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Earth. Due to ancient China's deep dependence on agriculture, and a reliance on a cycle of natural phenomenon, many mystic properties began to be associated with nature. The spirituality, a mythological connection between the mundane Earth and the transcendence of Heaven, was manifested in many jade objects through the late phase of the Shang dynasty. Since jade was extracted from high mountains and riverbeds, and mountains in
Chinese culture symbolized a way to ascend beyond the Earth into Heaven, jade held power in terms of funerary rites and other rites associated with mysticism. Funerary ritual jade objects included things like pinnular-shaped ornamental jade, beads, and even agricultural tools such as axes and shovel (used to reiterate the connection between nature and the heavens). These agricultural tools were either placed in tombs as symbols of a prosperous afterlife or to sanctify the tomb for spirits responsible for natural phenomena and human wellbeing. Along with major objects, many smaller animal-shaped objects reflected the same sense of spirituality in nature and remained prevalent throughout the Shang dynasty. Birds, turtles, silkworms, dragons and cicadas appeared the most and each epitomized early China's relationship between religion and nature. Birds flight for instance, symbolized the spiritual journey: a journey from the natural earth to the celestial heavens. Similarly, the turtle's voyage across land and sea represented the expedition from earth to underworld. Jade cicadas and silkworms construed rebirth, symbolizing the rebirth of the dead when placed in tombs.
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890:) jade, four main tools comprise the basics for jade carving: the string, awl, the hollow drill, and a slow rotating disk. The string tools specifically were involved in the shaping of raw materials and slicing of jade into flat disks. Besides for slicing, this instrument was also responsible for open work, specifically the cutting of slits. Awls and hollow drills were both used to delicately puncture holes into jade material, however, awls were responsible for small pierces in ornaments whereas hollow drills made larger punctures for a variety of purposes. The slow rotating disk, finally, was purposeful in line cutting and preparing jade material for other drilling techniques. Although little is researched regarding the manufacturing techniques of other major Neolithic jade centers
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573:). This centre took place in the Lake Tai District. The jades of this period were primarily small items of personal adornment, such as small discs strung onto necklaces. Typically, the jade was polished on its surface and perforated. Ritual jades and personal ornamental jade of different shapes began to show up during this time period. This religious nature of jade is often evaluated as connections between spirituality and the Neolithic societal structure that jade was produced in.
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Shang dynasty, jade objects see representations of celestial beings who played key roles in communicating with ancestral spirits. Later, with the transition to the early
Western Zhou period, jade objects began to lose their connectivity to Heavenly powers and instead reflected the political authority and status of their owners. This shift marked an important period in Chinese jade, a correction of usage and thus a redefining of Chinese culture.
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these sites, one can see the evolution of crafting procedures from chipping and polishing to more advanced drilling and slicing. Due to the toughness of jade, the chipping and polishing procedures differ drastically from regular stone. The only possible method of altering the shape or texture of this mineral dense rock hasn't seen much change from its introduction to modern day as both times remain reliant on the
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discs were most common, along with beads, pendants and ornamental pieces for hair and clothing in a variety of animal shapes. Jade manufactured weapons were typical to ritualistic processes like sacrifices and symbols of authority. Particularly axes and blades were seen in the rituals of the
Longshan
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and religious significance forgotten. The objects came to represent the status of the holder due to the expense and authority needed to command the resources and labour in creating the object. Thus it was as the "Ceremonial Jades" that the forms of some of these jades were perpetuated. The "Zhou Li"
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Neolithic jade workshops, also known as wasters, have been found in areas where jade usage was evident and popularized. Most evidence of the development of jade technology and tools are taken from wasters and the discards and finished works present in these workshops. From the traces of jade left at
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Jade objects originally begun as forms of spiritual connections or value but in later years, developed into symbols of authority and status. Throughout
Neolithic Chinese culture, jade remained, however, saturated in purposeful iconography and symbolism. Especially during the Eastern Zhou period and
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The third jade centre is known as
Longshan culture and arose in 2500 BC. The centre was situated in China's east coast. The jade objects found in these centres were ritualistic implements, such as axes, knives, and chisels. There is a suggestion of curvilinear anthropomorphic images. A distinctive
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mass formation, contributed to the mineral's toughness and difficulty in carving. Due to this toughness and unique manufacturing techniques, the jade objects studied suggest an organized labor structure consisting of skilled laborers and an education in the handling of particular tools. Likewise,
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Along with animal-shaped objects, jade also took upon the shape of clouds, earth, and wind; creating a more literal translation of belief. Cloud pendants and cloud-shaped jade found in tombs of the elite elicit the belief in a hierarchical social structure with leaders holding both political and
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The hardness of jade presented an obstacle to those who wanted to carve it and turn it into various objects. In order to quarry nephrite jade, fires were placed next to the jade to heat it and water was thrown against the rock's surface. This rapid temperature change caused the jade to crack and
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In its earliest states, the visual representations in
Chinese jade embodied one of the first forms of narrative. Narratives with universal characteristics associated with religion and spirituality utilize natural elements that surround humankind and suggest a religion associated with Heaven and
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characteristic of each period. Its deep significance in
Chinese culture has deemed it worthy of being symbolic of ancient Chinese ethics and ideologies and also representative of the progression of Chinese culture. Thus, the earliest jades, of the Neolithic period, are unornamented ritual and
610:). The centre was situated in along the modern northeastern border of China. The objects of this centre were typically pendants and large C-shaped ornaments. Realistic figures of fish, turtles, cicadas, and owl-like birds with spread wings were typical carvings of the Hongshan culture.
644:–2200 BC). Archeological finds have also unearthed jade objects in this province in the shapes of dragons and clay-molded human figurines, therefore symbolizing the existence of a developed social group along the Liao River and inner-Mongolia. As early as 6000 BC,
728:, reflecting the ancient Chinese belief that jades would confer immortality or prolong life and prevent decay. Jade spoons, spatulas, and pestles were used to make medicine in order for the jade to bestow its special virtues onto the medical compounds.
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wooden wedges were used to further break it down. However, this quarrying technique also destroyed the jade. The best way to extract jade in terms of it being in the best condition was to remove it from pebbles and boulders that were found in rivers.
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The second known centre is the
Yangshao culture. In the 21st century, a series of jade processing workshops that dates back 5,000 years have been unearthed in Henan province, with two of the larger workshops each covering more than 120 square meters.
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Jade human figurines in the
Shijiahe culture are another way jade was used in the celestial context. These figurines were supposedly used for the staging of ritual sacrifices and to preserve the memory of the sacrifice for subsequent generations.
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In the Zhou dynasty (1122–255 BC), the system of government had been completed and there were varying levels of departments within the government. Buttons of jade were utilized to differentiate the various levels of official society.
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sewn in gold thread, on the idea that it would preserve the body and the souls attached to it. Jade was also thought to combat fatigue in the living. The Han also greatly improved prior artistic treatment of jade.
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the north. Although over two millennia old these names and symbolism were given to these objects by much later writers, who interpreted the objects in a way that reflected their own understanding of the cosmos.
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spiritual power. Bi discs and cong, commonly structured jade objects, also developed funerary significance in their use in rituals. Bi discs, specifically, were used in sacrifices to Heaven. Jade constructed
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impractical versions of the tools and weapons that were in ordinary use, often much larger than normal examples. These are presumed to have been symbols of political power or possibly religious authority.
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stylistic features and carving techniques seen throughout different
Chinese cultures suggest a fluid transmission of knowledge between cultures rather than a border-bounded knowledge isolating cultures.
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843:, a time of prolific technology growth, "red sand", with a hardness level of 7.5 became the dominant tool of the industry. By 1939, and once more advanced carving tools had arisen,
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The Qing dynasty was the final dynasty to gain political power within China, beginning in 1644 until 1911. Emperor Shengzu, who was also known as the Kangxi Emperor, ruled between
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method. In order to override the abrasiveness of jade and subdue it to molding, a jade-worker must use an object of higher abrasive factor. In the early days of jade carving,
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is quite known for its technical quality in the production of jade products and therefore serves as reliable source when examining the pinnacle of jade crafting during the
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1681:
Lopes, Rui Oliveira (2014). "Securing the Harmony between the High and the Low: Power Animals and Symbols of Political Authority in Ancient Chinese Jades and Bronzes".
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279:"any of various hard greenish gems used in jewelry and artistic carvings, including jadeite and nephrite; a green color of medium hue; made of jade; green like jade".
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Jade became a favorite material for the crafting of Chinese writing materials, such as rests for calligraphy brushes, as well as the mouthpieces of some
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are increasingly embellished with animal and other decorative motifs characteristic of those times, and craftsmen developed great skill in detailed low
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Since jade was considered to be rare and strenuous to work with, pieces of jade were minimally changed and scrap pieces were reused in some way. The
449:, that suggests meaning and a phonetic that hints at pronunciation. The "jade radical" frequently occurs in characters for names of gemstones (e.g.,
145:), yielding the largest body of intricately crafted jade artifacts created by any single civilization. A prominent early use was the crafting of the
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until 1722. During the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, a distinctive pairs of lions or dogs composed of jade were commissioned by the dynastic family.
130:, and beauty. In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of the
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372: "cast aside a brick, pick up a jade") "offer banal/humble remarks to spark abler talk by others; sacrifice a little to gain much"—one of the
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Sax, Margaret; Meeks, Nigel D.; Michaelson, Carol; Middleton, Andrew P. (2004-10-01). "The identification of carving techniques on Chinese jade".
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jade has been mined. In the Yin Ruins of the Shang dynasty in Anyang, Dushan jade ornaments were unearthed in the tombs of the Shang kings.
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775:, yearly tribute payments consisting of the most precious white jade were made to the Chinese Imperial court and there transformed into
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Childs-Johnson, Elisabeth (1988). "Dragons, masks, axes and blades from four newly documented jade-working cultures of Ancient China".
747:. In Lantian, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in small quarries and as pebbles and boulders in the rivers flowing from the
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were exploited since prehistoric times and have largely been exhausted; most Chinese jade today is extracted from the northwestern
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Teng, Shu P'ing (2000). "The original significance of bi disks: insights based on Liangzhu jade bi with incised symbolic motifs".
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Jade objects of early ages (Neolithic through Zhou) fall into five categories: small decorative and functional ornaments such as
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The coloration of the jade was a factor taken into consideration when deciding what form the piece of jade would take.
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There have been several main Neolithic jade working centers. The first known centre is known as the Liangzhu culture (
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is better known in Europe, for most of China's history, jade has come in a variety of colors and white "mutton-fat"
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273:"jade; gems of all kinds; (of women) beautiful; (courteous) your" has semantically broader meanings than English
138:. With gold, it was considered to be a symbol of heaven. Jade production began in China over seven millennia ago (
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are types of objects only found in jade in early periods, and probably had religious or cosmic significance. The
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BOOK REVIEW, The Stone of Heaven: The Secret History of Imperial Green Jade by Adrian Levy and Cathy Scott-Clark
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pendants likewise saw an important funerary connection due to their inclusion in the typical shaman attire.
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Jessica Rawson; Zhou Lijun; William R. Sargent; Henrik H. Sørensen; Sheila S. Blair; et al. (2003).
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Jade was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, ranging from indoor decorative items to
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1017:. The original names, value and functions of these objects have invited much speculation. The
910:(1050–256 B.C.). It is likely that the use of copper in these tools preceded the use of iron.
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is a circular disk with a hole, originally usually plain, but increasingly decorated, and the
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Liu, Li; Chen, Xingcan (2008), "Sociopolitical Change from Neolithic to Bronze Age China",
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carving technique was used to create the fine raised relief of the anthropomorphic images.
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that became part of elite costume. In later periods ancient jade shapes, derived from
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2393:. Yale University Press Pelican history of art. New Haven: Yale University Press.
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The original use of the "Six Ritual Jades" became lost, with such jades becoming
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is a vessel, square on the outside but circular inside. In later literature the
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has referred to many rocks and minerals that carve and polish well, especially
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Between hell and the Stone of Heaven: Observer article on Jade Mining in Burma
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times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and
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until the present, jade was sourced from deposits in western regions like
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The Stone of Heaven: Unearthing the Secret History of Imperial Green Jade
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959:(a hollow cylinder or truncated cone). In terms of the Hongshan culture,
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especially, with its composition of densely packed fibrous crystals in a
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Howard, Angela Falco; Hung, Wu; Song, Li; Hong, Yang (1 January 2006).
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Ritual object (bi), Neolithic period, LiangZhu culture (3200–2000 B.C.)
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jade items were the now depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the
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Jade notched disk, Neolithic period, Longshan culture (2400–1900 B.C.)
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jade carvers were already using six different types of abrasives:
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1797:"Progress review of the scientific study of Chinese ancient jade"
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Art in Quest of Heaven and Truth: Chinese Jades through the Ages
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The archaeology of northeast China : beyond the Great Wall
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The fourth known jade centre is known as the Hongshan culture (
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55:
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2044:"The Chinese Jade Age: Between antiquarianism and archaeology"
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by skilled artisans as jade was considered more valuable than
467:"coral"), and occasionally for words denoting "preciousness" (
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872:
377:
100:
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was the most highly praised and prized. Native sources in
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L'air et les songes. Essai sur l'imagination du mouvement
1167:
contains an unencyclopedic or excessive gallery of images
882:(a culture consisting of regions such as Dongjiayingzi,
320: "hard jade") and nephrite correspondingly as
2231:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–67.
906:. The introduction of metal tools occurred in the late
971:
755:
area. River jade collection was concentrated in the
2229:
The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States
2425:Jade: A Study in Chinese Archeology & Religion
2301:
1601:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Art Museums. p. 17.
1895:"Archaeologists unearth 5,000-year-old jade base"
2645:
2184:, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 149–176,
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2369:
550:Jade has been used in virtually all periods of
16:Chinese jade mined/carved from the Neolithic on
2427:, Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.
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1599:Early Chinese Jades in the Harvard Art Museums
2491:
2335:
1179:beside adjacent text, in accordance with the
992:(a flat disk with a hole in its center), the
483:
471:
462:
453:
444:
438:
404:
397: "jade standing") "gracious; graceful".
385:
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1580:Bulletin of the City Art Museum of St. Louis
1070:type, dukes (gong) to the huang, marquis to
580:Plaque, Neolithic period, Hongshan culture (
149:, found since the 3rd-millennium BCE
1173:removing excessive or indiscriminate images
2498:
2484:
1553:. Vol. I (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
1544:
1542:
1540:
1062:states that a king (wang) was entitled to
2370:Scott-Clark, Cathy; Levy, Adrian (2002).
2211:
1993:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t043200
1865:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T016513
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1702:
1195:Learn how and when to remove this message
803:Jade lions, Qing dynasty, Kangxi period,
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1978:
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554:and generally accords with the style of
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863:, diamond, and a medium combining both
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2389:Watson, William; Ho, Chuimei (2007).
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1282:Sculpture of the head and torso of a
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717:'s extraordinary technical facility.
229:. Nonetheless, jade remained part of
189:, they were thought to represent the
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2166:. London: Routledge. pp. 21–64.
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1648:
1646:
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1636:
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986:originating in pre-history were the
629:3400–2250 BC) and in an area of the
2336:Pope-Hennessy, Una (October 2008).
2226:
1171:Please help improve the section by
972:Six Ritual and Six Ceremonial Jades
945:and related equipment; independent
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1947:
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1021:, itself probably compiled in the
233:and an important artistic medium.
221:practices and new developments in
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2450:. Taipei: National Palace Museum.
2266:Journal of East Asian Archaeology
2118:Journal of Archaeological Science
1633:
1566:
1029:as representing the heavens, the
1005:(a flat, half-ring pendant), the
91:. Although deep and bright green
2459:Old Chinese Jades: Real or Fake?
2435:Chinese Jade Throughout the Ages
2342:(reprint ed.). READ BOOKS.
1578:D., C. (1921). "CHINESE JADES".
1476:
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1357:(15th or 16th century)
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1181:Manual of Style on use of images
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1114:Cast iron sword with jade hilt,
2613:Chinese traditional accessories
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1901:
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1033:as representing the earth, the
739:and other parts of China like
458:"green jade; bluish green" and
2216:. Paris: Librairie José Corti.
1740:
1727:
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1226:(2nd millennium BC)
511:, 3rd millennium BC
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213:These uses gave way after the
1:
2048:Journal of Social Archaeology
1921:. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
1853:"China, People's Republic of"
1526:
1127:Concentration on spirituality
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812:
771:, on the southern leg of the
713:were used to demonstrate the
675:represents the earth and the
600:
581:
563:
522:ornament with flower design,
416:
337: "soft jade"). The
139:
2391:The arts of China after 1620
1531:
701:work in objects such as the
231:traditional Chinese medicine
7:
2090:"The Song Dynasty in China"
1979:FitzHugh, E. (2003-01-01).
1781:Desautels, Paul E. (1986).
1488:
1094:type and barons (nan) to a
345:is used in various Chinese
303:. Jadeite is now known as
10:
2695:
2528:Chinese Buddhist sculpture
2212:Bachelard, Gaston (1943).
1768:Collins English Dictionary
1586:: 32–47 – via JSTOR.
1563:Pope-Henessey, Chapter II.
1147:
1086:type, viscounts (zi) to a
975:
805:Calouste Gulbenkian Museum
707:bronze sacrificial vessels
494:
491:"precious/darling baby").
83:onward. It is the primary
2513:
2437:, London: Albert Saifer,
2374:. Boston: Little, Brown.
2308:. Yale University Press.
2190:10.1002/9780470774670.ch8
2138:10.1016/j.jas.2004.03.007
1933:"List of Rulers of China"
1919:The Art of Opium Antiques
1549:Fiero, Gloria K. (2010).
1444:Chinese jade carvings in
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2423:Laufer, Berthold, 1912,
2060:10.1177/1469605306064241
1630:Pope-Henessey, Chap. IV.
1551:The Humanistic Tradition
1483:Jade of the Qing dynasty
1025:, ascribes the circular
731:From about the earliest
526:(12th or 13th century),
118:Jade was prized for its
2278:10.1163/156852300509835
1917:Martin, Steven (2007).
1785:. Springer. p. 81.
1510:Jade use in Mesoamerica
1351:Belt plaque with dragon
1333:Belt plaque with dragon
1319:Cup with dragon handles
420: 11th century BCE
299:and other varieties of
236:
50:Collecting jade in the
38:Jade rocks in truck in
2628:Chinese willow pattern
2568:Chinese Folding screen
2162:Nelson, Sarah (1995).
2094:afe.easia.columbia.edu
1387:Celadon Jade Headdress
1177:moving relevant images
1119:
1009:, the flat, bladelike
808:
749:Kun-Lun mountain range
588:
547:
539:
531:
512:
255:
58:
43:
31:
2588:Chinese paper folding
2583:Chinese paper cutting
1695:10.1353/asi.2014.0019
1597:So, Jenny F. (2019).
1113:
1106:Symbolism and meaning
802:
579:
545:
537:
518:
502:
415:"jade" dates back to
374:Thirty-Six Stratagems
244:
49:
37:
29:Hotan Cultural Museum
22:
2518:Chinese architecture
2042:P., Dematte (2006).
1270:(1st or 2nd century)
1078:type, earls (bo) to
2533:Chinese calligraphy
2339:Early Chinese Jades
2182:Archaeology of Asia
2130:2004JArSc..31.1413S
1339:(14th century)
1321:(12th century)
1246:Warring States
807:, Lisbon, Portugal.
767:) Rivers. From the
751:northward into the
623:Yangtze River Delta
23:White "mutton-fat"
2664:Chinese inventions
2548:Chinese embroidery
2469:2008-05-12 at the
1683:Asian Perspectives
1120:
941:, and belt hooks;
822:Carving techniques
809:
763:) and Black Jade (
759:, the White Jade (
753:Takla-Makan desert
589:
548:
540:
532:
513:
423:oracle bone script
256:
246:Oracle bone script
59:
44:
32:
2679:Religion in China
2674:Hardstone carving
2641:
2640:
2603:Chinese sculpture
2553:Chinese furniture
2411:978-0-300-10735-7
2400:978-0-300-10735-7
2364:978-1-4437-7158-0
2349:978-1-4437-7158-0
2315:978-0-300-10065-5
2305:Chinese Sculpture
2124:(10): 1413–1428.
2002:978-1-884446-05-4
1935:. October 4, 2004
1907:Liu, Li 2003:3–15
1874:978-1-884446-05-4
1307:(7th–9th century)
1205:
1204:
1197:
1045:the west and the
769:Kingdom of Khotan
733:Chinese dynasties
726:jade burial suits
631:Liaoning province
402:Chinese character
396:
371:
336:
319:
207:jade burial suits
128:musical qualities
89:Chinese sculpture
2686:
2669:Chinese nobility
2618:Chinese umbrella
2578:Chinese painting
2573:Chinese knotting
2538:Chinese ceramics
2500:
2493:
2486:
2477:
2476:
2404:
2385:
2357:
2323:
2290:
2289:
2261:
2252:
2251:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2227:Liu, Li (2004).
2224:
2218:
2217:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2177:
2168:
2167:
2159:
2150:
2149:
2113:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2039:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2009:
1985:Grove Art Online
1976:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1857:Grove Art Online
1848:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1783:The Jade Kingdom
1778:
1772:
1771:
1758:
1752:
1744:
1738:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1706:
1678:
1631:
1628:
1622:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1575:
1564:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1546:
1505:Jade burial suit
1480:
1468:Jade carving in
1465:
1456:
1441:
1426:
1411:
1396:
1381:
1369:Jade carving of
1366:
1348:
1330:
1316:
1298:
1279:
1256:
1243:with two dragons
1235:
1213:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1188:
1160:
1159:
1152:
1118:(1046 BC-771 BC)
997:(prismatic tube)
984:Six Ritual Jades
978:Chinese nobility
904:Neolithic period
900:Hongshan culture
853:almandine garnet
817:
814:
709:, and motifs of
639:Hongshan culture
627:Liangzhu culture
609:
605:
602:
586:
583:
572:
568:
565:
490:
489:
488:
477:
476:
466:
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457:
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448:
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394:
392:
391:
390:
369:
367:
366:
365:
334:
332:
331:
330:
317:
315:
314:
313:
272:
271:
253:
252:
151:Liangzhu culture
147:Six Ritual Jades
144:
141:
52:White Jade River
2694:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2623:Chinese symbols
2509:
2504:
2471:Wayback Machine
2431:Rawson, Jessica
2420:
2418:Further reading
2401:
2382:
2350:
2316:
2298:
2293:
2262:
2255:
2240:
2236:
2225:
2221:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2178:
2171:
2160:
2153:
2114:
2107:
2098:
2096:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2040:
2017:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1977:
1948:
1938:
1936:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1849:
1814:
1805:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1779:
1775:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1745:
1741:
1732:
1728:
1679:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1595:
1591:
1576:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1547:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1515:Jadeite Cabbage
1495:Chinese culture
1491:
1484:
1481:
1472:
1466:
1457:
1448:
1442:
1433:
1429:Jade dragon of
1427:
1418:
1412:
1403:
1397:
1388:
1382:
1373:
1367:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1290:
1280:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1257:
1248:
1244:
1236:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1201:
1190:
1186:(February 2019)
1184:
1170:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1129:
1108:
1041:the south, the
980:
974:
931:
869:calcareous silt
824:
815:
607:
603:
584:
570:
566:
552:Chinese history
528:Shanghai Museum
497:
482:
478:"treasure" and
433:, such as the "
419:
384:
380:, for instance
359:
324:
307:
239:
199:four directions
143: 5000 BCE
142:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2692:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2558:Chinese garden
2555:
2550:
2545:
2543:Chinese comics
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2523:Chinese column
2520:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2503:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2445:
2428:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2399:
2386:
2380:
2367:
2348:
2333:
2314:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2272:(1): 165–194.
2253:
2234:
2219:
2204:
2198:
2169:
2151:
2105:
2081:
2054:(2): 202–226.
2015:
2001:
1946:
1924:
1909:
1900:
1886:
1873:
1812:
1788:
1773:
1753:
1739:
1726:
1689:(2): 195–225.
1632:
1623:
1614:
1607:
1589:
1565:
1556:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1522:– Jade pendant
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1475:
1473:
1467:
1460:
1458:
1451:
1449:
1446:British Museum
1443:
1436:
1434:
1428:
1421:
1419:
1415:Warring States
1413:
1406:
1404:
1398:
1391:
1389:
1383:
1376:
1374:
1368:
1361:
1359:
1350:
1343:
1341:
1332:
1325:
1323:
1318:
1311:
1309:
1300:
1293:
1291:
1281:
1274:
1272:
1258:
1251:
1249:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1215:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1164:
1162:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1128:
1125:
1107:
1104:
1055:status symbols
1037:the east, the
973:
970:
930:
927:
915:microstructure
888:Inner Mongolia
823:
820:
635:Inner Mongolia
608: 2700 BC
571: 2200 BC
556:decorative art
496:
493:
425:from the late
238:
235:
215:Three Kingdoms
103:and along the
64:refers to the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2691:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
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2651:
2649:
2634:
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2629:
2626:
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2621:
2619:
2616:
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2611:
2609:
2606:
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2556:
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2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
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2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2496:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2443:0-87556-754-1
2440:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2381:0-316-52596-0
2377:
2373:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2330:0-300-10065-5
2327:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
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2258:
2249:
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2238:
2230:
2223:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2199:9780470774670
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2174:
2165:
2158:
2156:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2110:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1934:
1928:
1920:
1913:
1904:
1896:
1890:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1784:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1757:
1750:
1749:
1743:
1736:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1627:
1621:Howard, 19–22
1618:
1610:
1608:9781891771767
1604:
1600:
1593:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1560:
1552:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1536:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
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1471:
1464:
1459:
1455:
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1447:
1440:
1435:
1432:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1329:
1324:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1262:
1255:
1250:
1247:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1223:Shang dynasty
1219:
1212:
1207:
1206:
1199:
1196:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1165:This section
1163:
1154:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1139:
1133:
1124:
1117:
1112:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:
998:
996:
991:
990:
985:
979:
969:
966:
962:
958:
957:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
926:
923:
920:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
876:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
828:
819:
806:
801:
797:
795:
790:
788:
784:
780:
779:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
722:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
693:
689:
685:
682:Jades of the
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
661:
656:
655:
649:
647:
643:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
611:
597:
593:
578:
574:
560:
557:
553:
544:
536:
529:
525:
521:
517:
510:
509:
505:
501:
492:
487:
481:
475:
470:
461:
452:
436:
432:
428:
427:Shang dynasty
424:
414:
408:
403:
398:
389:
383:
379:
375:
364:
358:
357:pāozhuānyǐnyù
354:
350:
349:
344:
340:
329:
323:
312:
306:
302:
298:
295:, as well as
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
277:
270:
265:
261:
247:
243:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
211:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
187:
186:Rites of Zhou
182:
178:
174:
170:
169:
164:
163:
158:
157:
152:
148:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
67:
63:
57:
53:
48:
41:
36:
30:
26:
21:
2608:Chinese seal
2563:Chinese jade
2562:
2434:
2424:
2390:
2371:
2354:Google Books
2352:– via
2338:
2320:Google Books
2318:– via
2304:
2296:Bibliography
2269:
2265:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2228:
2222:
2213:
2207:
2181:
2163:
2121:
2117:
2097:. Retrieved
2093:
2084:
2051:
2047:
2006:. Retrieved
1984:
1937:. Retrieved
1927:
1918:
1912:
1903:
1889:
1878:. Retrieved
1856:
1804:. Retrieved
1801:ResearchGate
1800:
1791:
1782:
1776:
1762:
1756:
1746:
1742:
1729:
1686:
1682:
1626:
1617:
1598:
1592:
1583:
1579:
1559:
1550:
1470:Qing dynasty
1402:Jade Pendant
1400:Ming dynasty
1385:Tang dynasty
1371:Song dynasty
1354:Ming dynasty
1336:Yuan dynasty
1304:Tang dynasty
1260:
1239:
1191:
1185:
1166:
1142:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1121:
1116:Western Zhou
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1052:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1000:
993:
987:
983:
981:
964:
960:
954:
932:
924:
912:
878:In terms of
877:
841:Song dynasty
829:
825:
810:
791:
778:objets d'art
776:
730:
723:
719:
681:
676:
672:
668:
664:
659:
653:
650:
612:
598:
594:
590:
561:
549:
507:
479:
468:
459:
450:
435:jade radical
412:
399:
381:
356:
346:
342:
321:
304:
293:agalmatolite
280:
274:
263:
257:
212:
184:
180:
176:
172:
166:
160:
154:
146:
117:
62:Chinese jade
61:
60:
2659:Chinese art
2593:Chinoiserie
2507:Chinese art
2244:Orientation
2008:26 November
1939:December 3,
1704:10125/42779
1500:Chinese art
1431:Han dynasty
1288:Han dynasty
1267:Han dynasty
1023:Han dynasty
908:Zhou period
865:carborundum
861:carborundum
816: 1662
794:opium pipes
604: 3800
587:–2000 B.C.)
585: 3500
567: 3300
524:Jin dynasty
353:set phrases
203:Han dynasty
136:immortality
2648:Categories
2099:2018-12-03
1880:2018-03-12
1806:2018-11-20
1527:References
1417:Jade Huang
1013:, and the
976:See also:
947:sculptural
929:Categories
761:Yurungkash
703:belt-hooks
619:ceremonial
606: – c.
569: – c.
355:, such as
339:polysemous
301:serpentine
217:period to
197:, and the
179:, and the
124:durability
2286:1387-6813
2146:0305-4403
2076:145526495
2068:1469-6053
1751:, (2016).
1713:1535-8283
1532:Citations
968:culture.
773:Silk Road
715:craftsman
695:dynasties
679:the sky.
615:Neolithic
504:Neolithic
201:. By the
85:hardstone
81:Neolithic
79:from the
2467:Archived
2433:, 1975,
2250:: 30–41.
1733:Watson,
1721:96457018
1489:See also
939:pendants
896:Longshan
892:Dawenkou
880:Hongshan
857:corundum
833:abrasion
765:Karakash
711:painting
297:bowenite
289:nephrite
225:such as
219:Buddhist
120:hardness
113:Xinjiang
109:province
97:nephrite
25:nephrite
2633:Gongshi
2598:Penjing
2126:Bibcode
1770:. 2011.
1148:Gallery
1098:of the
1090:of the
1082:of the
1074:of the
1066:of the
1059:utility
1057:, with
1019:Zhou Li
999:, the
943:weapons
757:Yarkand
745:Shaanxi
741:Lantian
613:During
495:History
431:radical
348:chengyu
285:jadeite
260:Chinese
254:"jade".
227:alchemy
105:Yangtze
93:jadeite
42:in 2011
2441:
2409:
2397:
2378:
2362:
2346:
2328:
2312:
2284:
2196:
2144:
2074:
2066:
1999:
1981:"Jade"
1871:
1748:Wenlin
1719:
1711:
1605:
1301:Dragon
1263:dragon
1218:dragon
1175:or by
1102:type.
951:cicada
919:felted
898:, the
886:, and
849:quartz
845:Peking
837:quartz
787:silver
737:Khotan
699:relief
690:, and
646:Dushan
480:bǎobǎo
460:shānhú
378:idioms
376:, and
322:ruǎnyù
305:yìngyù
223:Taoism
193:, the
175:, the
171:, the
165:, the
159:, the
153:: the
73:carved
56:Khotan
40:Khotan
27:jade,
2072:S2CID
1717:S2CID
1520:Yupei
1284:horse
1138:huang
1047:huang
1039:zhang
1015:zhang
1002:huang
935:beads
884:Aohan
873:loess
684:Shang
341:term
262:word
195:earth
181:zhang
168:huang
101:Henan
77:China
69:mined
54:near
2654:Jade
2439:ISBN
2407:ISBN
2395:ISBN
2376:ISBN
2360:ISBN
2344:ISBN
2326:ISBN
2310:ISBN
2282:ISSN
2194:ISBN
2142:ISSN
2064:ISSN
2010:2018
1997:ISBN
1941:2018
1869:ISBN
1763:jade
1709:ISSN
1603:ISBN
1220:ring
1216:Two
1084:gong
1068:zhen
1031:cong
995:cong
982:The
965:cong
963:and
956:cong
867:and
783:gold
688:Zhou
673:cong
669:cong
660:cong
657:and
651:The
642:4700
520:Jade
508:cong
411:for
400:The
395:lit.
382:yùlì
370:lit.
363:拋磚引玉
335:lit.
318:lit.
291:and
276:jade
258:The
248:for
237:Name
162:cong
134:and
132:soul
66:jade
2274:doi
2186:doi
2134:doi
2056:doi
1989:doi
1861:doi
1699:hdl
1691:doi
1261:Chi
1080:gui
1076:xin
1072:gui
1064:gui
1035:gui
1011:gui
894:or
871:or
785:or
692:Han
633:in
469:bǎo
443:or
191:sky
177:gui
111:of
87:of
75:in
71:or
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2280:.
2268:.
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1949:^
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1286:,
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1088:bi
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1007:hu
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859:,
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851:,
813:c.
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686:,
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665:bi
654:bi
601:c.
582:c.
564:c.
486:寶寶
464:珊瑚
451:bì
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417:c.
413:yu
388:玉立
343:yù
328:軟玉
311:硬玉
287:,
281:Yù
264:yù
173:hu
156:bi
140:c.
126:,
122:,
115:.
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2012:.
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474:寶
455:碧
446:王
440:玉
407:玉
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269:玉
251:玉
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