20:
1210:, which, they concluded, could extract uranium at a cost of US$ 660/kg. While this was still five times the cost of uranium from ore, the amount of uranium dissolved in seawater would be enough to provide nuclear fuel for thousands of years at current rates of consumption. Bernard L. Cohen showed that all the world’s energy requirements for 5 billion years could be provided by breeder reactors fueled by uranium extracted from seawater without the cost of electricity rising by as much as 1% due to fuel costs. (Considering that rivers refill the oceans continuously and extraction would slightly lower the concentration and thus the rate lost to deposits)
199:
dissolved species are less mobile than the water, resulting in higher TDS concentrations than seawater. Bivalent species such as calcium (Ca) are less mobile than univalent species such as sodium (Na), resulting in calcium enrichment. The ratio of potassium to sodium (K/Na) may increase or decrease with depth, thought to be the result of ion exchange with the sediments.
105:
ropes, casing, and derricks since it was salt resistant. Iron wedges were hung from a bamboo cable tool attached to a lever on a platform constructed atop the tower. The derricks required two to three men jumping on and off the lever that moved the iron wedge pounded into the ground to dig a hole deep enough into the ground to hit the brine.
660:
Lithium mining from geothermal boreholes is a groving project in Europe. Potential sites are
Cornwall (UK), Rhine Graben (France, Germany) and Cesano (Italy). All these sites have a lithium concentration of 200 mg/L or higher. Origin is due to interaction with mica minerals in the granite and/or
194:
varies from much less than seawater to ten times the total dissolved solids of seawater. In general, total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations increase with depth. Most deep groundwaters classified as brines (having total dissolved solids equal to or greater than that of seawater) are predominantly
173:
Geothermal power plants often bring brine to the surface as part of the operation. This brine is usually re-injected into the ground, but some experiments have been made to extract minerals before re-injection. Brine brought to the surface by geothermal energy plants has been used in pilot plants as
652:
In 2016, MGX Minerals developed a proprietary design process (U.S. Provisional Patent #62/419,011) to potentially recover lithium and other valuable minerals from highly mineralized oilfield brine. The company has acquired development rights to over approximately 1.7 million acres of brine-bearing
1112:
Starting in 2002, CalEnergy extracted zinc from brines at its geothermal energy plants at the Salton Sea, California. At full production, the company hoped to produce 30,000 metric tons of 99.99% pure zinc per year, yielding about as much profit as the company made from geothermal energy. But the
476:
is recovered from surface brine of the Dead Sea, at plants in Israel and Jordan. In 2013 Dead Sea brine provided 9.2% of the world production of potash. As of 1996, the Dead Sea was estimated to contain 2.05 million tons of potassium chloride, the largest brine reserve of potassium other than the
113:
Commercial brines include both surface water (seawater and saline lakes) and groundwater (shallow brine beneath saline or dry lakes, and deep brines in sedimentary basins). Brine brought to the surface by geothermal energy wells often contains high concentrations of minerals, but is not currently
207:
Several industries produce brines as by-products. Such industries are dairy, textile, leather, oil industries, etc. Thus, useful materials can be extracted and reused. However in industrial brine other chemicals and inhibitors might limit the ability to extract these useful materials. Innovative
104:
Around 500 BC, the ancient
Chinese dug hundreds of brine wells, some of which were over 100 meters (330 feet) in depth. Large brine deposits under the earth's surface were drilled by drilling boreholes. Bamboo towers were erected, similar in style to modern-day oil derricks. Bamboo was used for
830:
By far the largest source of iodine from brine is Japan, where iodine-rich water is co-produced with natural gas. Iodine extraction began in 1934. In 2013 seven companies were reported to be extracting iodine. Japanese iodine brines are produced from mostly marine sediments ranging in age from
198:
The presence of groundwater with TDS higher than seawater is in some cases due to contact with salt beds. More often, however, the higher TDS of deep sediments is thought to be the result of the sediments acting as semi-permeable membranes. As the sediments compact under burial pressure, the
1048:
Because metallic magnesium is extracted from brine by an electrolytic process, the economics are sensitive to the cost of electricity. Dow had located their facility on the Texas coast to take advantage of cheap natural gas for electrical generation. In 1951, Norsk Hydro started a
1045:. At the end of World War II, all shut down except the plant at Freeport, Texas, although the Velasco plant was reactivated during the Korean War. The magnesium plant at Freeport operated until 1998, when Dow announced that it would not rebuild the unit following hurricane damage.
290:) has been a valuable commodity since prehistoric times, and its extraction from seawater also goes back to prehistory. Salt is extracted from seawater in many countries around the world, but the majority of salt put on the market today is mined from solid
316:
Today, salt from groundwater brines is generally a byproduct of the process of extracting other dissolved substances from brines and constitutes only a small part of world salt production. In the United States, salt is recovered from surface brine at the
1166:. Should recovery ever prove economic, some brines could be significant sources of tungsten. For instance, brines beneath Searles Lake, California, with concentrations of about 56 mg/L (0.056 g/L) tungsten (70 mg/L (0.070 g/L) WO
1049:
magnesium-from-seawater plant at Heroya, Norway, supplied by inexpensive hydroelectricity. The two seawater magnesium plants, in Texas and Norway, provided more than half the world's primary magnesium through the 1950s and 1960s.
182:, California). Boron was recovered circa 1900 from geothermal steam at Larderello, Italy. Lithium recovery has also been investigated. But as of 2015, there is no sustained commercial-scale mineral recovery from geothermal brine.
817:
10 g/L) iodine, while subsurface brines contain as much as 1,560 mg/L (1.56 g/L), more than five orders of magnitude greater than seawater. The source of the iodine is thought to be organic material in
1025:
The first commercial production of magnesium from seawater was recorded in 1923, when some solar salt plants around San
Francisco Bay, California, extracted magnesium from the bitterns left after salt precipitation.
164:
The chemistry of shallow brines used for mineral extraction is sometimes influenced by geothermal waters. This is true of a number of shallow brines in the western United States, such as at
Searles Lake, California.
607:
in
Bolivia is thought to contain the world's largest lithium resource, often estimated to be half or more of the world's resource. As of 2015, no commercial extraction has taken place, other than a pilot plant.
1246:
from seawater were common in the early 20th century. A number of people claimed to be able to economically recover gold from seawater, but they were all either mistaken or acted in an intentional deception.
373:
Brines brought to the surface by geothermal energy production often contain concentrations of dissolved silica of about 500 parts per million. A number of geothermal plants have pilot-tested recovery of
1037:. In 1933, Dow began using an ion exchange process to concentrate the magnesium in its brine. In 1941, prompted by the need for magnesium for aircraft during World War II, Dow started a large plant at
951:
production is derived from brine. The majority is recovered from Dead Sea brine at plants in Israel and Jordan, where bromine is a byproduct of potash recovery. Plants in the United States (
1052:
As of 2014, the only producer of primary magnesium metal in the United States was U.S. Magnesium LLC, which extracted the metal from surface brine of the Great Salt Lake, at its plant in
195:
sodium chloride type. However, the predominance of chloride usually increases with increasing TDS, at the expense of sulfate. The ratio of calcium to sodium usually increases with depth.
1669:
2086:
378:, including those at Wairakei, New Zealand, Mammoth Lakes, California, and the Salton Sea, California. To date, colloidal silica from brine has not achieved commercial production.
1571:
P. Evan Dresel and Athur W. Rose, Chemistry and Origin of Oil and Gas Well Brines in
Western Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Geological Survey, Open-File Report OFOG 10=01.0, 2010.
145:
with salinity greater than seawater, making them attractive for mineral extraction. Examples are the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake. In addition, some saline lakes, such as
1968:"Comments on "Lithium-rich geothermal brines in Europe: An up-date about geochemical characteristics and implications for potential Li resources" by Sanjuan etal. (2022)"
313:(Arab Salt Works). The total salt precipitated in solar evaporation at the Dead Sea plants is tens of millions of tons annually, but very little of the salt is marketed.
600:, which as of 2015 yielded about a third of the world's supply. The brine operations are primarily for potassium; extraction of lithium as a byproduct began in 1997.
585:
production. Whereas seawater contains about 0.17 mg/L (0.00017 g/L), subsurface brines may contain up to 4,000 mg/L (4.0 g/L), more than four
1370:"Minimal Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) strategies for wastewater management and resource recovery – Analysis, challenges and prospects"
1041:, to extract magnesium from the sea. A number of other plants to extract magnesium from brine were built in the US, including one near the Freeport plant at
958:), China, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine, recover bromine from subsurface brines. In India and Japan, bromine is recovered as a byproduct of sea salt production.
96:, and other materials, and are potentially important sources of a number of others. Brine mining supports waste minimization and resource recovery efforts.
813:. Iodine is recovered from deep brines pumped to the surface as a byproduct of oil and natural gas production. Seawater contains about 0.06 mg/L (6.0
61:
in that those methods inject water or chemicals to dissolve materials which are in a solid state; in brine mining, the materials are already dissolved.
2041:
1498:
R. Gordon
Bloomquist, "Economic benefits of mineral extraction from geothermal brines," 2006, Washington State University Extension Energy Program.
1641:
1281:
ppb of gold in seawater, a commercially successful extraction seemed possible. After analysis of 4,000 water samples yielding an average of 0.004
1834:
1808:
2083:
19:
720:
is recovered from shallow brines beneath
Searles Lake, California, by Searles Valley Minerals. Although boron is the primary product,
1911:"Lithium-rich geothermal brines in Europe: An up-date about geochemical characteristics and implications for potential Li resources"
1760:
Dwight
Bradley and others, "A preliminary deposit model for lithium brines," US Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2013–1006, 2013.
1700:
2128:
P. B. Altringer and others, "Tungsten recovery from
Searles Lake brines," US Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigation 8315, 1978.
954:
1509:
649:. Simbol passes the plant's extracted fluid through a series of membranes, filters and adsorption materials to extract lithium.
2153:
1771:
2020:
Jean E. Moran, "Origin of iodine in the Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma: an 129I study" AAPG Bulletin, May 1996, v.80 n.5 p.685–694.
1909:
Sanjuan, Bernard; Gourcerol, Blandine; Millot, Romain; Rettenmaier, Detlev; Jeandel, Elodie; Rombaut, Aurélien (2022-05-01).
1602:
Greta J. Orris, Deposit model for closed-basin potash-bearing brines, US Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2011-1283, 2011.
1170:), contain about 8.5 million short tons of tungsten. Although 90% of the dissolved tungsten is technically recoverable by
1624:
J. R. Davis and J. D. Vine, "Stratigraphic and tectonic setting of the lithium brine field, Clayton Valley, Nevada," in
1444:
2192:
2103:
589:
greater than seawater. Typical commercial lithium concentrations are between 200 and 1,400 mg/L (1.4 g/L).
1206:
In 2012 research for the US Department of Energy, building on Japanese research from the 1990s, tested a method for
57:, or hyper-saline solutions from several industries (e.g., textile industries). It differs from solution mining or
1856:"A revision of lithium minerals thermodynamics: Possible implications for fluids geochemistry and geothermometry"
611:
Commercial deposits of shallow lithium brines beneath dry lakebeds have the following characteristics in common:
2168:
149:
in East Africa, have chemistry very different than seawater, making them potential sources of sodium carbonate.
2029:
1748:
129:
since prehistoric times, and more recently of magnesium and bromine. Potassium is sometimes recovered from the
353:) is recovered from shallow subsurface brines at Searles Lake, California. Soda ash was formerly extracted at
654:
1162:
Some near-surface brines in the western United States contain anomalously high concentrations of dissolved
727:
The brine beneath the Salar de Olaroz, Argentina, is a commercial source of boron, lithium, and potassium.
2290:
657:, an independent laboratory, verified the MGX Minerals petrolithium extraction technology in April 2017.
2285:
641:
for a pilot project aimed at showing the financial feasibility of extracting high-quality lithium from
1967:
1855:
2295:
1369:
1303:
1285:
ppb, it became clear to Haber that the extraction would not be possible, and he stopped the project.
645:
brine. It uses brine from the 49.9 megawatt Featherstone geothermal power plant in California's
638:
1537:
Donald E. White, "Saline waters in sedimentary rocks", in Addison Young and John E. Galley (eds.),
863:. of northwest Oklahoma. The brine occurs at depths of 6,000 to 10,000 feet, and contains about 300
2115:
S. Warren Hobbs and James E. Elliottt, "Tungsten," in Donald A. Brobst and Walden P. Pratt (eds.)
1274:
1207:
856:
38:
1727:
Operation of a mineral recovery unit on brine from the Salton Sea known geothermal resource area
1304:"Environmental impacts of desalination and brine treatment - Challenges and mitigation measures"
1436:
216:
Many brines contain more than one recovered product. For instance, the shallow brine beneath
1796:
1428:
337:
production was recovered from brine. Two plants in the US, at Searles Lake, California, and
133:
left after salt precipitation. The oceans are often described as an inexhaustible resource.
2253:
2214:
1979:
1922:
1867:
1315:
1030:
555:
422:
354:
8:
642:
2257:
2218:
1983:
1926:
1871:
1319:
2003:
1948:
1891:
1585:
1431:
Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World
1397:
1347:
1171:
839:. The main producing area is the Southern Kanto gas field on the east-central coast of
586:
1991:
1935:
1910:
1879:
1033:
began producing magnesium on a small scale in 1916, from deep subsurface brine in the
2265:
2188:
2007:
1995:
1952:
1940:
1895:
1883:
1726:
1514:
1440:
1429:
1401:
1389:
1351:
1339:
1331:
1248:
1113:
zinc recovery unit did not perform as anticipated, and zinc recovery halted in 2004.
34:
1670:"Anson Resources experiences improved exploration success close to Long Canyon area"
1327:
2261:
2222:
1987:
1930:
1875:
1381:
1323:
593:
436:
375:
350:
338:
30:
2090:
1729:(Report). Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations. US Bureau of Mines. p. 3
1646:
1038:
646:
318:
287:
152:
69:
1483:
1269:) did research on the extraction of gold from seawater in an effort to help pay
1835:"Vulcan and Enel to jointly develop Cesano geothermal lithium project in Italy"
1510:"Lithium will fuel the clean energy boom. This company may have a breakthrough"
1385:
1042:
1034:
860:
604:
528:
510:
334:
306:
249:
130:
1628:, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, Utah Geological Association, 1979.
161:
often has brines with chemistry similar to that of the lakes or former lakes.
2279:
2226:
1999:
1944:
1887:
1393:
1335:
1266:
1252:
810:
541:
191:
58:
50:
855:
Since 1977, iodine has been extracted from brine in the Morrow Sandstone of
730:
Circa 1900, boron was recovered from geothermal steam at Larderello, Italy.
1343:
1053:
362:
322:
217:
1262:
836:
358:
146:
142:
54:
178:, New Zealand, and Mammoth Lakes, California), and as a source of zinc (
221:
179:
2069:
William H. Gross, "magnesium from the sea," in: Frank E. Firth (ed.)
1060:
721:
291:
241:
89:
85:
2241:
1368:
Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne (2020-10-01).
1302:
Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne (2020-12-01).
1163:
832:
822:, which also form the source rock for the associated hydrocarbons.
524:
298:
281:
245:
175:
158:
126:
122:
46:
341:, recovered sodium sulfate from shallow brines beneath dry lakes.
1908:
1270:
1256:
948:
582:
237:
233:
93:
81:
73:
2140:
F. F. Wright, "Minerals of the ocean," in Frank E. Firth (ed.),
1553:
F. F. Wright, "Minerals of the ocean," in Frank E. Firth (ed.),
2174:, Department of Physics. University of Pittsburgh, January 1983
1541:, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 4, 1965.
840:
802:
637:
In 2010 Simbol Materials received a $ 3 million grant from the
473:
310:
302:
229:
77:
2104:
ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION FROM GEOTHERMAL BRINES
1642:"Cornish Lithium Releases Globally Significant Lithium Grades"
153:
Shallow groundwater brines associated with saline or dry lakes
108:
2106:, Washington State University Extension Energy Program, 2006.
1809:"Lithium de France: geothermal brines for lithium extraction"
1772:"Could Hawaii Geothermal Plant Become a Windfall for Public?"
819:
806:
717:
597:
225:
208:
solutions such as antiscalant deactivation technology (ASDT)
42:
592:
The largest operations are in the shallow brine beneath the
581:
In 2015 subsurface brines yielded about half of the world's
1494:
1492:
1243:
65:
1486:, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 8 September 2005
297:
Salt is produced as a byproduct of potash extraction from
1797:
https://www.rockstone-research.com/images/PDF/MGX20en.pdf
1489:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1367:
1301:
1255:
in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the same scam in
843:. The iodine content of the brine can be as high as 160
1598:
1596:
1594:
1533:
1531:
1484:
Recovery of Minerals and Metals from Geothermal Fluids
1611:
Stephen M. Jasinski, "Potash," US Geological Survey,
1567:
1565:
1563:
1471:
997:
Seawater, bittern remaining after salt precipitation
906:
Seawater, bittern remaining after salt precipitation
653:
formations in Canada and Utah. According to MGX, the
417:
Seawater, bittern remaining after salt precipitation
2119:, US Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 1973.
1701:"142 ppm Li Assay Result from Artesian Flow Horizon"
1435:. Greenwood (published December 30, 2003). pp.
1422:
1420:
961:
185:
2195:(contains a chapter on gold-from seawater swindles)
1591:
1528:
1662:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1560:
1467:. Springer (published May 18, 2016). p. 1034.
1458:
1456:
724:and other salts are also recovered as byproducts.
211:
2154:“Record haul of uranium harvested from seawater,”
1720:
1718:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1549:
1547:
1417:
2277:
29:is the extraction of useful materials (chemical
1574:
1453:
321:, Utah, and from a shallow subsurface brine at
2169:“Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source,”
2032:, US Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook 2013
1715:
1684:
1544:
915:5,000 to 6,000 mg/L (5.0 to 6.0 g/L)
190:The concentration of dissolved solids in deep
2136:
2134:
1724:
1374:Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering
2205:Haber, F. (1927). "Das Gold im Meerwasser".
1427:Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003).
2185:A Hole in the Ground with a Liar at the Top
1588:, Orocobre website, accessed 17 March 2016.
1408:
850:
109:Types of brines used for mineral extraction
2131:
1426:
805:supply worldwide. Major deposits occur in
2242:"Concentration of gold in natural waters"
1965:
1934:
1853:
1832:
1251:ran a gold-from-seawater swindle in the
618:Closed basin with a dry or seasonal lake
114:used for commercial mineral extraction.
18:
2187:(Salt Lake: Univ. of Utah Press, 2006)
2144:(New York: Van Nostrand, 1969) 406-407.
2073:(New York: Von Nostrand, 1969) 368-372.
1557:(New York: Van Nostrand, 1969) 406–407.
955:Bromine production in the United States
64:Brines are important sources of common
2278:
2239:
1769:
1725:Schultze, L. E.; Bauer, D. J. (1982).
1462:
1277:. Based on published values of 2 to 64
1059:The Dead Sea Works in Israel produces
2204:
1636:
1634:
1063:as a byproduct of potash extraction.
2142:The Encyclopedia of Marine Resources
2071:The Encyclopedia of Marine Resources
1555:The Encyclopedia of Marine Resources
1507:
1482:W. L. Bourcier, M. Lin, and G. Nix,
1363:
1361:
661:in the rocks of the local basement.
168:
1465:Evaporites: A Geological Compendium
1016:42,995 mg/L (42.995 g/L)
938:12,894 mg/L (12.894 g/L)
911:Smackover Formation, Arkansas, USA
368:
274:129,500 mg/L (129.5 g/L)
202:
16:Extracting materials from saltwater
13:
2246:Journal of Geochemical Exploration
1751:, Mineral Commodity Summary, 2016.
1631:
941:Brine at Depth, (Cane Creek well)
333:In 1997 about two-thirds of world
157:The groundwater beneath saline or
14:
2307:
2207:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Angewandte Chemie
2084:Magnesium, industry in transition
1992:10.1016/j.geothermics.2022.102518
1966:Boschetti, Tiziano (2022-11-01).
1936:10.1016/j.geothermics.2022.102385
1880:10.1016/j.geothermics.2021.102286
1854:Boschetti, Tiziano (2022-01-01).
1539:Fluids in Subsurface Environments
1358:
1275:reparations following World War I
1019:Brine at depth (Cane Creek well)
1005:35,200 mg/L (35.2 g/L)
994:56,100 mg/L (56.1 g/L)
962:Magnesium and magnesium compounds
795:Brine at depth (Cane Creek well)
711:Brine at depth (Cane Creek well)
550:Brine at depth (Cane Creek well)
453:22,500 mg/L (22.5 g/L)
442:19,400 mg/L (19.4 g/L)
414:17,700 mg/L (17.7 g/L)
328:
186:Deep brines in sedimentary basins
1208:extracting uranium from seawater
983:1,350 mg/L (1.35 g/L)
919:Deep brine in sedimentary basin
903:2,970 mg/L (2.97 g/L)
784:Deep brine in sedimentary basin
778:Morrow Sandstone, Oklahoma, USA
773:Deep brine in sedimentary basin
697:1,050 mg/L (1.05 g/L)
686:4.6 mg/L (0.0046 g/L)
633:Enough time to concentrate brine
428:5,730 mg/L (5.73 g/L)
2233:
2198:
2177:
2162:
2147:
2122:
2117:United States Mineral Resources
2109:
2096:
2076:
2063:
2046:
2035:
2023:
2014:
1959:
1902:
1847:
1833:GeoEnergy, Think (2022-07-08).
1826:
1801:
1789:
1763:
1754:
1741:
1618:
1605:
1328:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111773
1156:Shallow brine beneath dry lake
927:10,000 mg/L (10 g/L)
792:596 mg/L (0.596 g/L)
708:829 mg/L (0.829 g/L)
700:Shallow brine beneath dry lake
564:Shallow brine beneath dry lake
547:142 mg/L (0.142 g/L)
519:Shallow brine beneath dry lake
464:6,200 mg/L (6.2 g/L)
445:Shallow brine beneath dry lake
431:Shallow brine beneath dry lake
212:Materials recovered from brines
136:
1770:Kaneya, Rui (April 13, 2015).
1501:
1295:
1153:56 mg/L (0.056 g/L)
1103:270 mg/L (0.27 g/L)
892:65 mg/L (0.065 g/L)
781:300 mg/L (0.30 g/L)
770:160 mg/L (0.16 g/L)
624:Igneous or geothermal activity
621:Tectonically driven subsidence
603:The shallow brine beneath the
572:170 mg/L (0.17 g/L)
561:690 mg/L (0.69 g/L)
533:220 mg/L (0.22 g/L)
516:300 mg/L (0.30 g/L)
403:380 mg/L (0.38 g/L)
174:a source of colloidal silica (
1:
1288:
801:Brines are a major source of
655:Saskatchewan Research Council
224:, is or has been a source of
125:has been used as a source of
2266:10.1016/0375-6742(88)90051-9
1265:(the German inventor of the
1231:
1228:
1195:
1192:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1087:
1084:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1004:
1002:Dead Sea, Israel and Jordan
1001:
996:
993:
990:
985:
982:
979:
940:
937:
934:
929:
926:
924:Dead Sea, Israel and Jordan
923:
918:
913:
910:
905:
902:
899:
894:
891:
888:
794:
791:
788:
783:
780:
777:
772:
769:
766:
761:
754:
751:
710:
707:
704:
699:
696:
693:
688:
685:
682:
574:
571:
568:
563:
560:
554:
549:
546:
540:
535:
532:
523:
518:
515:
509:
504:
501:
498:
466:
463:
461:Dead Sea, Israel and Jordan
460:
455:
452:
450:Da Chaidam Salt Lake, China
449:
444:
441:
435:
430:
427:
421:
416:
413:
410:
405:
402:
399:
273:
270:
7:
1116:
694:Salar de Olaroz, Argentina
344:
117:
10:
2312:
1508:Roth, Sammy (2019-10-14).
1386:10.1016/j.jece.2020.104418
1177:
1174:, recovery is uneconomic.
870:
480:
279:
99:
1626:Basin and Range Symposium
1308:Marine Pollution Bulletin
1150:Searles Lake, California
733:
639:U.S. Department of Energy
381:
2227:10.1002/ange.19270401103
2056:T. Krukowski, "Iodine,"
1463:Warren, John K. (2016).
972:Magnesium concentration
851:Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma
825:
664:
627:Lithium-rich source rock
392:Potassium concentration
2102:R. Gordon Bloomquist,
1813:Innovation News Network
1232:0.000004 mg/L (4.0
1213:
1127:Tungsten concentration
1100:Salton Sea, California
1066:
767:Kanto Gas Field, Japan
569:Salton Sea, California
255:
1747:US Geological Survey,
1613:2013 Minerals Yearbook
1188:Uranium concentration
881:Bromine concentration
859:, at locations in the
491:Lithium concentration
361:, from the remnant of
301:brine at one plant in
37:) which are naturally
23:
2240:McHugh, J.B. (1988).
1138:0.0001 mg/L (1.0
744:Iodine concentration
22:
1795:Rockstone Research (
1259:in the early 1900s.
1242:Attempts to extract
1196:0.003 mg/L (3.0
1031:Dow Chemical Company
1013:Paradox Basin, Utah
705:Paradox Basin, Utah
675:Boron concentration
556:Salar de Olaroz mine
423:Salar de Olaroz mine
355:El Caracol, Ecatepec
2258:1988JCExp..30...85M
2219:1927AngCh..40..303H
1984:2022Geoth.10502518B
1927:2022Geoth.10102385S
1872:2022Geoth..9802286B
1650:. 17 September 2020
1320:2020MarPB.16111773P
1224:Gold concentration
1172:ion exchange resins
1088:0.01 mg/L (1.0
1077:Zinc concentration
935:Paradox Basin Utah
789:Utah Paradox Basin
755:0.06 mg/L (6.0
587:orders of magnitude
266:Salt concentration
45:. The brine may be
2291:Chinese inventions
2089:2009-01-07 at the
2082:Marvin Lieberman,
2060:, June 2011, p.74.
2058:Mining Engineering
630:Permeable aquifers
536:Geothermal waters
309:), and another in
24:
2286:Mining techniques
1515:Los Angeles Times
1249:Prescott Jernegan
1240:
1239:
1204:
1203:
1160:
1159:
1110:
1109:
1106:Geothermal brine
1023:
1022:
945:
944:
857:Pennsylvanian age
799:
798:
715:
714:
579:
578:
575:Geothermal brine
471:
470:
278:
277:
169:Geothermal brines
2303:
2296:Economic geology
2270:
2269:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2202:
2196:
2181:
2175:
2172:Bernard L. Cohen
2166:
2160:
2151:
2145:
2138:
2129:
2126:
2120:
2113:
2107:
2100:
2094:
2080:
2074:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2050:
2044:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1938:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1767:
1761:
1758:
1752:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1722:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1697:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1638:
1629:
1622:
1616:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1589:
1583:
1572:
1569:
1558:
1551:
1542:
1535:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1487:
1480:
1469:
1468:
1460:
1451:
1450:
1434:
1424:
1415:
1414:Tom (1989), 103.
1412:
1406:
1405:
1365:
1356:
1355:
1314:(Pt B): 111773.
1299:
1284:
1280:
1235:
1218:
1217:
1199:
1182:
1181:
1141:
1121:
1120:
1091:
1071:
1070:
966:
965:
947:All the world's
916:
875:
874:
866:
846:
816:
758:
738:
737:
669:
668:
594:Salar de Atacama
485:
484:
437:Salar de Atacama
386:
385:
376:colloidal silica
369:Colloidal silica
351:sodium carbonate
339:Seagraves, Texas
260:
259:
203:Industrial brine
59:in-situ leaching
2311:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2238:
2234:
2213:(11): 303–314.
2203:
2199:
2182:
2178:
2167:
2163:
2159:, 22 Aug. 2012.
2152:
2148:
2139:
2132:
2127:
2123:
2114:
2110:
2101:
2097:
2091:Wayback Machine
2081:
2077:
2068:
2064:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2036:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2015:
1964:
1960:
1907:
1903:
1852:
1848:
1839:
1837:
1831:
1827:
1818:
1816:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1780:
1778:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1742:
1732:
1730:
1723:
1716:
1706:
1704:
1703:. 19 April 2018
1699:
1698:
1685:
1675:
1673:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1647:Cornish Lithium
1640:
1639:
1632:
1623:
1619:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1592:
1586:Projects Olaroz
1584:
1575:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1545:
1536:
1529:
1520:
1518:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1490:
1481:
1472:
1461:
1454:
1447:
1425:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1366:
1359:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1282:
1278:
1233:
1216:
1197:
1180:
1169:
1139:
1119:
1089:
1069:
1039:Freeport, Texas
964:
914:
873:
864:
853:
844:
828:
814:
756:
736:
667:
647:Imperial Valley
596:dry lakebed in
483:
384:
371:
347:
331:
319:Great Salt Lake
288:sodium chloride
284:
258:
214:
205:
188:
171:
155:
141:There are many
139:
120:
111:
102:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2309:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2272:
2271:
2252:(1–3): 85–94.
2232:
2197:
2176:
2161:
2146:
2130:
2121:
2108:
2095:
2075:
2062:
2045:
2034:
2022:
2013:
1958:
1901:
1846:
1825:
1800:
1788:
1762:
1753:
1740:
1714:
1683:
1661:
1630:
1617:
1615:, August 2015.
1604:
1590:
1573:
1559:
1543:
1527:
1500:
1488:
1470:
1452:
1446:978-0313313424
1445:
1416:
1407:
1357:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1238:
1237:
1230:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1202:
1201:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1186:
1179:
1176:
1167:
1158:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1136:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1035:Michigan Basin
1021:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1003:
999:
998:
995:
992:
988:
987:
984:
981:
977:
976:
973:
970:
963:
960:
943:
942:
939:
936:
932:
931:
928:
925:
921:
920:
917:
912:
908:
907:
904:
901:
897:
896:
893:
890:
886:
885:
882:
879:
872:
869:
861:Anadarko Basin
852:
849:
827:
824:
797:
796:
793:
790:
786:
785:
782:
779:
775:
774:
771:
768:
764:
763:
760:
753:
749:
748:
745:
742:
735:
732:
713:
712:
709:
706:
702:
701:
698:
695:
691:
690:
687:
684:
680:
679:
676:
673:
666:
663:
635:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
616:
605:Salar de Uyuni
577:
576:
573:
570:
566:
565:
562:
559:
552:
551:
548:
545:
538:
537:
534:
531:
529:United Kingdom
521:
520:
517:
514:
511:Clayton Valley
507:
506:
503:
500:
496:
495:
492:
489:
482:
479:
469:
468:
465:
462:
458:
457:
454:
451:
447:
446:
443:
440:
433:
432:
429:
426:
419:
418:
415:
412:
408:
407:
404:
401:
397:
396:
393:
390:
383:
380:
370:
367:
346:
343:
335:sodium sulfate
330:
329:Sodium sulfate
327:
325:, California.
307:Dead Sea Works
280:Main article:
276:
275:
272:
268:
267:
264:
257:
254:
250:sodium sulfate
213:
210:
204:
201:
187:
184:
170:
167:
154:
151:
138:
135:
119:
116:
110:
107:
101:
98:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2308:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2193:0-87480-840-5
2190:
2186:
2180:
2173:
2170:
2165:
2158:
2157:New Scientist
2155:
2150:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2125:
2118:
2112:
2105:
2099:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2079:
2072:
2066:
2059:
2049:
2043:
2038:
2031:
2026:
2017:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1836:
1829:
1814:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1757:
1750:
1744:
1728:
1721:
1719:
1702:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1671:
1665:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1627:
1621:
1614:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1587:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1556:
1550:
1548:
1540:
1534:
1532:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1504:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1466:
1459:
1457:
1448:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1423:
1421:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:(5): 104418.
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1362:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1267:Haber process
1264:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1253:United States
1250:
1245:
1236:10 g/L)
1227:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1200:10 g/L)
1191:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1175:
1173:
1165:
1148:
1142:10 g/L)
1133:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1114:
1098:
1092:10 g/L)
1083:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1064:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1011:
1000:
989:
978:
974:
971:
968:
967:
959:
957:
956:
950:
933:
922:
909:
898:
887:
883:
880:
877:
876:
868:
862:
858:
848:
842:
838:
834:
823:
821:
812:
811:United States
808:
804:
787:
776:
765:
759:10 g/L)
750:
746:
743:
740:
739:
731:
728:
725:
723:
719:
703:
692:
681:
677:
674:
671:
670:
662:
658:
656:
650:
648:
644:
640:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
613:
612:
609:
606:
601:
599:
595:
590:
588:
584:
567:
557:
553:
543:
542:Paradox Basin
539:
530:
526:
522:
512:
508:
497:
493:
490:
487:
486:
478:
475:
459:
448:
438:
434:
424:
420:
409:
398:
394:
391:
388:
387:
379:
377:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
342:
340:
336:
326:
324:
320:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
289:
283:
269:
265:
262:
261:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
209:
200:
196:
193:
192:connate water
183:
181:
177:
166:
162:
160:
150:
148:
144:
134:
132:
128:
124:
115:
106:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
62:
60:
56:
52:
51:surface water
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
21:
2249:
2245:
2235:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2184:
2183:Plazak, Dan
2179:
2171:
2164:
2156:
2149:
2141:
2124:
2116:
2111:
2098:
2078:
2070:
2065:
2057:
2048:
2037:
2025:
2016:
1975:
1971:
1961:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1863:
1859:
1849:
1838:. Retrieved
1828:
1817:. Retrieved
1815:. 2022-02-22
1812:
1803:
1791:
1779:. Retrieved
1775:
1765:
1756:
1743:
1731:. Retrieved
1705:. Retrieved
1674:. Retrieved
1672:. 7 May 2018
1664:
1652:. Retrieved
1645:
1625:
1620:
1612:
1607:
1554:
1538:
1519:. Retrieved
1513:
1503:
1464:
1430:
1410:
1377:
1373:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1261:
1241:
1205:
1161:
1111:
1058:
1054:Rowley, Utah
1051:
1047:
1028:
1024:
1008:Saline lake
952:
946:
930:Saline lake
867:ppm iodine.
854:
829:
800:
729:
726:
716:
659:
651:
636:
615:Arid climate
610:
602:
591:
580:
558:, Argentina
472:
467:Saline lake
456:Saline lake
425:, Argentina
372:
363:Lake Texcoco
348:
332:
323:Searles Lake
315:
296:
285:
218:Searles Lake
215:
206:
197:
189:
172:
163:
156:
143:saline lakes
140:
137:Saline lakes
121:
112:
103:
63:
27:Brine mining
26:
25:
1972:Geothermics
1915:Geothermics
1860:Geothermics
1263:Fritz Haber
837:Pleistocene
359:Mexico City
147:Lake Natron
55:groundwater
2280:Categories
1978:: 102518.
1921:: 102385.
1866:: 102286.
1840:2022-07-11
1819:2022-07-11
1776:Civil Beat
1521:2019-10-17
1289:References
643:geothermal
502:0.17 mg/L
349:Soda ash (
294:deposits.
222:California
180:Salton Sea
2008:250395603
2000:0375-6505
1953:247240697
1945:0375-6505
1896:244036105
1888:0375-6505
1781:March 13,
1402:225309628
1394:2213-3437
1352:226224643
1336:0025-326X
1229:Seawater
1193:Seawater
1145:Seawater
1124:Location
1095:Seawater
1074:Location
1061:magnesium
986:Seawater
969:Location
895:Seawater
878:Location
762:Seawater
741:Location
722:potassium
689:Seawater
672:Location
513:, Nevada
505:Seawater
488:Location
406:Seawater
389:Location
292:evaporite
271:Seawater
242:phosphate
159:dry lakes
90:potassium
86:magnesium
39:dissolved
35:compounds
2087:Archived
1733:March 9,
1344:33128985
1164:tungsten
1117:Tungsten
833:Pliocene
809:and the
525:Cornwall
439:, Chile
345:Soda ash
299:Dead Sea
282:Sea salt
246:soda ash
176:Wairakei
127:sea salt
123:Seawater
118:Seawater
49:, other
47:seawater
31:elements
2254:Bibcode
2215:Bibcode
2093:, 2001.
1980:Bibcode
1923:Bibcode
1868:Bibcode
1749:Lithium
1654:17 July
1316:Bibcode
1271:Germany
1257:England
1221:Source
1185:Source
1178:Uranium
1130:Source
1080:Source
1043:Velasco
975:Source
949:bromine
884:Source
871:Bromine
747:Source
678:Source
583:lithium
544:, Utah
494:Source
481:Lithium
477:ocean.
395:Source
263:Source
238:lithium
234:bromine
131:bittern
100:History
94:bromine
82:lithium
74:calcium
2191:
2054:
2042:Iodine
2030:Iodine
2006:
1998:
1951:
1943:
1894:
1886:
1707:7 June
1676:7 June
1443:
1439:–256.
1400:
1392:
1350:
1342:
1334:
1283:
1279:
1135:Ocean
1085:Ocean
991:Ocean
980:Ocean
900:Ocean
889:Ocean
865:
845:
841:Honshu
820:shales
803:iodine
752:Ocean
734:Iodine
683:Ocean
499:Ocean
474:Potash
411:Ocean
400:Ocean
382:Potash
311:Jordan
303:Israel
286:Salt (
248:, and
230:potash
78:iodine
2004:S2CID
1949:S2CID
1892:S2CID
1398:S2CID
1348:S2CID
953:see:
847:ppm.
826:Japan
807:Japan
718:Boron
665:Boron
598:Chile
357:, in
226:borax
43:brine
2189:ISBN
1996:ISSN
1941:ISSN
1884:ISSN
1783:2016
1735:2022
1709:2019
1678:2019
1656:2021
1441:ISBN
1390:ISSN
1340:PMID
1332:ISSN
1244:gold
1214:Gold
1067:Zinc
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