1428:. It is a widely used technique because of its simplicity, rapid results, and low analyte usage. The use of ACE can provide specific details in binding, separation, and detection of analytes and is proven to be highly practical for studies in life sciences. Aptamer-based affinity capillary electrophoresis is utilized for the analysis and modifications of specific affinity reagents. Modified aptamers ideally exhibit and high binding affinity, specificity, and nuclease resistance. Ren et al. incorporated modified nucleotides in aptamers to introduce new confrontational features and high affinity interactions from the hydrophobic and polar interactions between IL-1α and the aptamer. Huang et al. uses ACE to investigate protein-protein interactions using aptamers. A α-thrombin binding aptamer was labeled with 6-carboxyfluorescein for use as a selective fluorescent probe and was studied to elucidate information on binding sites for protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions.
1188:
Application of very high potentials (>20-30 kV) may lead to arcing or breakdown of the capillary. Further, application of strong electric fields leads to resistive heating (Joule heating) of the buffer in the capillary. At sufficiently high field strengths, this heating is strong enough that radial temperature gradients can develop within the capillary. Since electrophoretic mobility of ions is generally temperature-dependent (due to both temperature-dependent ionization and solvent viscosity effects), a non-uniform temperature profile results in variation of electrophoretic mobility across the capillary, and a loss of resolution. The onset of significant Joule heating can be determined by constructing an "Ohm's Law plot", wherein the current through the capillary is measured as a function of applied potential. At low fields, the current is proportional to the applied potential (
1417:
fraudulent documents and counterfeit banknotes. Micellar electrophoretic capillary chromatography (MECC) has been developed and applied to the analysis of inks extracted from paper. Due to its high resolving power relative to inks containing several chemically similar substances, differences between inks from the same manufacturer can also be distinguished. This makes it suitable for evaluating the origin of documents based on the chemical composition of inks. It is worth noting that because of the possible compatibility of the same cartridge with different printer models, the differentiation of inks on the basis of their MECC electrophoretic profiles is a more reliable method for the determination of the ink cartridge of origin (its producer and cartridge number) rather than the printer model of origin.
1050:, forming long linear chains, some of which are covalently attached to the wall-bound silane reagent. Numerous other strategies for covalent modification of capillary surfaces exist. Dynamic or adsorbed coatings (which can include polymers or small molecules) are also common. For example, in capillary sequencing of DNA, the sieving polymer (typically polydimethylacrylamide) suppresses electroosmotic flow to very low levels. Besides modulating electroosmotic flow, capillary wall coatings can also serve the purpose of reducing interactions between "sticky" analytes (such as proteins) and the capillary wall. Such wall-analyte interactions, if severe, manifest as reduced peak efficiency, asymmetric (tailing) peaks, or even complete loss of analyte to the capillary wall.
1405:(PCR), which has led to rapid and dramatic advances in forensic DNA analysis. DNA separations are carried out using thin CE 50-mm fused silica capillaries filled with a sieving buffer. These capillaries have excellent capabilities to dissipate heat, permitting much higher electric field strengths to be used than slab gel electrophoresis. Therefore separations in capillaries are rapid and efficient. Additionally, the capillaries can be easily refilled and changed for efficient and automated injections. Detection occurs via fluorescence through a window etched in the capillary. Both single-capillary and capillary-array instruments are available with array systems capable of running 16 or more samples simultaneously for increased throughput.
310:. This mode of detection offers high sensitivity and improved selectivity for these samples, but cannot be utilized for samples that do not fluoresce. Numerous labeling strategies are used to create fluorescent derivatives or conjugates of non-fluorescent molecules, including proteins and DNA. The set-up for fluorescence detection in a capillary electrophoresis system can be complicated. The method requires that the light beam be focused on the capillary, which can be difficult for many light sources.
1030:
cations toward the cathode). CE instrumentation typically includes power supplies with reversible polarity, allowing the same instrument to be used in "normal" mode (with EOF and detection near the cathodic end of the capillary) and "reverse" mode (with EOF suppressed or reversed, and detection near the anodic end of the capillary). One of the most common approaches to suppressing EOF, reported by
Stellan Hjertén in 1985, is to create a covalently attached layer of linear
2668:
1022:
256:) for increased flexibility. The portion of the capillary used for UV detection, however, must be optically transparent. For polyimide-coated capillaries, a segment of the coating is typically burned or scraped off to provide a bare window several millimeters long. This bare section of capillary can break easily, and capillaries with transparent coatings are available to increase the stability of the cell window. The
186:, pressure, siphoning, or electrokinetically, and the capillary is then returned to the source vial. The migration of the analytes is initiated by an electric field that is applied between the source and destination vials and is supplied to the electrodes by the high-voltage power supply. In the most common mode of CE, all ions, positive or negative, are pulled through the capillary in the same direction by
2680:
272:, the sensitivity of the detector is proportional to the path length of the cell. To improve the sensitivity, the path length can be increased, though this results in a loss of resolution. The capillary tube itself can be expanded at the detection point, creating a "bubble cell" with a longer path length or additional tubing can be added at the detection point as shown in
1005:. The first layer is referred to as the fixed layer because it is held tightly to the silanoate groups. The outer layer, called the mobile layer, is farther from the silanoate groups. The mobile cation layer is pulled in the direction of the negatively charged cathode when an electric field is applied. Since these cations are
227:
capillaries are arrayed spatially to accept samples directly from SBS-standard footprint 96-well plates. Certain aspects of the instrumentation (such as detection) are necessarily more complex than for a single-capillary system, but the fundamental principles of design and operation are similar to those shown in Figure 1.
284:, US Patent 5061361, typically triples the absorbance path length. When used with a UV absorbance detector, the wider cross-section of the analyte in the cell allows for an illuminating beam twice as large, which reduces shot noise by a factor of two. Together these two factors increase the sensitivity of
182:, a detector, and a data output and handling device. The source vial, destination vial and capillary are filled with an electrolyte such as an aqueous buffer solution. To introduce the sample, the capillary inlet is placed into a vial containing the sample. Sample is introduced into the capillary via
1377:
imperfectly cut capillary ends; depletion of buffering capacity in the reservoirs; and electrodispersion (when an analyte has higher conductivity than the background electrolyte). Identifying and minimizing the numerous sources of band broadening is key to successful method development in capillary
1029:
In certain situations where strong electroosmotic flow toward the cathode is undesirable, the inner surface of the capillary can be coated with polymers, surfactants, or small molecules to reduce electroosmosis to very low levels, restoring the normal direction of migration (anions toward the anode,
1435:
that provides high throughput and high accuracy sequencing information. Woolley and
Mathies used a CE chip to sequence DNA fragments with 97% accuracy and a speed of 150 bases in 540 seconds. They used a 4-color labeling and detection format to collect fluorescent data. Fluorescence is used to view
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of the electrically charged ions of the buffer onto the capillary walls. The rate of EOF is dependent on the field strength and the charge density of the capillary wall. The wall's charge density is proportional to the pH of the buffer solution. The electroosmotic flow will increase with pH until
1000:
through the capillary prior to introducing the buffer solution. Attracted to the negatively charged silanoate groups, the positively charged cations of the buffer solution will form two inner layers of cations (called the diffuse double layer or the electrical double layer) on the capillary wall as
226:
To achieve greater sample throughput, instruments with arrays of capillaries are used to analyze many samples simultaneously. Such capillary array electrophoresis (CAE) instruments with 16 or 96 capillaries are used for medium- to high-throughput capillary DNA sequencing, and the inlet ends of the
1196:
near the boundary between the linear and nonlinear regimes of the Ohm's Law plot). Generally capillaries of smaller inner diameter support use of higher field strengths, due to improved heat dissipation and smaller thermal gradients relative to larger capillaries, but with the drawbacks of lower
214:
and coworkers, and provides extremely high sensitivity for the analysis of very small sample sizes. Despite the very small sample sizes (typically only a few nanoliters of liquid are introduced into the capillary), high sensitivity and sharp peaks are achieved in part due to injection strategies
1372:
Besides diffusion and Joule heating (discussed above), factors that may decrease the resolution in capillary electrophoresis from the theoretical limits in the above equation include, but are not limited to, the finite widths of the injection plug and detection window; interactions between the
967:
Since the electroosmotic flow of the buffer solution is generally greater than that of the electrophoretic mobility of the analytes, all analytes are carried along with the buffer solution toward the cathode. Even small, triply charged anions can be redirected to the cathode by the relatively
243:
as their primary mode of detection. In these systems, a section of the capillary itself is used as the detection cell. The use of on-tube detection enables detection of separated analytes with no loss of resolution. In general, capillaries used in capillary electrophoresis are coated with a
1416:
Another application of CE in forensics is ink analysis, where the analysis of inkjet printing inks is becoming more necessary due to increasingly frequent counterfeiting of documents printed by inkjet printers. The chemical composition of inks provides very important information in cases of
1187:
coefficient of the analyte. According to this equation, the efficiency of separation is only limited by diffusion and is proportional to the strength of the electric field, although practical considerations limit the strength of the electric field to several hundred volts per centimeter.
369:
can be deposited onto a SERS-active substrate. Analyte retention times can be translated into spatial distance by moving the SERS-active substrate at a constant rate during capillary electrophoresis. This allows the subsequent spectroscopic technique to be applied to specific eluants for
1424:(ACE), utilizes intermolecular binding interactions to understand protein-ligand interactions. Pharmaceutical companies use ACE for a multitude of reasons, with one of the main ones being the association/binding constants for drugs and ligands or drugs and certain vehicle systems like
646:
so that the buffer flows through the capillary from the source vial to the destination vial. Separated by differing electrophoretic mobilities, analytes migrate toward the electrode of opposite charge. As a result, negatively charged analytes are attracted to the positively charged
1412:
from biological samples to generate a profile from highly polymorphic genetic markers which differ between individuals. Other emerging uses for CE include the detection of specific mRNA fragments to help identify the biological fluid or tissue origin of a forensic sample.
983:
Electroosmotic flow is observed when an electric field is applied to a solution in a capillary that has fixed charges on its interior wall. Charge is accumulated on the inner surface of a capillary when a buffer solution is placed inside the capillary. In a
2320:
Segura
Carretero A, Cruces-Blanco C, Cortacero RamĂrez S, Carrasco Pancorbo A, Fernández GutiĂ©rrez A (September 2004). "Application of micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography to the analysis of uncharged pesticides of environmental impact".
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992:(Si-OH) groups attached to the interior wall of the capillary are ionized to negatively charged silanoate (Si-O) groups at pH values greater than three. The ionization of the capillary wall can be enhanced by first running a basic solution, such as
322:
light and the ability to accurately focus the light on the capillary. Multi-color fluorescence detection can be achieved by including multiple dichroic mirrors and bandpass filters to separate the fluorescence emission amongst multiple detectors
1192:), whereas at higher fields the current deviates from the straight line as heating results in decreased resistance of the buffer. The best resolution is typically obtained at the maximum field strength for which Joule heating is insignificant (
1197:
sensitivity in absorbance detection due to shorter path length, and greater difficulty in introducing buffer and sample into the capillary (small capillaries require greater pressure and/or longer times to force fluids through the capillary).
537:
215:
that result in a concentration of analytes into a narrow zone near the inlet of the capillary. This is achieved in either pressure or electrokinetic injections simply by suspending the sample in a buffer of lower conductivity (
190:. The analytes separate as they migrate due to their electrophoretic mobility, and are detected near the outlet end of the capillary. The output of the detector is sent to a data output and handling device such as an
2350:
Cavazza A, Corradini C, Lauria A, Nicoletti I, Stancanelli R (August 2000). "Rapid analysis of essential and branched-chain amino acids in nutraceutical products by micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography".
1608:"How Capillary Electrophoresis Sequenced the Human Genome This Essay is based on a lecture given at the Analytica 2000 conference in Munich (Germany) on the occasion of the Heinrich-Emanuel-Merck Prize presentation"
276:. Both of these methods, however, will decrease the resolution of the separation. This decrease is almost unnoticeable if a smooth aneurysm is produced in the wall of a capillary by heating and pressurization, as
968:
powerful EOF of the buffer solution. Negatively charged analytes are retained longer in the capillary due to their conflicting electrophoretic mobilities. The order of migration seen by the detector is shown in
2390:
Rodrigues MR, CaramĂŁo EB, Arce L, RĂos A, Valcárcel M (July 2002). "Determination of monoterpene hydrocarbons and alcohols in
Majorana hortensis Moench by micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatographic".
1220:. As a result, EOF does not significantly contribute to band broadening as in pressure-driven chromatography. Capillary electrophoresis separations can have several hundred thousand theoretical plates.
361:
buffer solutions, which will affect the range of separation modes that can be employed and the degree of resolution that can be achieved. The measurement and analysis are mostly done with a specialized.
816:
963:
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the concentrations of each part of the nucleic acid sequence, A, T, C and G, and these concentration peaks that are graphed from the detection are used to determine the sequence of the DNA.
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analyte and the capillary wall; instrumental non-idealities such as a slight difference in height of the fluid reservoirs leading to siphoning; irregularities in the electric field due to,
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296:
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1263:
1224:
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94:) is a family of electrokinetic separation methods performed in submillimeter diameter capillaries and in micro- and nanofluidic channels. Very often, CE refers to capillary
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The separation of compounds by capillary electrophoresis is dependent on the differential migration of analytes in an applied electric field. The electrophoretic migration
862:
769:
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is the total length of the capillary. Since only charged ions are affected by the electric field, neutral analytes are poorly separated by capillary electrophoresis.
838:
1809:
Madabhushi RS (February 1998). "Separation of 4-color DNA sequencing extension products in noncovalently coated capillaries using low viscosity polymer solutions".
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Bubble Cell CE Detector six times over that of one using a straight capillary. This cell and its manufacture are described on page 62 of the June 1995 issue of the
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886:
606:
559:
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Doherty EA, Meagher RJ, Albarghouthi MN, Barron AE (January 2003). "Microchannel wall coatings for protein separations by capillary and chip electrophoresis".
462:
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of the buffer solution. Experimentally, the electroosmotic mobility can be determined by measuring the retention time of a neutral analyte. The velocity (
210:
and Krynn DeArman Lukacs, who first demonstrated the capabilities of this technique. Capillary electrophoresis was first combined with mass spectrometry by
314:-induced fluorescence has been used in CE systems with detection limits as low as 10 to 10 mol. The sensitivity of the technique is attributed to the high
666:
Figure 3: Diagram of the separation of charged and neutral analytes (A) according to their respective electrophoretic and electroosmotic flow mobilities
223:) results in concentration of analyte in a narrow zone at the boundary between the low-conductivity sample and the higher-conductivity running buffer.
2278:
Terabe S, Otsuka K, Ichikawa K, Tsuchiya A, Ando T (January 1984). "Electrokinetic separations with micellar solutions and open-tubular capillaries".
2093:
Yu F, Zhao Q, Zhang D, Yuan Z, Wang H (January 2019). "Affinity
Interactions by Capillary Electrophoresis: Binding, Separation, and Detection".
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and opposite in sign. In addition, it can be seen that high resolution requires lower velocity and, correspondingly, increased analysis time.
1009:, the bulk buffer solution migrates with the mobile layer, causing the electroosmotic flow of the buffer solution. Other capillaries including
1200:
The efficiency of capillary electrophoresis separations is typically much higher than the efficiency of other separation techniques like
79:
1421:
2454:
1899:
Hauser PC (2016). "Determination of Alkali Ions in
Biological and Environmental Samples". In Astrid S, Helmut S, Roland KO S (eds.).
370:
identification with high sensitivity. SERS-active substrates can be chosen that do not interfere with the spectrum of the analytes.
330:), or by using a prism or grating to project spectrally resolved fluorescence emission onto a position-sensitive detector such as a
2575:
1626:
306:
detection can also be used in capillary electrophoresis for samples that naturally fluoresce or are chemically modified to contain
143:
2006:
Shallan A, Guijt R, Breadmore M (2013). "Capillary
Electrophoresis Basic Principles". In Siegel JA, Saukko PJ, Houck MM (eds.).
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Neubert RH, Schwarz MA, Mrestani Y, Plätzer M, Raith K (November 1999). "Affinity capillary electrophoresis in pharmaceutics".
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Separation by capillary electrophoresis can be detected by several detection devices. The majority of commercial systems use
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Figure 2: Techniques for increasing the pathlength of the capillary: a) a bubble cell and b) a z-cell (additional tubing).
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One of the main applications of CE in forensic science is the development of methods for amplification and detection of
2728:
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1656:"Forensic DNA typing by capillary electrophoresis using the ABI Prism 310 and 3100 genetic analyzers for STR analysis"
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electrophoresis, with the objective of approaching as close as possible to the ideal of diffusion-limited resolution.
893:
642:(EOF) of the buffer solution. In a typical system, the electroosmotic flow is directed toward the negatively charged
1034:. The silica surface of the capillary is first modified with a silane reagent bearing a polymerizable vinyl group (
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Woolley AT, Mathies RA (October 1995). "Ultra-high-speed DNA sequencing using capillary electrophoresis chips".
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lower salt concentration) than the running buffer. A process called field-amplified sample stacking (a form of
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The electrophoretic mobility can be determined experimentally from the migration time and the field strength:
2616:
2520:
2447:
2138:"Structural basis for IL-1α recognition by a modified DNA aptamer that specifically inhibits IL-1α signaling"
345:
In order to obtain the identity of sample components, capillary electrophoresis can be directly coupled with
206:
appear as peaks with different migration times in an electropherogram. The technique is often attributed to
2723:
1743:
Hjertén S (1985). "High-performance electrophoresis: elimination of electroosmosis and solute adsorption".
1352:{\displaystyle R_{s}={\frac {1}{4}}\left({\frac {\triangle \mu _{p}{\sqrt {N}}}{\mu _{p}+\mu _{o}}}\right)}
2495:
1025:
Figure 4: Depiction of the interior of a fused-silica gel capillary in the presence of a buffer solution.
1706:"Surface-enhanced Raman scattering: a structure-specific detection method for capillary electrophoresis"
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2195:"Protein-protein interaction studies based on molecular aptamers by affinity capillary electrophoresis"
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The velocity of migration of an analyte in capillary electrophoresis will also depend upon the rate of
414:
1208:
between phases. In addition, the flow profile in EOF-driven systems is flat, rather than the rounded
1058:
The number of theoretical plates, or separation efficiency, in capillary electrophoresis is given by:
1013:
capillaries also exhibit electroosmotic flow. The EOF of these capillaries is probably the result of
198:. The data is then displayed as an electropherogram, which reports detector response as a function of
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135:
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Kemp G (February 1998). "Capillary electrophoresis: a versatile family of analytical techniques".
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Jorgenson JW, Lukacs KD (July 1981). "Zone electrophoresis in open-tubular glass capillaries".
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The instrumentation needed to perform capillary electrophoresis is relatively simple. A basic
2194:
2039:
Chu YH, Avila LZ, Gao J, Whitesides GM (November 1995). "Affinity
Capillary Electrophoresis".
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174:. The system's main components are a sample vial, source and destination vials, a capillary,
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353:(SERS). In most systems, the capillary outlet is introduced into an ion source that utilizes
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50:
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resolution is reached when the electrophoretic and electroosmotic mobilities are similar in
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357:(ESI). The resulting ions are then analyzed by the mass spectrometer. This setup requires
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111:
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8:
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334:. CE systems with 4- and 5-color LIF detection systems are used routinely for capillary
281:
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187:
107:
65:
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1973:
van
Oorschot RA, Ballantyne KN (2013). "Capillary electrophoresis in forensic biology".
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2015:
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Capillary electrophoresis may be used for the simultaneous determination of the ions NH
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532:{\displaystyle \mu _{p}=\left({\frac {L}{t_{r}}}\right)\left({\frac {L_{t}}{V}}\right)}
339:
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Capillary electrophoresis (CE) has become an important, cost-effective approach to do
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122:(MEKC) belong also to this class of methods. In CE methods, analytes migrate through
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is the time required for the analyte to reach the detection point (migration time),
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all of the available silanols lining the wall of the capillary are fully ionized.
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Foley JP (July 1990). "Optimization of micellar electrokinetic chromatography".
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651:, counter to the EOF, while positively charged analytes are attracted to the
1940:
McCord BR, Buel E (2013). "Capillary
Electrophoresis in Forensic Genetics".
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10.1002/1521-3773(20001215)39:24<4463::aid-anie4463>3.0.co;2-8
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1903:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 16. Springer. pp. 11–25.
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Ren X, Gelinas AD, von Carlowitz I, Janjic N, Pyle AM (October 2017).
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138:. Additionally, analytes may be concentrated or "focused" by means of
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1006:
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331:
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3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane), followed by introduction of
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1258:) of capillary electrophoresis separations can be written as:
1223:
2135:
2065:
977:
888:) of an analyte in an electric field can then be defined as:
648:
311:
2277:
1856:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing.
1518:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing.
409:) of an analyte toward the electrode of opposite charge is:
1653:
1227:
Figure 5: Flow profiles of laminar and electroosmotic flow.
1201:
993:
199:
1647:
1654:
Butler JM, Buel E, Crivellente F, McCord BR (June 2004).
1398:
1204:. Unlike HPLC, in capillary electrophoresis there is no
811:{\displaystyle \mu _{o}={\frac {\epsilon \zeta }{\eta }}}
260:
of the detection cell in capillary electrophoresis (~ 50
2389:
561:
is the distance from the inlet to the detection point,
236:
147:
1972:
1869:"High Performance Capillary Electrophoresis: A primer"
1408:
A major use of CE by forensic biologists is typing of
1156:
is the apparent mobility in the separation medium and
264:) is far less than that of a traditional UV cell (~ 1
2038:
2005:
1266:
1237:
1162:
1142:
1118:
1066:
896:
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is the electroosmotic mobility, which is defined as:
750:
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162:
Figure 1: Diagram of capillary electrophoresis system
1216:-driven flow in chromatography columns as shown in
16:
Method of separating chemical or biological samples
2193:Huang CC, Cao Z, Chang HT, Tan W (December 2004).
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170:of a capillary electrophoresis system is shown in
1851:
1580:
1513:
2705:
2192:
1802:
958:{\displaystyle u_{p}+u_{o}=(\mu _{p}+\mu _{o})E}
134:and/or partitioning into an alternate phase via
2233:
2231:
2092:
1874:. Germany: Agilent Technologies. Archived from
1528:
2237:
1860:
1703:
2448:
2010:. Waltham: Academic Press. pp. 549–559.
1977:. Waltham: Academic Press. pp. 560–566.
1944:. Waltham: Academic Press. pp. 394–401.
608:is the applied voltage (field strength), and
2228:
1704:He L, Natan MJ, Keating CD (November 2000).
1605:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
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1759:
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976:migrate quickly and small multiply charged
655:, in agreement with the EOF as depicted in
80:Capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry
2455:
2441:
2393:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
2353:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
2323:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
1939:
1901:The Alkali Metal Ions: Their Role for Life
1808:
1446:
2372:
2169:
1489:
1103:{\displaystyle N={\frac {\mu V}{2D_{m}}}}
670:The velocity of the electroosmotic flow,
444:
130:. Analytes can be separated according to
2576:Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis
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1852:Skoog DA, Holler FJ, Crouch SR (2007).
1742:
1514:Skoog DA, Holler FJ, Crouch SR (2007).
1511:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
365:For CE-SERS, capillary electrophoresis
2706:
1898:
1697:
1581:Cunico RL, Gooding KM, Wehr T (1998).
1455:Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry
373:
120:micellar electrokinetic chromatography
2436:
2298:
1845:
1606:Dovichi NJ, Zhang J (December 2000).
1557:
1506:
2679:
2607:Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
2536:Electrophoretic mobility shift assay
1867:Lauer HH, Rozing GP (January 2010).
1452:
280:can be preserved. This invention by
126:solutions under the influence of an
2602:DNA separation by silica adsorption
2581:Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis
2462:
1854:Principles of Instrumental Analysis
1516:Principles of Instrumental Analysis
351:surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
70:Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis
13:
2566:Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
2270:
2016:10.1016/B978-0-12-382165-2.00241-5
1983:10.1016/B978-0-12-382165-2.00242-7
1950:10.1016/B978-0-12-382165-2.00050-7
1467:10.1111/j.1470-8744.1998.tb01369.x
1422:affinity capillary electrophoresis
1297:
153:
14:
2740:
2421:
2008:Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences
1975:Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences
1942:Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences
1583:Basic HPLC and CE of Biomolecules
1046:. The acrylamide is polymerized
448:{\displaystyle u_{p}=\mu _{p}E\,}
2678:
2667:
2666:
2571:Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
1585:. Bay Bioanalytical Laboratory.
2612:Gel electrophoresis of proteins
2561:Moving-boundary electrophoresis
2501:Capillary electrochromatography
2186:
2129:
2086:
2059:
2032:
1999:
1966:
1933:
1892:
1381:
735:{\displaystyle u_{o}=\mu _{o}E}
106:techniques including capillary
2516:Difference gel electrophoresis
1736:
1522:
1212:profile characteristic of the
949:
923:
1:
2617:Serum protein electrophoresis
2521:Discontinuous electrophoresis
2041:Accounts of Chemical Research
1753:10.1016/S0021-9673(01)95485-8
1439:
2107:10.1021/acs.analchem.8b04741
1361:According to this equation,
230:
7:
2496:Agarose gel electrophoresis
1909:10.1007/978-3-319-21756-7_2
844:of the capillary wall, and
10:
2745:
2475:History of electrophoresis
2162:10.1038/s41467-017-00864-2
1420:A specialized type of CE,
2729:Polymerase chain reaction
2662:
2654:Electrophoresis (journal)
2646:
2625:
2589:
2506:Capillary electrophoresis
2483:
2470:
1745:Journal of Chromatography
1509:Capillary Electrophoresis
1403:polymerase chain reaction
1054:Efficiency and resolution
972:: small multiply charged
857:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
180:high voltage power supply
136:non-covalent interactions
88:Capillary electrophoresis
75:
61:
56:
42:
32:
24:
20:Capillary electrophoresis
2491:Affinity electrophoresis
764:{\displaystyle \mu _{o}}
2068:Pharmaceutical Research
1823:10.1002/elps.1150190215
980:are retained strongly.
355:electrospray ionization
290:Hewlett-Packard Journal
1780:10.1002/elps.200390029
1675:10.1002/elps.200305822
1390:, Na, K, Mg and Ca in
1353:
1252:
1228:
1177:
1150:
1126:
1104:
1026:
959:
882:
858:
834:
833:{\displaystyle \zeta }
812:
765:
736:
691:
667:
629:
602:
582:
555:
533:
449:
403:
300:
286:Agilent Technologies's
163:
2546:Immunoelectrophoresis
2531:Electrochromatography
2142:Nature Communications
1354:
1253:
1251:{\displaystyle R_{s}}
1226:
1178:
1176:{\displaystyle D_{m}}
1151:
1127:
1105:
1024:
960:
883:
866:relative permittivity
859:
835:
813:
766:
737:
692:
690:{\displaystyle u_{o}}
665:
630:
628:{\displaystyle L_{t}}
603:
583:
581:{\displaystyle t_{r}}
556:
534:
450:
404:
402:{\displaystyle u_{p}}
328:photomultiplier tubes
298:
161:
2692:Analytical Chemistry
2638:Isoelectric focusing
2301:Analytical Chemistry
2280:Analytical Chemistry
2240:Analytical Chemistry
2202:Analytical Chemistry
2095:Analytical Chemistry
1710:Analytical Chemistry
1531:Analytical Chemistry
1264:
1235:
1160:
1149:{\displaystyle \mu }
1140:
1116:
1064:
894:
872:
848:
824:
777:
748:
703:
674:
612:
592:
565:
545:
463:
415:
386:
268:). According to the
112:isoelectric focusing
96:zone electrophoresis
2724:Forensic techniques
2633:Electrical mobility
2541:Gel electrophoresis
2313:10.1021/ac00265a031
2292:10.1021/ac00265a031
2252:10.1021/ac00116a010
2154:2017NatCo...8..810R
2053:10.1021/ar00059a004
1669:(10–11): 1397–412.
1543:10.1021/ac00231a037
1042:monomer and a free
697:can be written as:
640:electroosmotic flow
374:Modes of separation
188:electroosmotic flow
108:gel electrophoresis
66:gel electrophoresis
21:
1349:
1248:
1229:
1173:
1146:
1134:theoretical plates
1122:
1100:
1027:
955:
878:
854:
830:
808:
761:
732:
687:
668:
625:
598:
578:
551:
529:
445:
399:
347:mass spectrometers
340:DNA fingerprinting
301:
208:James W. Jorgensen
204:chemical compounds
164:
114:(CIEF), capillary
19:
2701:
2700:
2511:Dielectrophoresis
2405:10.1021/jf011667n
2365:10.1021/jf991368m
2335:10.1021/jf040074k
2214:10.1021/ac049158i
2025:978-0-12-382166-9
1992:978-0-12-382166-9
1959:978-0-12-382166-9
1918:978-3-319-21755-0
1881:on April 13, 2014
1722:10.1021/ac000583v
1621:(24): 4463–4468.
1615:Angewandte Chemie
1592:978-0-9663229-0-3
1507:Baker DR (1995).
1343:
1315:
1288:
1132:is the number of
1125:{\displaystyle N}
1098:
1044:radical initiator
881:{\displaystyle u}
806:
601:{\displaystyle V}
554:{\displaystyle L}
523:
498:
342:") applications.
338:and genotyping ("
110:(CGE), capillary
85:
84:
2736:
2682:
2681:
2670:
2669:
2556:Isotachophoresis
2457:
2450:
2443:
2434:
2433:
2416:
2386:
2376:
2346:
2316:
2295:
2264:
2263:
2235:
2226:
2225:
2199:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1880:
1873:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1747:(347): 191–198.
1740:
1734:
1733:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1660:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1612:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1578:
1555:
1554:
1537:(8): 1298–1302.
1526:
1520:
1519:
1512:
1504:
1487:
1486:
1450:
1401:fragments using
1358:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1340:
1328:
1327:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1295:
1289:
1281:
1276:
1275:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1246:
1231:The resolution (
1182:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1155:
1153:
1152:
1147:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1123:
1109:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1082:
1074:
964:
962:
961:
956:
948:
947:
935:
934:
919:
918:
906:
905:
887:
885:
884:
879:
863:
861:
860:
855:
839:
837:
836:
831:
817:
815:
814:
809:
807:
802:
794:
789:
788:
770:
768:
767:
762:
760:
759:
741:
739:
738:
733:
728:
727:
715:
714:
696:
694:
693:
688:
686:
685:
634:
632:
631:
626:
624:
623:
607:
605:
604:
599:
587:
585:
584:
579:
577:
576:
560:
558:
557:
552:
538:
536:
535:
530:
528:
524:
519:
518:
509:
503:
499:
497:
496:
484:
475:
474:
454:
452:
451:
446:
440:
439:
427:
426:
408:
406:
405:
400:
398:
397:
308:fluorescent tags
270:Beer-Lambert law
221:isotachophoresis
212:Richard D. Smith
184:capillary action
116:isotachophoresis
57:Other techniques
51:Chiral molecules
22:
18:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2719:Electrophoresis
2704:
2703:
2702:
2697:
2658:
2642:
2621:
2585:
2526:Electroblotting
2479:
2466:
2464:Electrophoresis
2461:
2424:
2419:
2399:(15): 4215–20.
2273:
2271:Further reading
2268:
2267:
2246:(20): 3676–80.
2236:
2229:
2208:(23): 6973–81.
2197:
2191:
2187:
2134:
2130:
2091:
2087:
2074:(11): 1663–73.
2064:
2060:
2047:(11): 461–468.
2037:
2033:
2026:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1938:
1934:
1919:
1897:
1893:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1865:
1861:
1850:
1846:
1811:Electrophoresis
1807:
1803:
1768:Electrophoresis
1764:
1760:
1741:
1737:
1716:(21): 5348–55.
1702:
1698:
1663:Electrophoresis
1658:
1652:
1648:
1639:
1637:
1610:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1579:
1558:
1527:
1523:
1505:
1490:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1389:
1384:
1336:
1332:
1323:
1319:
1318:
1310:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1271:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1167:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1073:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1056:
943:
939:
930:
926:
914:
910:
901:
897:
895:
892:
891:
873:
870:
869:
849:
846:
845:
825:
822:
821:
795:
793:
784:
780:
778:
775:
774:
755:
751:
749:
746:
745:
723:
719:
710:
706:
704:
701:
700:
681:
677:
675:
672:
671:
619:
615:
613:
610:
609:
593:
590:
589:
572:
568:
566:
563:
562:
546:
543:
542:
514:
510:
508:
504:
492:
488:
483:
479:
470:
466:
464:
461:
460:
435:
431:
422:
418:
416:
413:
412:
393:
389:
387:
384:
383:
376:
233:
156:
154:Instrumentation
104:electrophoretic
68:
49:
37:Electrophoresis
17:
12:
11:
5:
2742:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2714:Chromatography
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2676:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2431:
2430:
2423:
2422:External links
2420:
2418:
2417:
2387:
2347:
2329:(19): 5791–5.
2317:
2307:(13): 1302–8.
2296:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2227:
2185:
2128:
2101:(1): 372–387.
2085:
2058:
2031:
2024:
1998:
1991:
1965:
1958:
1932:
1917:
1891:
1859:
1844:
1801:
1774:(1–2): 34–54.
1758:
1735:
1696:
1646:
1598:
1591:
1556:
1521:
1488:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1433:DNA sequencing
1387:
1383:
1380:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1307:
1303:
1299:
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1279:
1274:
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1245:
1241:
1170:
1166:
1145:
1121:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1055:
1052:
1032:polyacrylamide
954:
951:
946:
942:
938:
933:
929:
925:
922:
917:
913:
909:
904:
900:
877:
853:
842:zeta potential
829:
805:
801:
798:
792:
787:
783:
758:
754:
731:
726:
722:
718:
713:
709:
684:
680:
622:
618:
597:
575:
571:
550:
527:
522:
517:
513:
507:
502:
495:
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487:
482:
478:
473:
469:
443:
438:
434:
430:
425:
421:
396:
392:
375:
372:
336:DNA sequencing
232:
229:
155:
152:
132:ionic mobility
128:electric field
83:
82:
77:
73:
72:
63:
59:
58:
54:
53:
44:
40:
39:
34:
33:Classification
30:
29:
26:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2741:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
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2715:
2712:
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2709:
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2655:
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2645:
2639:
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2634:
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2630:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2597:DNA laddering
2595:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2551:Iontophoresis
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
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2509:
2507:
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2502:
2499:
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2473:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2453:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2428:CE animations
2426:
2425:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2374:11381/2441649
2370:
2366:
2362:
2359:(8): 3324–9.
2358:
2354:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2232:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2027:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2002:
1994:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1961:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1877:
1870:
1863:
1855:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1817:(2): 224–30.
1816:
1812:
1805:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1754:
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1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1692:
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1680:
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1423:
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1411:
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1395:
1393:
1379:
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1333:
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1324:
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1305:
1301:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1268:
1259:
1243:
1239:
1225:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1206:mass transfer
1203:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1168:
1164:
1143:
1135:
1119:
1110:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1059:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
991:
987:
981:
979:
975:
971:
965:
952:
944:
940:
936:
931:
927:
920:
915:
911:
907:
902:
898:
889:
875:
867:
851:
843:
827:
818:
803:
799:
796:
790:
785:
781:
772:
756:
752:
742:
729:
724:
720:
716:
711:
707:
698:
682:
678:
664:
660:
658:
654:
650:
645:
641:
636:
620:
616:
595:
573:
569:
548:
539:
525:
520:
515:
511:
505:
500:
493:
489:
485:
480:
476:
471:
467:
458:
455:
441:
436:
432:
428:
423:
419:
410:
394:
390:
381:
371:
368:
363:
360:
356:
352:
348:
343:
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144:conductivity
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47:Biomolecules
1461:(1): 9–17.
988:capillary,
282:Gary Gordon
262:micrometers
258:path length
124:electrolyte
2708:Categories
2484:Techniques
2148:(1): 810.
1885:2014-04-09
1640:2014-04-09
1440:References
1040:acrylamide
1015:adsorption
241:absorbance
239:or UV-Vis
192:integrator
176:electrodes
76:Hyphenated
1839:221736283
1551:0003-2700
1367:magnitude
1334:μ
1321:μ
1302:μ
1298:△
1190:Ohm's Law
1185:diffusion
1144:μ
1077:μ
1001:shown in
941:μ
928:μ
852:ϵ
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804:η
800:ζ
797:ϵ
782:μ
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468:μ
433:μ
332:CCD array
316:intensity
278:plug flow
250:polyimide
231:Detection
168:schematic
140:gradients
2673:Category
2647:Journals
2413:12105948
2383:10956110
2343:15366822
2222:15571349
2180:28993621
2123:53217680
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1788:12652571
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1214:pressure
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970:figure 3
657:figure 3
380:velocity
359:volatile
320:incident
274:figure 2
196:computer
172:figure 1
43:Analytes
2685:Commons
2260:8644919
2171:5634487
2150:Bibcode
1831:9548284
1475:9477551
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864:is the
840:is the
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644:cathode
367:eluants
318:of the
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1687:S2CID
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312:Laser
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