467:
1069:
hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology. Various methods are used by researchers such as the measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. It has been found that the hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most convenient method. Recently, Karade et al. have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested a method based on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction. Recent work on aging of lignocellulosic materials in the cement paste showed hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lignin that affects the interface between particles or fibers and concrete and causes degradation.
454:(especially plant-based materials) are used in a variety of building applications, including load-bearing, filling, insulating, and plastering materials. These materials vary in structure depending on the formulation used. Plant fibres can be combined with binders and then used in construction to provide thermal, hydric or structural functions. The behaviour of concrete based on plant fibre is mainly governed by the amount of the fibre constituting the material. Several studies have shown that increasing the amount of these plant particles increases porosity, moisture buffering capacity, and maximum absorbed water content on the one side, while decreasing density, thermal conductivity, and compressive strength on the other.
351:
lower lifetime cost. For example, an asphalt shingle roof costs less than a metal roof to install, but the metal roof will last longer so the lifetime cost is less per year. Some materials may require more care than others, maintaining costs specific to some materials may also influence the final decision. Risks when considering lifetime cost of a material is if the building is damaged such as by fire or wind, or if the material is not as durable as advertised. The cost of materials should be taken into consideration to bear the risk to buy combustive materials to enlarge the lifetime. It is said that, "if it must be done, it must be done well".
968:
1310:
976:
1424:
1200:
1101:
182:
1888:
167:
3933:
874:
545:
148:
3925:
866:
266:
51:
1874:
652:; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer.
846:
1562:, the term "building products" often refers to ready-made particles or sections made from various materials, that are fitted in architectural hardware and decorative hardware parts of a building. The list of building products excludes the building materials used to construct the building architecture and supporting fixtures, like windows, doors, cabinets,
1395:). These include corrosion resistance, durability, low thermal movement, light weight, radio frequency shielding, lightning protection, sustainability, recyclability, and a wide range of finishes. Copper is incorporated into roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, wall cladding, building expansion joints, and indoor design elements.
1163:. In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in the modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements, such as
1010:, and other architectural elements. Fired brick walls are usually substantially thinner than cob/adobe while keeping the same vertical strength. They require more energy to create but are easier to transport and store, and are lighter than stone blocks. Romans extensively used fired brick of a shape and type now called
1301:, using a mixture of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fibreglass rovings, were investigated. With an abundance of gypsum (naturally occurring and by-product chemical FGD and phospho gypsums) available worldwide, Gypsum concrete-based building products, which are fully recyclable, offer significant environmental benefits.
907:
plants, used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while
365:
Pollution costs can be macro and micro. The macro, environmental pollution of extraction industries building materials rely on such as mining, petroleum, and logging produce environmental damage at their source and in transportation of the raw materials, manufacturing, transportation of the products,
953:
from which the family or community will grow and harvest trees to build with or sell. These lots are tended to like a garden. This was much more prevalent in pre-industrial times, when laws existed as to the amount of wood one could cut at any one time to ensure there would be a supply of timber for
410:
The initial energy costs include the amount of energy consumed to produce, deliver and install the material. The long term energy cost is the economic, ecological, and social costs of continuing to produce and deliver energy to the building for its use, maintenance, and eventual removal. The initial
350:
The initial economic cost of building materials is the purchase price. This is often what governs decision making about what materials to use. Sometimes people take into consideration the energy savings or durability of the materials and see the value of paying a higher initial cost in return for a
856:
is one of the oldest of building materials known. "Thatch" is another word for "grass"; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. Many
African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses and sand year-round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell
428:
Social costs are injury and health of the people producing and transporting the materials and potential health problems of the building occupants if there are problems with the building biology. Globalization has had significant impacts on people both in terms of jobs, skills, and self-sufficiency
655:
People building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, created homes that have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe, Asia, as well as the rest of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have remained habitable for
765:
Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest-lasting building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock, with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is a very dense material so it
1602:
allows researchers to develop and test materials quickly, making adjustments and solving issues during the process. Rather than developing materials theoretically and then testing them, only to discover fundamental flaws, rapid prototypes allow for comparatively quick development and testing,
1068:
Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as,
457:
Plant-based materials are largely derived from renewable resources and mainly use co-products from agriculture or the wood industry. When used as insulation materials, most bio-based materials exhibit (unlike most other insulation materials) hygroscopic behaviour, combining high water vapour
224:. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacturing of building materials is an established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as
593:
Wet-laid, or damp, walls are made by using the mud or clay mixture directly without forming blocks and drying them first. The amount of and type of each material in the mixture used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually connected with the quality of the
508:, are used to fill in and cover a woven brush structure. This gives the structure more thermal mass and strength. Wattle and daub is one of the oldest building techniques. Many older timber frame buildings incorporate wattle and daub as non load bearing walls between the timber frames.
1619:. The shares from the construction industry alone were 6% and 11% respectively. Energy consumption during building material production is a dominant contributor to the construction industry's overall share, predominantly due to the use of electricity during production.
1549:
are materials that are either composed of, or created by a living organism; or materials that behave in a manner that's reminiscent of such. Potential use cases include self-healing materials, and materials that replicate (reproduce) rather than be manufactured.
857:
out of favor as industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the
Netherlands, for instance, many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top.
1414:. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile strength or hardness.
2268:
Zoya Kpamma, Z. Mohammed Kamil, K. Adinkrah-Appiah, "Making Wall
Construction Process Lean:The Interlocking Blocksystem as a Toole" , International Conference on Infrastructural Development In Africa (ICIDA), KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana, March 2012.
908:
bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species are better suited for various uses than others. And
415:
of a structure is the energy consumed to extract, manufacture, deliver, install, the materials. The lifetime embodied energy continues to grow with the use, maintenance, and reuse/recycling/disposal of the building materials themselves
1462:. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today.
1241:
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. Glass panes provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside.
915:"Timber" is the term used for construction purposes except the term "lumber" is used in the United States. Raw wood (a log, trunk, bole) becomes timber when the wood has been "converted" (sawn, hewn, split) in the forms of
1268:". These uses though require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by itself.
1014:. Building with brick gained much popularity in the mid-18th century and 19th centuries. This was due to lower costs with increases in brick manufacturing and fire-safety in increasingly crowded cities.
552:
Clay based buildings usually come in two distinct types. One being when the walls are made directly with the mud mixture, and the other being walls built by stacking air-dried building blocks called
2641:
Dixit, Manish K.; Culp, Charles H.; Fernandez-Solis, Jose L. (3 February 2015). "Embodied Energy of
Construction Materials: Integrating Human and Capital Energy into an IO-Based Hybrid Model".
2340:
Sandermann, Wilhelm; Kohler, Roland (January 1964). "Über eine kurze
Eignungsprüfung von Hölzern für zementgebundene Werkstoffe - Studien über mineralgebundene Holzwerkstoffe, VI. Mitteilung".
1589:
To facilitate and optimize the use of new materials and up-to-date technologies, ongoing research is being undertaken to improve efficiency, productivity and competitiveness in world markets.
1002:
material. Fired bricks can be solid or have hollow cavities to aid in drying and make them lighter and easier to transport. The individual bricks are placed upon each other in courses using
702:
Structural mud bricks are almost always made using clay, often clay soil and a binder are the only ingredients used, but other ingredients can include sand, lime, concrete, stone and other
2758:
1339:, and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for the building industries.
1065:
and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making cement bonded composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed.
1223:
foam has been used in combination with structural materials, such as concrete. It is lightweight, easily shaped, and an excellent insulator. Foam is usually used as part of a
1167:, combine the concrete forming and other construction steps (installation of insulation). All materials must be taken in required proportions as described in standards.
3480:
2442:
Demirbaş, A; Aslan, A (August 1998). "Effects of ground hazelnut shell, wood, and tea waste on the mechanical properties of cement22Communicated by A.K. Chatterjee".
1042:
bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood, particles, or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fiberous materials, including
330:; biodegradable to imperishable; indigenous (local) to being transported globally; repairable to disposable; chosen for increased levels of fire-safety, and improved
3411:
1486:
which was known to be in use before 1850 and was used as an underlayment in exterior walls, roofs, and floors and for protecting a jobsite during construction.
1297:
have been used for many years, especially for ceilings, it was not until the early 1990s that serious studies of the strength and qualities of a walling system
803:
National Park, United
Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks throughout the
2422:
1466:
such as ETFE have become an ideal building material due to its high abrasion resistance and chemical inertness. Notable buildings that feature it include: the
1611:
In 2017, buildings and construction together consumed 36% of the final energy produced globally while being responsible for 39% of the global energy related
3405:
466:
2548:
Li, Juan; Kasal, Bohumil (July 2023). "Degradation
Mechanism of the Wood-Cell Wall Surface in a Cement Environment Measured by Atomic Force Microscopy".
2737:
2723:
2309:
3389:
3100:
2270:
1253:, and is very brittle. Additives are often included the mixture used to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as
3428:
3546:
3462:
1148:
and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term "concrete".
747:. Sand is also used as a part of the concrete mix. An important low-cost building material in countries with high sand content soils is the
3377:
1498:. Felt paper has been supplanted in some uses by synthetic underlayments, particularly in roofing by synthetic underlayments and siding by
3551:
1298:
928:
366:
retailing, and installation. An example of the micro aspect of pollution is the off-gassing of the building materials in the building or
1021:
supplemented or replaced fired bricks in the late 20th century often being used for the inner parts of masonry walls and by themselves.
3556:
2765:
3417:
3383:
2589:
2257:
3834:
3498:
942:
is usually used for finishings and furniture. Historically timber frame structures were built with oak in western Europe, recently
829:
buildings can be seen in most major cities, and some civilizations built predominantly with stone, such as the
Egyptian and Aztec
2386:
Hachmi, M.; Moslemi, A. A.; Campbell, A. G. (October 1990). "A new technique to classify the compatibility of wood with cement".
2233:
Smith, Michael G. (2002). "Cob
Building, Ancient and Modern". In Kennedy, Joseph F.; Wanek, Catherine; Smith, Michael G. (eds.).
1612:
2413:
Lee, A. W. C; Hong, Zhongli (1986). "Compressive strength of cylindrical samples as an indicator of wood-cement compatibility".
2006:Étude des mécanismes de transferts couplés de chaleur et d'humidité dans les matériaux poreux de construction en régime insaturé
115:
3474:
3176:
823:
is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United
Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found.
87:
3486:
3456:
3434:
2242:
2217:
2189:
2106:
2081:
3468:
429:
are lost when manufacturing facilities are closed and the cultural aspects of where new facilities are opened. Aspects of
3510:
3371:
3093:
2428:
94:
766:
gives a lot of protection; its main drawback as a building material is its weight and the difficulty of working it. Its
3365:
1907:
770:
is both an advantage and disadvantage. Stone is hard to warm without consuming considerable energy but, once warm, its
287:
68:
1358:, and is the usual choice for metal structural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or
3829:
3166:
2690:
2326:
634:
is both an old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand; nowadays
313:
134:
17:
2159:
The Private Journal of Captain G.F. Lyon, of H.M.S. Hecla: During the Recent Voyage of Discovery Under Captain Parry
295:
3541:
1467:
1264:" can be used to cover the entire facade of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a "
101:
1458:. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of
3622:
2488:
Karade, S. R.; Irle, M.; Maher, K. (30 October 2003). "Assessment of Wood-Cement Compatibility: A New Approach".
1175:
The tent is the home of choice among nomadic groups all over the world. Two well-known types include the conical
1125:. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally
481:
structures are built entirely from plant parts and were used in primitive cultures such as Native Americans and
3897:
3728:
3536:
3526:
3086:
291:
72:
2271:
https://www.academia.edu/2647016/MAKING_WALL_CONSTRUCTION_PROCESS_LEAN_THE_INTERLOCKING_BLOCK_SYSTEM_AS_A_TOOL
1482:
Building papers and membranes are used for many reasons in construction. One of the oldest building papers is
83:
3665:
3531:
3252:
2991:
2801:
2022:"Etude numérique des techniques d'isolation : application à la réhabilitation du bâti ancien en tuffeau"
1902:
811:, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the
446:
3781:
3764:
3718:
3610:
3504:
3400:
3032:
2909:
2880:
2621:
2307:
1952:
1859:
1563:
784:
have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually, different forms of
2575:
3955:
3265:
3212:
1261:
699:
and transported to multiple building locations. These blocks can also be monetized more easily and sold.
371:
3759:
3028:
2817:
1942:
1937:
1224:
2517:"The immediate and short-term degradation of the wood surface in a cement environment measured by AFM"
326:
In history, there are trends in building materials from being natural to becoming more human-made and
3697:
3660:
2751:
1463:
383:
3809:
3702:
3680:
3582:
3445:
3171:
3133:
2979:
2947:
2913:
2122:
Shaffer, Gary D. (Spring 1993). "An Archaeomagnetic Study of a Wattle and Daub Building Collapse".
1922:
1912:
1848:
1593:
1546:
1164:
276:
1260:
The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in the modern culture. Glass "
3928:
3887:
3789:
3644:
3629:
3617:
3492:
3161:
3156:
1917:
399:
280:
241:
61:
2613:
986:
are made in a similar way to mud-bricks except without the fibrous binder such as straw and are
967:
3733:
3692:
3685:
3639:
1514:
1490:
was invented late in the 19th century and was used for similar purposes as rosin paper and for
1392:
1314:
924:
692:
673:
108:
979:
Clay blocks (sometimes called clay block brick) being laid with an adhesive rather than mortar
420:
how the materials and design help minimize the life-time energy consumption of the structure.
3936:
3878:
3723:
3634:
3128:
3052:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2259:
Earliest Chinese building brick appeared in Xi'an (中國最早磚類建材在西安現身)]. takungpao.com (2010-1-28)
1447:
1309:
1191:
membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables, rigid or internal, or by air pressure.
1118:
1081:
975:
1603:
shortening the time to market for a new materials to a matter of months, rather than years.
1423:
3771:
3451:
3423:
3299:
2963:
2860:
2650:
1459:
1359:
1328:
1184:
1024:
706:. The formed or compressed block is then air dried and can be laid dry or with a mortar or
391:
367:
360:
2283:
1566:
components, etc. Building products, rather, support and make building materials work in a
485:
in Africa. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to a
8:
3902:
3675:
3605:
3304:
3247:
3138:
3036:
2933:
2925:
1879:
1160:
892:
has been used as a building material for thousands of years in its natural state. Today,
878:
379:
229:
186:
159:
2654:
1573:"Building products" may also refer to items used to put such hardware together, such as
1199:
760:
3794:
3776:
3207:
3202:
2967:
2929:
2864:
2840:
2733:
2719:
2139:
1893:
1843:
1145:
1114:
816:
533:
451:
387:
327:
31:
2455:
1227:, wherein the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement or insulating concrete forms.
1183:. The tent has been revived as a major construction technique with the development of
695:
since the building blocks can be manufactured off site in a centralized location at a
3856:
3670:
3294:
3237:
3197:
3123:
3069:
2856:
2666:
2238:
2213:
2185:
2162:
2102:
2099:
Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space: An Interdisciplinary Cross-Cultural Study
2077:
1962:
1599:
1444:
1254:
1204:
998:) after they have air-dried to permanently harden them. Kiln fired clay bricks are a
909:
703:
2041:"A review on recent research on bio-based building materials and their applications"
1100:
378:, the total set of greenhouse gas emissions produced in the life of the material. A
181:
3804:
3577:
2951:
2941:
2793:
2729:
2658:
2557:
2528:
2497:
2451:
2395:
2367:
Weatherwax, R C; Tarkow, H (1964). "Effect of Wood on Setting of Portland Cement".
2349:
2131:
2052:
1947:
1856:— Building Product Testing Laboratory in the USA, part of Intertek, based in London
1152:
1138:
1077:
1003:
785:
736:
375:
237:
3824:
3819:
3232:
3222:
3056:
2844:
2805:
2797:
2313:
1620:
1537:
are used for roofing, siding, flooring, ceilings, pipes, flue liners, and more.
1483:
1455:
1428:
1294:
1282:
1187:
and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as
1134:
893:
732:
564:
497:
412:
2353:
687:
are ancient building materials with evidence dating back thousands of years BC.
3912:
3227:
3217:
3016:
Basic material that is used to produce goods, energy, or intermediate materials
2893:
2561:
2533:
2516:
2057:
2040:
1957:
1451:
1399:
1057:
Wood and natural fibers are composed of various soluble organic compounds like
826:
777:
767:
588:
395:
209:
39:
1581:, paint, and anything else bought for the purpose of constructing a building.
3949:
3861:
3846:
3572:
2868:
2166:
1927:
1624:
1510:
1506:
1491:
1332:
1104:
904:
781:
482:
471:
3907:
3892:
3738:
3597:
3242:
3109:
3010:
2670:
1967:
1652:
1559:
1471:
1391:
is a valued building material because of its advantageous properties (see:
1220:
1058:
1051:
1018:
920:
771:
649:
580:
434:
245:
201:
2694:
2469:
Ahn, W.Y.; Moslemi, A.A. "SEM examination of wood-Portland cement bonds".
2182:
Tourism and Change in Polar Regions: Climate, Environments and Experiences
2004:
1596:
may be commercial, academical or both, and can be conducted at any scale.
166:
3851:
3841:
3344:
3309:
3279:
3048:
2715:
1518:
1336:
1271:
1265:
1235:
1216:
1073:
1011:
991:
943:
812:
719:
2501:
1887:
1238:
is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material.
946:
has become the most popular wood for most types of structural building.
171:
3868:
3799:
3324:
3319:
3284:
2399:
1567:
1495:
1324:
1089:
1047:
1028:
808:
696:
560:
430:
2662:
2143:
1151:
For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low
873:
544:
342:
economic, ecological, energy, and social costs of building materials.
147:
3873:
3329:
3289:
3192:
1932:
1853:
1659:
1499:
1487:
1374:
1370:
1340:
1062:
916:
804:
748:
707:
691:
are a more modern type of brick used for building more frequently in
642:
608:
529:
225:
190:
2021:
865:
265:
50:
3395:
3274:
2774:
2686:
Svoboda, Luboš(2018). Stavební hmoty (Building materials), 1000 p.
2135:
2020:
Othmen, Inès; Poullain, Philippe; Leklou, Ali-Nordine (June 2014).
1574:
1432:
1411:
1246:
1110:
939:
935:
830:
800:
669:
635:
614:
553:
525:
478:
233:
217:
175:
151:
1155:, it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as
3334:
3314:
2590:"Rapid prototyping quickly becoming the standard in construction"
2327:"Top 5 Reasons Why Bricks Are The Most Popular Building Material"
1366:
1208:
1188:
999:
950:
796:
744:
740:
639:
568:
559:
Other uses of clay in building is combined with straws to create
331:
35:
1494:. Tar paper has largely fallen out of use supplanted by asphalt
1454:
products that can be molded or extruded into objects, films, or
1076:
from the time of the Romans until supplanted by Portland cement
3587:
3349:
3339:
3078:
1990:
Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0)© Oxford University Press 2009
1407:
1388:
1290:
1286:
1176:
1126:
1122:
1039:
882:
853:
789:
728:
623:
490:
486:
221:
1873:
1327:, or as an external surface covering. There are many types of
949:
Many families or communities, in rural areas, have a personal
869:
A wood-framed house under construction in Texas, United States
618:
construction. The other main ingredients include more or less
3440:
1530:
1351:
1347:
1323:
is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as
1320:
1156:
1085:
1043:
983:
820:
683:
665:
627:
521:
517:
501:
155:
2743:
2235:
The Art of Natural Building: Design, Construction, Resources
437:
are social costs of global building material manufacturing.
3814:
1578:
1534:
1403:
1382:
1355:
1250:
1180:
1130:
1007:
995:
900:
889:
845:
834:
751:
block, which is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks.
724:
619:
599:
595:
249:
213:
205:
3481:
National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association
2210:
Adobe and Rammed Earth Buildings: Design and Construction
1648:
1378:
584:
505:
216:, and even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct
2640:
954:
the future, but is still a viable form of agriculture.
3412:
Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering
1663:
774:
means that can retain heat for useful periods of time.
255:
1331:
used for building. Metal figures quite prominently in
881:(the second tallest wooden structure in the world) in
2385:
2038:
1533:
have been used since the time of the Romans. Special
1159:). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as
917:
minimally-processed logs stacked on top of each other
896:
is becoming very common in industrialized countries.
3406:
Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors
2019:
1869:
659:
1343:is metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity.
1006:. Successive courses being used to build up walls,
75:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2319:
1245:Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and
1545:A relatively new category of building materials,
606:, while low-clay soil is usually associated with
440:
390:. Two concepts in building which account for the
3947:
2366:
2339:
938:is used as a lower-value bulk material, whereas
27:Material which is used for construction purposes
3390:Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors
2738:Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
2724:Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
2487:
2026:32èmes Rencontres Universitaires de Génie Civil
1435:floor in a Canadian highrise apartment building
1203:Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for
1117:building material made from the combination of
962:
927:. The main problems with timber structures are
496:An extension on the brush building idea is the
204:. Many naturally occurring substances, such as
3429:Construction Management Association of America
2045:Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy
2039:Bourbia, S.; Kazeoui, H.; Belarbi, R. (2023).
1443:covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic
334:resistance. These trends tend to increase the
3463:National Association of Women in Construction
3094:
2759:
2576:"The Advantages of ETFE Fluoropolymer Tubing"
2441:
2071:
524:and snow is used to build a shelter called a
3378:Asbestos Testing and Consultancy Association
2237:. New Society Publishers. pp. 132–133.
2179:
1986:"building" def. 2 and 4, "material" def. 1.
1837:
1540:
516:Snow and occasionally ice, were used by the
374:are materials found to be harmful. Also the
2515:Li, Juan; Kasal, Bohumil (September 2022).
2101:. Cambridge University Press. p. 131.
1584:
294:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
30:For other kinds of building materials, see
3101:
3087:
2766:
2752:
3418:Civil Engineering Contractors Association
3384:Associated General Contractors of America
2550:Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
2532:
2203:
2201:
2056:
1274:were invented in the early 20th century.
1031:and typically are perforated with holes.
648:Soil, and especially clay, provides good
314:Learn how and when to remove this message
135:Learn how and when to remove this message
3835:List of tallest buildings and structures
3499:Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
2180:Hall, Michael; Saarinen, Jarkko (2010).
1422:
1313:Copper belfry of St. Laurentius church,
1308:
1198:
1099:
974:
966:
872:
864:
844:
543:
465:
180:
165:
146:
3475:National Kitchen & Bath Association
2547:
2514:
2412:
2207:
2121:
2076:. Oxford University Press. p. 16.
2072:Nabokov, Peter; Easton, Robert (1989).
1477:
788:were used to hold the stones together,
14:
3948:
2643:Environmental Science & Technology
2468:
2198:
2115:
2002:
1623:of relevant building materials in the
957:
602:are usually employed in building with
574:
458:permeability and moisture regulation.
3487:National Tile Contractors Association
3457:National Association of Home Builders
3435:Construction Specifications Institute
3082:
2747:
2232:
489:'s lodge. These were variously named
3469:National Fire Protection Association
2693:. People.fsv.cvut.cz. Archived from
2156:
2096:
1998:
1996:
1553:
1249:, in a very hot fire stove called a
1034:
912:are important for deciding quality.
292:adding citations to reliable sources
259:
256:The total cost of building materials
73:adding citations to reliable sources
44:
3511:Society of Construction Arbitrators
3372:American Society of Civil Engineers
681:, also known by their Spanish name
354:
24:
3366:American Institute of Constructors
2680:
2316:History of bricks wienerberger.com
1908:Biocidal natural building material
1860:EU Construction Product Regulation
1277:
860:
240:work. They provide the make-up of
25:
3967:
3830:Lists of buildings and structures
2709:
1993:
1627:are provided in the table below.
1606:
1381:sometimes overcome their greater
660:Structural clay blocks and bricks
345:
3932:
3931:
3923:
3108:
1886:
1872:
1468:Beijing National Aquatics Center
792:being the most commonplace now.
754:
264:
49:
3924:
2852:Material by orientation or size
2634:
2606:
2582:
2568:
2541:
2508:
2481:
2462:
2435:
2406:
2379:
2360:
2333:
2301:
2276:
2262:
2251:
2226:
2161:. J. Murray. pp. 280–281.
1084:also sometimes are filled with
931:and moisture-related problems.
539:
511:
500:process in which clay soils or
423:
405:
60:needs additional citations for
3898:Sustainability in construction
3729:Modern methods of construction
2718:– Bilingual (Spanish/English)
2173:
2150:
2090:
2065:
2032:
2013:
2003:Bennai, Fares (28 June 2017).
1980:
1792:softwood plywood & veneer
1748:hardwood plywood & veneer
1293:. Although plaster and fibres
761:Rock (geology) § Building
598:being used. Larger amounts of
441:Naturally occurring substances
13:
1:
3666:Building services engineering
2992:Certified reference materials
2802:Alternative natural materials
2773:
2578:. Fluorotherm. April 1, 2015.
2456:10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00064-7
2208:McHenry, Paul Graham (1984).
2157:Lyon, George Francis (1824).
1974:
1903:Alternative natural materials
528:. Ice has also been used for
447:Alternative natural materials
3782:Construction equipment theft
3505:Scottish Building Federation
3401:Construction History Society
3033:Building insulation material
2910:Strongly correlated material
2622:World Green Building Council
2444:Cement and Concrete Research
2124:Journal of Field Archaeology
2074:Native American Architecture
1953:Phenomenology (architecture)
1513:membranes used for roofing,
1505:There are a wide variety of
963:Fired bricks and clay blocks
386:, recycling, or disposal of
7:
3213:Chartered Building Surveyor
3177:Water supply and sanitation
2730:Informes de la Construcción
2614:"Global Status Report 2017"
2388:Wood Science and Technology
2354:10.1515/hfsg.1964.18.1-2.53
2329:. primedb.co. May 11, 2017.
1928:Hemp as a building material
1865:
1524:
1418:
1095:
1080:in the early 20th century.
1054:have been used as binders.
372:Red List building materials
220:and other structures, like
10:
3972:
3760:List of building materials
3029:List of building materials
2818:Extraterrestrial materials
2716:Materiales de Construcción
2562:10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-14910
2534:10.1617/s11527-022-01988-8
2058:10.1007/s40243-023-00234-7
1943:Materiality (architecture)
1938:List of building materials
1398:Other metals used include
1225:structural insulated panel
1027:(clay blocks) are clay or
833:and the structures of the
758:
717:
663:
578:
493:, lean-tos, and so forth.
444:
394:of building materials are
358:
29:
3921:
3747:
3711:
3698:Environmental engineering
3661:Architectural engineering
3653:
3596:
3565:
3519:
3358:
3261:
3185:
3149:
3116:
3067:
3043:
3021:
3009:
3002:
2986:
2974:
2958:
2940:
2920:
2888:
2879:
2851:
2835:
2828:
2812:
2788:
2781:
2184:. Routledge. p. 30.
1988:Oxford English Dictionary
1838:Testing and certification
1639:
1634:
1547:living building materials
1541:Living building materials
1464:High performance plastics
1354:whose major component is
1170:
1165:insulating concrete forms
1144:After mixing, the cement
840:
819:) and into modern times.
189:shows different types of
3703:Geotechnical engineering
3681:Construction engineering
3446:Home Builders Federation
3172:Timeline of architecture
3134:Underground construction
2980:Thermoelectric materials
2948:Special nuclear material
2914:Electroshapable material
2521:Materials and Structures
1913:Glass in green buildings
1849:UL (safety organization)
1770:mineral wool insulation
1594:research and development
1585:Research and development
1304:
1230:
925:light-frame construction
548:Sod buildings in Iceland
461:
3888:Real estate development
3790:Construction management
3645:Vernacular architecture
3630:Indigenous architecture
3618:Industrial architecture
3493:Railway Tie Association
2415:Forest Products Journal
2369:Forest Products Journal
2290:. Australian Government
1918:Green building and wood
1335:structures such as the
1289:plaster and fibreglass
1194:
971:A pile of fired bricks.
713:
689:Compressed earth blocks
400:sustainable development
3734:Monocrete construction
3693:Earthquake engineering
3686:Structural engineering
3640:Landscape architecture
3167:Structural engineering
2829:Materials by structure
2691:"Download = Souhlasím"
2212:. Wiley. p. 104.
1515:basement waterproofing
1436:
1393:Copper in architecture
1317:
1315:Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler
1212:
1107:
980:
972:
903:, and sometimes other
886:
870:
850:
693:industrialized society
674:compressed earth block
645:compressors are used.
549:
536:in northern climates.
475:
194:
193:and stone foundations.
178:
163:
3724:Earthbag construction
3635:Interior architecture
3129:Offshore construction
2906:Hyperelastic material
2902:Self-healing material
2898:Phase-change material
2881:Materials by property
2009:(Thesis) (in French).
1426:
1312:
1202:
1121:and a binder such as
1103:
1025:Structural clay tiles
978:
970:
899:Wood is a product of
876:
868:
848:
547:
469:
200:is material used for
184:
169:
150:
3772:Construction bidding
3452:Lighting Association
3424:The Concrete Society
3300:Construction foreman
3053:List of biomaterials
2964:Combustible material
2861:Orthotropic material
2097:Kent, Susan (1993).
1478:Papers and membranes
1215:Recently, synthetic
1185:tensile architecture
1072:Bricks were laid in
392:ecological economics
368:indoor air pollution
361:Ecological footprint
288:improve this section
69:improve this article
3903:Unfinished building
3676:Coastal engineering
3305:Construction worker
3248:Structural engineer
3139:Tunnel construction
3037:Structural material
2934:Mesoporous material
2926:Ultralight material
2921:Density or hardness
2782:Materials by origin
2655:2015EnST...49.1936D
2502:10.1515/HF.2003.101
2273:accessed 12/11/2013
1880:Architecture portal
1631:
1161:reinforced concrete
958:Man-made substances
879:Gliwice Radio Tower
799:-strewn uplands of
656:hundreds of years.
575:Wet-laid clay walls
452:Bio-based materials
380:life-cycle analysis
187:Beacon Hill, Boston
160:reinforced concrete
84:"Building material"
3956:Building materials
3795:Construction waste
3777:Construction delay
3208:Building officials
3203:Building estimator
3023:Building materials
2975:Thermal properties
2968:Energetic material
2930:Superhard material
2889:Designed materials
2865:Nanophase material
2841:Composite material
2836:Combined materials
2734:Scientific journal
2720:Scientific journal
2400:10.1007/BF00227055
2312:2013-04-02 at the
1894:Engineering portal
1844:ASTM International
1630:
1437:
1362:lasts a long time.
1318:
1213:
1108:
1088:or covered with a
981:
973:
923:construction, and
910:growing conditions
887:
871:
851:
817:Dartmoor longhouse
550:
534:tourist attraction
476:
388:construction waste
382:also includes the
195:
179:
164:
32:Household hardware
3943:
3942:
3786:Construction loan
3755:Building material
3671:Civil engineering
3295:Concrete finisher
3238:Quantity surveyor
3198:Building engineer
3124:Home construction
3076:
3075:
3070:Materials science
3063:
3062:
3044:Use in human body
2998:
2997:
2875:
2874:
2857:Layered materials
2824:
2823:
2794:Natural materials
2663:10.1021/es503896v
2244:978-0-86571-433-5
2219:978-0-471-87677-9
2191:978-1-136-97199-0
2108:978-0-521-44577-1
2083:978-0-19-506665-4
1963:Thermal emittance
1835:
1834:
1781:primary aluminum
1600:Rapid prototyping
1554:Building products
1255:bulletproof glass
1179:and the circular
1035:Cement composites
324:
323:
316:
198:Building material
170:Wooden church in
145:
144:
137:
119:
18:Building Material
16:(Redirected from
3963:
3935:
3934:
3927:
3926:
3810:Design–bid–build
3578:Construction law
3103:
3096:
3089:
3080:
3079:
3007:
3006:
3003:Materials by use
2952:Fertile material
2942:Nuclear material
2886:
2885:
2833:
2832:
2798:Biotic materials
2786:
2785:
2768:
2761:
2754:
2745:
2744:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2675:
2674:
2649:(3): 1936–1945.
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2618:www.worldgbc.org
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2594:The Manufacturer
2586:
2580:
2579:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2450:(8): 1101–1104.
2439:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2421:(11–12): 87–90.
2410:
2404:
2403:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2323:
2317:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2280:
2274:
2266:
2260:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2205:
2196:
2195:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1991:
1984:
1948:Natural building
1896:
1891:
1890:
1882:
1877:
1876:
1632:
1629:
1285:is a mixture of
1257:or lightbulbs).
1207:at CIBC bank in
1153:tensile strength
934:In modern times
731:, and sometimes
376:carbon footprint
355:Ecological costs
319:
312:
308:
305:
299:
268:
260:
158:used to build a
140:
133:
129:
126:
120:
118:
77:
53:
45:
21:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3917:
3825:Interior design
3820:Heavy equipment
3743:
3707:
3649:
3592:
3561:
3515:
3354:
3263:
3257:
3233:Project manager
3223:Civil estimator
3181:
3145:
3112:
3107:
3077:
3072:
3059:
3057:Dental material
3039:
3017:
2994:
2982:
2970:
2954:
2936:
2916:
2871:
2847:
2845:Hybrid material
2820:
2808:
2806:Parent material
2777:
2772:
2712:
2700:
2698:
2689:
2683:
2681:Further reading
2678:
2639:
2635:
2626:
2624:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2598:
2596:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2546:
2542:
2513:
2509:
2486:
2482:
2467:
2463:
2440:
2436:
2425:
2411:
2407:
2384:
2380:
2365:
2361:
2338:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2314:Wayback Machine
2306:
2302:
2293:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2231:
2227:
2220:
2206:
2199:
2192:
2178:
2174:
2155:
2151:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2070:
2066:
2037:
2033:
2018:
2014:
2001:
1994:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1892:
1885:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1840:
1641:Embodied energy
1621:Embodied energy
1616:
1609:
1587:
1556:
1543:
1527:
1484:red rosin paper
1480:
1421:
1307:
1295:fibrous plaster
1283:Gypsum concrete
1280:
1278:Gypsum concrete
1233:
1205:firestop mortar
1197:
1173:
1135:portland cement
1098:
1037:
990:("burned" in a
965:
960:
894:engineered wood
863:
861:Wood and timber
843:
778:Dry-stone walls
763:
757:
722:
716:
676:
664:Main articles:
662:
591:
579:Main articles:
577:
565:wattle and daub
542:
514:
498:wattle and daub
464:
449:
443:
426:
413:embodied energy
408:
363:
357:
348:
320:
309:
303:
300:
285:
269:
258:
141:
130:
124:
121:
78:
76:
66:
54:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3969:
3959:
3958:
3941:
3940:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3913:Urban planning
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3871:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3668:
3663:
3657:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3602:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3567:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3552:United Kingdom
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3460:
3454:
3449:
3443:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3409:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3387:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3362:
3360:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3262:Trades workers
3259:
3258:
3256:
3255:
3253:Superintendent
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3228:Clerk of works
3225:
3220:
3218:Civil engineer
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3131:
3126:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3106:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3083:
3074:
3073:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3027:
3025:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3004:
3000:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2962:
2960:
2959:Energy content
2956:
2955:
2946:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2917:
2894:Smart material
2892:
2890:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2855:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2839:
2837:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2792:
2790:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2771:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2727:
2711:
2710:External links
2708:
2707:
2706:
2687:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2633:
2605:
2581:
2567:
2540:
2507:
2496:(6): 672–680.
2480:
2461:
2434:
2405:
2394:(4): 345–354.
2378:
2359:
2348:(1–2): 53–59.
2332:
2318:
2300:
2284:"Thermal mass"
2275:
2261:
2250:
2243:
2225:
2218:
2197:
2190:
2172:
2149:
2136:10.2307/530354
2114:
2107:
2089:
2082:
2064:
2051:(2): 117–139.
2031:
2012:
1992:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1958:Prefabrication
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1883:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1851:
1846:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1656:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1614:
1608:
1607:Sustainability
1605:
1586:
1583:
1555:
1552:
1542:
1539:
1526:
1523:
1479:
1476:
1452:polymerization
1431:penetrating a
1420:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1396:
1386:
1373:resistance of
1363:
1306:
1303:
1279:
1276:
1232:
1229:
1196:
1193:
1172:
1169:
1097:
1094:
1036:
1033:
964:
961:
959:
956:
862:
859:
849:Toda tribe hut
842:
839:
837:civilization.
768:energy density
756:
753:
715:
712:
661:
658:
589:cob (building)
576:
573:
541:
538:
513:
510:
474:in a brush hut
463:
460:
445:Main article:
442:
439:
425:
422:
407:
404:
396:green building
359:Main article:
356:
353:
347:
346:Economic costs
344:
322:
321:
272:
270:
263:
257:
254:
143:
142:
57:
55:
48:
40:Star formation
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3968:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3938:
3930:
3920:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3880:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3847:Megastructure
3845:
3843:
3840:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3750:
3746:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3573:Building code
3571:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3558:
3557:United States
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3379:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3359:Organizations
3357:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3260:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3099:
3097:
3092:
3090:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3071:
3066:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2870:
2869:Nanomaterials
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2831:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2764:
2762:
2757:
2755:
2750:
2749:
2746:
2739:
2736:published by
2735:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:published by
2721:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2697:on 2013-10-16
2696:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2609:
2595:
2591:
2585:
2577:
2571:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2490:Holzforschung
2484:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2430:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2342:Holzforschung
2336:
2328:
2322:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2272:
2265:
2258:
2254:
2246:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2202:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1997:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1875:
1870:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1814:virgin steel
1813:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1590:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1551:
1548:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1511:waterproofing
1508:
1507:damp proofing
1503:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1333:prefabricated
1330:
1326:
1322:
1316:
1311:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1262:curtain walls
1258:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1237:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1106:
1105:Falkirk Wheel
1102:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1082:Cement blocks
1079:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1059:carbohydrates
1055:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
977:
969:
955:
952:
947:
945:
941:
937:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
913:
911:
906:
902:
897:
895:
891:
884:
880:
875:
867:
858:
855:
847:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
793:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
773:
769:
762:
755:Stone or rock
752:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
727:is used with
726:
721:
711:
709:
705:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
685:
680:
675:
671:
667:
657:
653:
651:
646:
644:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
616:
611:
610:
605:
601:
597:
590:
586:
582:
572:
570:
566:
562:
557:
555:
546:
537:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
509:
507:
503:
499:
494:
492:
488:
484:
483:pygmy peoples
480:
473:
468:
459:
455:
453:
448:
438:
436:
432:
421:
419:
414:
403:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
362:
352:
343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
318:
315:
307:
297:
293:
289:
283:
282:
278:
273:This section
271:
267:
262:
261:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
192:
188:
185:This wall in
183:
177:
173:
168:
161:
157:
153:
149:
139:
136:
128:
125:December 2013
117:
114:
110:
107:
103:
100:
96:
93:
89:
86: –
85:
81:
80:Find sources:
74:
70:
64:
63:
58:This article
56:
52:
47:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3908:Urban design
3893:Stonemasonry
3805:Design–build
3754:
3748:Other topics
3739:Slip forming
3598:Architecture
3243:Site manager
3162:Construction
3157:Architecture
3110:Construction
3022:
3011:Raw material
2987:Legal status
2699:. Retrieved
2695:the original
2646:
2642:
2636:
2625:. Retrieved
2617:
2608:
2597:. Retrieved
2593:
2584:
2570:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2474:
2471:Wood Science
2470:
2464:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2321:
2303:
2292:. Retrieved
2287:
2278:
2264:
2253:
2234:
2228:
2209:
2181:
2175:
2158:
2152:
2130:(1): 59–75.
2127:
2123:
2117:
2098:
2092:
2073:
2067:
2048:
2044:
2034:
2025:
2015:
2005:
1987:
1982:
1968:Thermal mass
1825:wood lumber
1658:
1647:
1640:
1635:
1610:
1598:
1591:
1588:
1572:
1560:market place
1557:
1544:
1528:
1519:geomembranes
1504:
1492:gravel roofs
1481:
1472:Eden Project
1448:condensation
1440:
1438:
1319:
1281:
1272:Glass bricks
1270:
1259:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1221:polyurethane
1214:
1174:
1150:
1143:
1109:
1071:
1067:
1056:
1052:carbon-fiber
1038:
1023:
1019:cinder block
1016:
1012:Roman bricks
987:
982:
948:
933:
921:timber frame
914:
898:
888:
852:
825:
815:period (see
794:
776:
772:thermal mass
764:
723:
701:
688:
682:
678:
677:
654:
650:thermal mass
647:
632:Rammed earth
631:
613:
607:
603:
592:
581:rammed earth
558:
551:
540:Mud and clay
520:peoples for
515:
512:Ice and snow
495:
477:
456:
450:
435:labor rights
427:
424:Social costs
417:
409:
406:Energy costs
364:
349:
339:
335:
325:
310:
301:
286:Please help
274:
202:construction
197:
196:
131:
122:
112:
105:
98:
91:
79:
67:Please help
62:verification
59:
3852:Plasterwork
3842:Megaproject
3654:Engineering
3583:Site safety
3345:Steel fixer
3310:Electrician
3280:Boilermaker
3186:Professions
3049:Biomaterial
2789:From nature
2477:(2): 77–82.
1726:flat glass
1529:Fired clay
1377:alloys and
1369:and better
1350:is a metal
1337:Quonset hut
1325:skyscrapers
1266:space frame
1236:Glassmaking
1217:polystyrene
1074:lime mortar
992:brick clamp
944:douglas fir
720:sand mining
470:A group of
3869:Parge coat
3800:Demolition
3566:Regulation
3520:By country
3325:Millwright
3320:Ironworker
3285:Bricklayer
2813:From space
2701:2018-10-03
2627:2019-03-12
2599:2021-09-30
2375:: 567–568.
2294:2020-08-17
1975:References
1500:housewraps
1496:felt paper
1460:plasticity
1365:The lower
1090:parge coat
1063:glycosides
1048:fiberglass
1029:terracotta
809:Bronze Age
807:and early
759:See also:
735:, to make
718:See also:
697:brickworks
679:Mud-bricks
640:mechanical
630:/grasses.
567:, and mud
561:light clay
554:mud bricks
530:ice hotels
504:, usually
431:fair trade
248:including
246:structures
230:insulation
154:and steel
95:newspapers
3874:Roughcast
3330:Plasterer
3290:Carpenter
3193:Architect
2775:Materials
2288:Your Home
2167:367961511
1933:Hempcrete
1923:Greystone
1854:ETL SEMKO
1704:concrete
1617:emissions
1592:Material
1570:fashion.
1488:Tar paper
1439:The term
1375:aluminium
1371:corrosion
1341:Corrosion
1299:Rapidwall
1247:silicates
1119:aggregate
1115:composite
929:fire risk
805:Neolithic
749:Sandcrete
743:work and
708:clay slip
643:pneumatic
609:sod house
340:long-term
328:composite
304:June 2022
275:does not
226:carpentry
218:buildings
191:brickwork
3950:Category
3937:Category
3862:Proofing
3765:Millwork
3396:Build UK
3275:Banksman
2740:, Spain.
2726:, Spain.
2671:25561008
2310:Archived
1866:See also
1636:Material
1575:caulking
1564:millwork
1525:Ceramics
1474:biomes.
1470:and the
1441:plastics
1433:concrete
1427:Plastic
1419:Plastics
1412:titanium
1146:hydrates
1111:Concrete
1096:Concrete
940:hardwood
936:softwood
831:pyramids
813:Medieval
801:Dartmoor
670:mudbrick
615:sod roof
526:quinzhee
242:habitats
234:plumbing
212:, sand,
176:Slovakia
172:Bodružal
152:Concrete
3929:Outline
3879:Harling
3712:Methods
3623:British
3542:Romania
3465:(NAWIC)
3414:(CIPHE)
3408:(CICES)
3335:Plumber
3315:Glazier
3150:History
2651:Bibcode
2429:8084764
1817:10,390
1784:80,170
1773:12,600
1751:15,190
1740:10,380
1737:gypsum
1729:10,620
1718:25,770
1715:copper
1696:15,200
1682:cement
1671:bricks
1568:modular
1558:In the
1445:organic
1367:density
1360:treated
1291:rovings
1209:Toronto
1000:ceramic
951:woodlot
905:fibrous
885:(2012).
797:granite
745:plaster
741:masonry
704:binders
569:plaster
491:wikiups
472:Mohaves
336:initial
332:seismic
296:removed
281:sources
238:roofing
222:bridges
109:scholar
36:Biology
3588:Zoning
3547:Turkey
3501:(RICS)
3489:(NTCA)
3477:(NKBA)
3471:(NFPA)
3459:(NAHB)
3431:(CMAA)
3420:(CECA)
3392:(APHC)
3380:(ATAC)
3374:(ASCE)
3350:Welder
3340:Roofer
2669:
2426:
2241:
2216:
2188:
2165:
2144:530354
2142:
2105:
2080:
1828:2,700
1806:1,430
1803:stone
1795:3,970
1787:186.5
1762:1,920
1685:3,230
1674:1,600
1531:bricks
1517:, and
1456:fibers
1410:, and
1408:silver
1400:chrome
1389:Copper
1329:metals
1287:gypsum
1189:fabric
1177:teepee
1171:Fabric
1157:rebars
1127:gravel
1123:cement
1078:mortar
1050:, and
1040:Cement
1008:arches
1004:mortar
984:Bricks
883:Poland
854:Thatch
841:Thatch
790:cement
786:mortar
737:mortar
729:cement
672:, and
624:gravel
587:, and
522:igloos
487:beaver
236:, and
111:
104:
97:
90:
82:
38:, and
3606:Style
3537:Japan
3527:India
3507:(SBF)
3495:(RTA)
3483:(NRC)
3448:(HBF)
3441:FIDIC
3437:(CSI)
3386:(AGC)
3368:(AIC)
3117:Types
2556:(7).
2527:(7).
2423:INIST
2140:JSTOR
1820:24.2
1776:29.3
1759:lime
1754:35.3
1743:24.1
1732:24.7
1721:59.9
1699:35.4
1693:clay
1579:glues
1535:tiles
1429:pipes
1352:alloy
1348:Steel
1321:Metal
1305:Metal
1231:Glass
1139:water
1113:is a
1086:grout
1044:paper
988:fired
901:trees
827:Stone
821:Slate
684:adobe
666:adobe
636:forms
628:straw
532:as a
518:Inuit
479:Brush
462:Brush
384:reuse
250:homes
210:rocks
162:floor
156:rebar
116:JSTOR
102:books
3857:Damp
3815:DfMA
3719:List
3611:List
3532:Iran
3266:List
2667:PMID
2239:ISBN
2214:ISBN
2186:ISBN
2163:OCLC
2103:ISBN
2078:ISBN
1831:6.3
1809:3.3
1798:9.2
1765:4.5
1710:1.3
1707:580
1688:7.5
1677:3.7
1509:and
1404:gold
1383:cost
1356:iron
1251:kiln
1195:Foam
1181:yurt
1137:and
1131:sand
1129:and
1017:The
996:kiln
890:Wood
877:The
835:Inca
795:The
782:huts
780:and
739:for
733:lime
725:Sand
714:Sand
638:and
626:and
620:sand
600:clay
596:soil
502:dung
433:and
398:and
338:and
279:any
277:cite
244:and
214:wood
206:clay
88:news
2659:doi
2558:doi
2529:doi
2498:doi
2452:doi
2396:doi
2350:doi
2132:doi
2053:doi
1649:Btu
1450:or
1379:tin
1219:or
1133:),
994:or
612:or
604:cob
585:sod
506:cow
418:and
290:by
174:in
71:by
3952::
3055:,
3051::
3035:,
3031:,
2966:,
2950:,
2932:,
2928:,
2912:,
2908:,
2904:,
2900:,
2896:,
2867:,
2863:,
2859:,
2843:,
2804:,
2800:,
2796:,
2732:–
2665:.
2657:.
2647:49
2645:.
2620:.
2616:.
2592:.
2554:35
2552:.
2525:55
2523:.
2519:.
2494:57
2492:.
2475:13
2473:.
2448:28
2446:.
2419:36
2417:.
2392:24
2390:.
2373:14
2371:.
2346:18
2344:.
2286:.
2200:^
2138:.
2128:20
2126:.
2049:12
2047:.
2043:.
2024:.
1995:^
1664:kg
1660:MJ
1653:lb
1625:US
1613:CO
1577:,
1521:.
1502:.
1406:,
1402:,
1141:.
1092:.
1061:,
1046:,
919:,
710:.
668:,
583:,
571:.
563:,
556:.
402:.
370:.
252:.
232:,
228:,
208:,
34:,
3268:)
3264:(
3102:e
3095:t
3088:v
2767:e
2760:t
2753:v
2704:.
2673:.
2661::
2653::
2630:.
2602:.
2564:.
2560::
2537:.
2531::
2504:.
2500::
2458:.
2454::
2431:.
2402:.
2398::
2356:.
2352::
2297:.
2247:.
2222:.
2194:.
2169:.
2146:.
2134::
2111:.
2086:.
2061:.
2055::
2028:.
1662:/
1651:/
1615:2
1385:.
1211:.
622:/
317:)
311:(
306:)
302:(
298:.
284:.
138:)
132:(
127:)
123:(
113:·
106:·
99:·
92:·
65:.
42:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.