200: 2086: 2044: 1903: 1869:. The Menahem Stern Jerusalem lectures. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press. pp. 20–23. 1588: 1465: 1398: 1356: 1138: 1014: 3171: 687:

The first concrete evidence of a highly organized Christian presence in the region of modern-day

598: 341: 213: 3487: 2622:"A Nestorian Monastic Settlement on the Island of Ṣīr Banī Yās, Abu Dhabi: A Preliminary Report" 2586:

Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)",

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Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)",

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Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)",

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Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)",

3505: 3126: 2914:"Review of Nicolai SINAI, Rain-Giver, Bone-Breaker, Score-Settler: Allāh in Pre-Quranic Poetry" 530: 1976:. The Menahem Stern Jerusalem lectures. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press. p. 24. 499:, which is in part documented by an inscription made by S²rḥʾl Yqbl (Yusuf's army commander), 37:. Christianization emerged as a major phenomena in the Arabian peninsula during the period of 3833: 3555: 3550: 3306: 2368: 717: 508: 420: 412: 308: 3075:. Translated by Haines, Jeffrey. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. 115–117. 2871: 2659:

Hellyer, Peter (2001). "Nestorian Christianity in the Pre-Islamic UAE and Southern Arabia".

2487:. Translated by Haines, Jeffrey. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. 115–122. 2188: 2074: 2032: 1891: 1576: 1453: 1386: 1344: 1126: 1002: 3664: 3231: 791: 174: 62: 8: 3674: 696: 680:, which appears to date to the sixth century, claims that a bishopric already existed in 677: 610: 325: 178: 78: 837:(DaJ144PAr1). The inscription contains a cross and also makes use of the divine epithet 3208: 2641: 2568: 2464: 692: 345: 217: 3058:

The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu

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Other literary accounts mention additional monasteries. For example, according to the

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Pre-islamic Arabia: societies, politics, cults and identities during late antiquity

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Pre-islamic Arabia: societies, politics, cults and identities during late antiquity

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L'ile de Kharg. Une page de l'histoire du Golfe Persique et du monachisme oriental

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The Arabian Gulf in antiquity. 2: From Alexander the Great to the coming of Islam

1674:. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 102–103, 107. 854: 664: 534: 526: 516: 397: 368: 312: 82: 3722: 3600: 1306:"Christian monasticism on the eve of Islam: Kilwa (Saudi Arabia) — new evidence" 455:, it was introduced by the miracle working of a Christian monk named Euphemius. 307:

and northern Arabia, converted to Christianity during the reign of their leader

61:

and the southern Levant) has historically been understood through the lenses of

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