Traumatic brain injury

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beginning the "modern era" of head injury. Until the 20th century, the mortality rate of TBI was high and rehabilitation was uncommon; improvements in care made during World War I reduced the death rate and made rehabilitation possible. Facilities dedicated to TBI rehabilitation were probably first established during World War I. Explosives used in World War I caused many blast injuries; the large number of TBIs that resulted allowed researchers to learn about localization of brain functions. Blast-related injuries are now common problems in returning veterans from Iraq & Afghanistan; research shows that the symptoms of such TBIs are largely the same as those of TBIs involving a physical blow to the head.

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injuries, and 100% of severe injuries. Most mild TBI is completely resolved within three weeks. Almost all people with mild TBI are able to live independently and return to the jobs they had before the injury, although a small portion have mild cognitive and social impairments. Over 90% of people with moderate TBI are able to live independently, although some require assistance in areas such as physical abilities, employment, and financial managing. Most people with severe closed head injury either die or recover enough to live independently; middle ground is less common. Coma, as it is closely related to severity, is a strong predictor of poor outcome.

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in high-income countries, which have seen decreases in traffic-related TBI since the 1970s. Each year in the United States, about two million people have a TBI, approximately 675,000 injuries are seen in the emergency department, and about 500,000 patients are hospitalized. The yearly incidence of TBI is estimated at 180–250 per 100,000 people in the US, 281 per 100,000 in France, 361 per 100,000 in South Africa, 322 per 100,000 in Australia, and 430 per 100,000 in England. In the European Union the yearly aggregate incidence of TBI hospitalizations and fatalities is estimated at 235 per 100,000.

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recovering from TBI include: frustration and impatience with one another, loss of former lives and relationships, difficulty setting reasonable goals, inability to effectively solve problems as a family, increased level of stress and household tension, changes in emotional dynamics, and overwhelming desire to return to pre-injury status. In addition, families may exhibit less effective functioning in areas including coping, problem solving and communication. Psychoeducation and counseling models have been demonstrated to be effective in minimizing family disruption.

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intensively with the orthotic treatment of the lower extremities in cerebral palsy. Modern materials and new functional elements enable the rigidity to be specifically adapted to the requirements that fits to the gait pattern of the patient. The adjustment of the stiffness has a decisive influence on the gait pattern and on the energy cost of walking. It is of great advantage if the stiffness of the orthosis can be adjusted separately from one another via resistances of the two functional elements in the two directions of movement,

1408: 828: 963:(MRI) can show more detail than CT, and can add information about expected outcome in the long term. It is more useful than CT for detecting injury characteristics such as diffuse axonal injury in the longer term; however, MRI is not used in the emergency setting for reasons including its relative inefficacy in detecting bleeds and fractures, its lengthy acquisition of images, the inaccessibility of the patient in the machine, and its incompatibility with metal items used in emergency care. A variant of MRI since 2012 is 1749: 1549: 1307: 1426:; however, it can be used just as well in patients with traumatic brain injuries. According to the Amsterdam Gait Classification, five gait types are described. To assess the gait pattern, the patient is viewed visually or via a video recording from the side of the leg to be assessed. At the point in time at which the leg to be viewed is in mid stance and the leg not to be viewed is in mid swing, the knee angle and the contact of the foot with the ground are assessed on the one hand. 1009: 1557: 1831: 493: 1017: 1417:

interdisciplinary communication in the interdisciplinary team between those affected, doctors, physiotherapists and orthotists, a simple description of the gait pattern is useful. J. Rodda and H. K. Graham already described in 2001 how gait patterns of CP patients can be more easily recognized and defined gait types which they compared in a classification. They also described that gait patterns can vary with age. Building on this, the

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Neurological Surgeons/Congress of Neurological Surgeons, Child Neurology Society, European Society of Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care, Neurocritical Care Society, Pediatric Neurocritical Care Research Group, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Paediatric Intensive Care Society UK, Society for Neuroscience in Anesthesiology and Critical Care, World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies (January 2012).

53: 761: 1677:, a set of lasting symptoms experienced after mild TBI, can include physical, cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems such as headaches, dizziness, difficulty concentrating, and depression. Multiple TBIs may have a cumulative effect. A young person who receives a second concussion before symptoms from another one have healed may be at risk for developing a very rare but deadly condition called 636: 670:(muscle weakness that causes disordered speech), weakness or numbness in the limbs, loss of coordination, confusion, restlessness, or agitation. Common long-term symptoms of moderate to severe TBI are changes in appropriate social behavior, deficits in social judgment, and cognitive changes, especially problems with sustained attention, processing speed, and executive functioning. 1439: 1491:

expected to have a good outcome if they receive surgery quickly. Diffuse axonal injury may be associated with coma when severe, and poor outcome. Following the acute stage, prognosis is strongly influenced by the patient's involvement in activity that promote recovery, which for most patients requires access to a specialised, intensive rehabilitation service. The

1290:(DC) is performed routinely in the very short period following TBI during operations to treat hematomas; part of the skull is removed temporarily (primary DC). DC performed hours or days after TBI in order to control persistently high intracranial pressures (secondary DC), although can reduce intracranial pressure and length of stay in ICU, but have worse 1673:, the most common cognitive impairment among head-injured people, occurs in 20–79% of people with closed head trauma, depending on severity. People who have had TBI may also have difficulty with understanding or producing spoken or written language, or with more subtle aspects of communication such as body language. 939: 4629:

Brave Americans who risked everything for their country and sustained traumatic brain injuries – the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan – deserve cognitive rehabilitation therapy to help them secure the best futures possible. It is unacceptable that the United States has been at war

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is used to correlate intracranial pressure with arterial blood pressure to give information about the state of cerebral perfusion, thus guiding treatment and prevent excessively high or low blood flow to the brain. However, such method of monitoring intracranial pressure of equal or less than 20 mmHg

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Biological, clinical, and demographic factors contribute to the likelihood that an injury will be fatal. In addition, outcome depends heavily on the cause of head injury. In the US, patients with fall-related TBIs have an 89% survival rate, while only 9% of patients with firearm-related TBIs survive.

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TBI also has a substantial impact on the functioning of family systems Caregiving family members and TBI survivors often significantly alter their familial roles and responsibilities following injury, creating significant change and strain on a family system. Typical challenges identified by families

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has been known to decrease for individuals with TBI immediately following the trauma, but evidence has shown that life roles, age, and depressive symptoms influence the trajectory of life satisfaction as time passes. Many people with traumatic brain injuries have poor physical fitness following their

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Prognosis worsens with the severity of injury. Most TBIs are mild and do not cause permanent or long-term disability; however, all severity levels of TBI have the potential to cause significant, long-lasting disability. Permanent disability is thought to occur in 10% of mild injuries, 66% of moderate

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can support physiotherapeutic treatment in setting the right motor impulses in order to create new cerebral connections. The orthosis must meet the requirements of the medical prescription. In addition, the orthosis must be designed by the orthotist in such a way that it achieves the effectiveness of

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Kochanek PM, Carney N, Adelson PD, Ashwal S, Bell MJ, Bratton S, Carson S, Chesnut RM, Ghajar J, Goldstein B, Grant GA, Kissoon N, Peterson K, Selden NR, Tasker RC, Tong KA, Vavilala MS, Wainwright MS, Warden CR, American Academy of Pediatrics-Section on Neurological Surgery, American Association of

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In animal models of TBI, sensory processing has been widely studied to show systematic defects arise and are slowly but likely only partially recovered. It is especially characterised by an initial period of decreased activity in upper cortical layers. This period of decreased activity has also been

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allows ongoing sampling of extracellular fluid for analysis of metabolites that might indicate ischemia or brain metabolism, such as glucose, glycerol, and glutamate. Intraparenchymal brain tissue oxygen monitoring systems (either Licox or Neurovent-PTO) are used routinely in neurointensive care in

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The 20th century saw the advancement of technologies that improved treatment and diagnosis such as the development of imaging tools including CT and MRI, and, in the 21st century, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The introduction of intracranial pressure monitoring in the 1950s has been credited with

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Findings on the frequency of each level of severity vary based on the definitions and methods used in studies. A World Health Organization study estimated that between 70 and 90% of head injuries that receive treatment are mild, and a US study found that moderate and severe injuries each account for

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Complications are distinct medical problems that may arise as a result of the TBI. The results of traumatic brain injury vary widely in type and duration; they include physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral complications. TBI can cause prolonged or permanent effects on consciousness, such as

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Improvement of neurological function usually occurs for two or more years after the trauma. For many years it was believed that recovery was fastest during the first six months, but there is no evidence to support this. It may be related to services commonly being withdrawn after this period, rather

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and nursing are critical. The most effective research documented intervention approach is the activation database guided EEG biofeedback approach, which has shown significant improvements in memory abilities of the TBI subject that are far superior than traditional approaches (strategies, computers,

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ward. Treatment depends on the recovery stage of the patient. In the acute stage, the primary aim is to stabilize the patient and focus on preventing further injury. This is done because the initial damage caused by trauma cannot be reversed. Rehabilitation is the main treatment for the subacute and

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by educating about the dangers of shaking children. Gun safety, including keeping guns unloaded and locked, is another preventative measure. Studies on the effect of laws that aim to control access to guns in the United States have been insufficient to determine their effectiveness preventing number

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Falls can be avoided by installing grab bars in bathrooms and handrails on stairways; removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs; or installing window guards and safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs around young children. Playgrounds with shock-absorbing surfaces such as mulch or sand also

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on a scale of 3–15 based on verbal, motor, and eye-opening reactions to stimuli. In general, it is agreed that a TBI with a GCS of 13 or above is mild, 9–12 is moderate, and 8 or below is severe. Similar systems exist for young children; however, the GCS grading system has limited ability to predict

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Silverberg ND, Iverson GL, ACRM Brain Injury Special Interest Group Mild TBI Task Force and the ACRM Mild TBI Definition Expert Consensus Group, ACRM Brain Injury Special Interest Group Mild TBI Task Force members, Cogan A, Dams-O'Connor K, Delmonico R, Graf MJ, Iaccarino MA, Kajankova M, Kamins J,

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does not justify the routine use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to treat people recovering from a traumatic brain injury. This review also reported that only a small number of randomized controlled trials had been conducted at the time of the review, many of which had methodological problems and poor

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Regardless of age, TBI rates are higher in males. Men have twice as many TBIs as women do and have a fourfold risk of fatal head injury, and males account for two thirds of childhood and adolescent head trauma; however, when matched for severity of injury, women appear to fare more poorly than men.

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TBI is present in 85% of traumatically injured children, either alone or with other injuries. The greatest number of TBIs occur in people aged 15–24. Because TBI is more common in young people, its costs to society are high due to the loss of productive years to death and disability. The age groups

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The incidence of TBI is increasing globally, due largely to an increase in motor vehicle use in low- and middle-income countries. In developing countries, automobile use has increased faster than safety infrastructure could be introduced. In contrast, vehicle safety laws have decreased rates of TBI

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is estimated to be 21% by 30 days after TBI. A study on Iraq War soldiers found that severe TBI carries a mortality of 30–50%. Deaths have declined due to improved treatments and systems for managing trauma in societies wealthy enough to provide modern emergency and neurosurgical services. The

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and age over sixty or under two years (in children, younger age at time of injury may be associated with a slower recovery of some abilities). Other influences that may affect recovery include pre-injury intellectual ability, coping strategies, personality traits, family environment, social support

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Prognosis differs depending on the severity and location of the lesion, and access to immediate, specialised acute management. Subarachnoid hemorrhage approximately doubles mortality. Subdural hematoma is associated with worse outcome and increased mortality, while people with epidural hematoma are

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was developed at the free university in Amsterdam, the VU medisch centrum. A special feature of this classification is that it makes different gait patterns very recognizable and can be used in patients in whom only one leg and both legs are affected. The Amsterdam Gait Classification was developed

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In patients who have developed paralysis of the legs in the form of spastic hemiplegia or diplegia as a result of the traumatic brain injury, various gait patterns can be observed, the exact extent of which can only be described with the help of complex gait analysis systems. In order to facilitate

1322:. Rehabilitation aims to improve independent functioning at home and in society, and to help adapt to disabilities. Rehabilitation has demonstrated its general effectiveness when conducted by a team of health professionals who specialize in head trauma. As for any person with neurologic deficits, a 1087:

within three hours of a head injury decreases the risk of death. Certain facilities are equipped to handle TBI better than others; initial measures include transporting patients to an appropriate treatment center. Both during transport and in hospital the primary concerns are ensuring proper oxygen

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Changes to common practices in sports have also been discussed. An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI. Due to the possibility that repeatedly "heading" a ball practicing soccer could cause cumulative brain injury, the idea of introducing protective headgear for players has

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Symptoms are dependent on the type of TBI (diffuse or focal) and the part of the brain that is affected. Unconsciousness tends to last longer for people with injuries on the left side of the brain than for those with injuries on the right. Symptoms are also dependent on the injury's severity. With

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TBI is a leading cause of death and disability around the globe and presents a major worldwide social, economic, and health problem. It is the number one cause of coma, it plays the leading role in disability due to trauma, and is the leading cause of brain damage in children and young adults. In

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or an electrolyte abnormality acutely after injury indicate need for endocrinologic work up. Signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism may develop and be screened for in adults with moderate TBI and in mild TBI with imaging abnormalities. Children with moderate to severe head injury may also develop

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The most common causes of TBI in the U.S. include violence, transportation accidents, construction site mishaps, and sports. Motor bikes are major causes, increasing in significance in developing countries as other causes reduce. The estimates that between 1.6 and 3.8 million traumatic brain

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Many patients with mild to moderate head injuries who experience cognitive deficits become easily confused or distracted and have problems with concentration and attention. They also have problems with higher level, so-called executive functions, such as planning, organizing, abstract reasoning,

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Classification of the gait pattern according to the Amsterdam Gait Classification: In gait type 1, the knee angle is normal and the foot contact is complete. In gait type 2, the knee angle is hyperextended and the foot contact is complete. In gait type 3, the knee angle is hyperextended and foot

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basis. Community-based rehabilitation will be required for a high proportion of people, including vocational rehabilitation; this supportive employment matches job demands to the worker's abilities. People with TBI who cannot live independently or with family may require care in supported living

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and violence. Brain trauma occurs as a consequence of a sudden acceleration or deceleration within the cranium or by a complex combination of both movement and sudden impact. In addition to the damage caused at the moment of injury, a variety of events following the injury may result in further

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The orthotic concepts of the treatment are based on the concepts for the patients with cerebral palsy. Due to these requirements, the development of orthoses has changed significantly in recent years, especially since around 2010. At about the same time, care concepts were developed that deal

674:, a deficiency in identifying, understanding, processing, and describing emotions occurs in 60.9% of individuals with TBI. Cognitive and social deficits have long-term consequences for the daily lives of people with moderate to severe TBI, but can be improved with appropriate rehabilitation. 655:, bad taste in the mouth, fatigue or lethargy, and changes in sleep patterns. Cognitive and emotional symptoms include behavioral or mood changes, confusion, and trouble with memory, concentration, attention, or thinking. Mild TBI symptoms may also be present in moderate and severe injuries. 950:, for example checking whether the pupils constrict normally in response to light and assigning a Glasgow Coma Score. Neuroimaging helps in determining the diagnosis and prognosis and in deciding what treatments to give. DSM-5 can be utilized to diagnose TBI and its psychiatric sequelae. 1790:

fraction of those who die after being hospitalized with TBI fell from almost half in the 1970s to about a quarter at the beginning of the 21st century. This decline in mortality has led to a concomitant increase in the number of people living with disabilities that result from TBI.

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studies vary based on such factors as which grades of severity are included, whether deaths are included, whether the study is restricted to hospitalized people, and the study's location. The annual incidence of mild TBI is difficult to determine but may be 100–600 people per 100,000.

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but failed in clinical trials. These failures could be due to factors including faults in the trials' design or in the insufficiency of a single agent to prevent the array of injury processes involved in secondary injury. Other topics of research have included investigations into

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It was first suggested in the 18th century that intracranial pressure rather than skull damage was the cause of pathology after TBI. This hypothesis was confirmed around the end of the 19th century, and opening the skull to relieve pressure was then proposed as a treatment.

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injuries each year are a result of sports and recreation activities in the US. In children aged two to four, falls are the most common cause of TBI, while in older children traffic accidents compete with falls for this position. TBI is the third most common injury to result from

1923:. The 1990s saw the development and dissemination of standardized guidelines for treatment of TBI, with protocols for a range of issues such as drugs and management of intracranial pressure. Research since the early 1990s has improved TBI survival; that decade was known as the " 1394:; however the preventive use of anti-epileptics is not recommended. In those cases where the person is bedridden due to a reduction of consciousness, has to remain in a wheelchair because of mobility problems, or has any other problem heavily impacting self-caring capacities, 1024:

Since a major cause of TBI are vehicle accidents, their prevention or the amelioration of their consequences can both reduce the incidence and gravity of TBI. In accidents, damage can be reduced by use of seat belts, child safety seats and motorcycle helmets, and presence of

747:(Democrat, NJ), TBI is "the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan." There is a promising technology called activation database-guided EEG biofeedback, which has been documented to return a TBI's auditory memory ability to above the control group's performance 6076:

Rickard AC, Smith JE, Newell P, Bailey A, Kehoe A, Mann C (August 2014). "Salt or sugar for your injured brain? A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of mannitol versus hypertonic sodium solutions to manage raised intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury".

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most at risk for TBI are children ages five to nine and adults over age 80, and the highest rates of death and hospitalization due to TBI are in people over age 65. The incidence of fall-related TBI in First-World countries is increasing as the population ages; thus the

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Thal SC, Schaible EV, Neuhaus W, Scheffer D, Brandstetter M, Engelhard K, et al. (May 2013). "Inhibition of proteasomal glucocorticoid receptor degradation restores dexamethasone-mediated stabilization of the blood-brain barrier after traumatic brain injury".

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Cognitive deficits that can follow TBI include impaired attention; disrupted insight, judgement, and thought; reduced processing speed; distractibility; and deficits in executive functions such as abstract reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and multitasking.

1728:. In patients who have depression after TBI, suicidal ideation is not uncommon; the suicide rate among these persons is increased 2- to 3-fold. Social and behavioral symptoms that can follow TBI include disinhibition, inability to control anger, impulsiveness, 1378:. Social workers, rehabilitation support personnel, nutritionists, therapeutic recreationists, and pharmacists are also important members of the TBI rehabilitation team. After discharge from the inpatient rehabilitation treatment unit, care may be given on an 4114:

Dahlberg CA, Cusick CP, Hawley LA, Newman JK, Morey CE, Harrison-Felix CL, Whiteneck GG (December 2007). "Treatment efficacy of social communication skills training after traumatic brain injury: a randomized treatment and deferred treatment controlled trial".

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Even in the absence of an impact, significant acceleration or deceleration of the head can cause TBI; however in most cases, a combination of impact and acceleration is probably to blame. Forces involving the head striking or being struck by something, termed

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Small children with moderate to severe TBI may have some of these symptoms but have difficulty communicating them. Other signs seen in young children include persistent crying, inability to be consoled, listlessness, refusal to nurse or eat, and irritability.

1681:, in which the brain swells catastrophically after even a mild blow, with debilitating or deadly results. About one in five career boxers is affected by chronic traumatic brain injury (CTBI), which causes cognitive, behavioral, and physical impairments. 1430:

contact is incomplete (only on the forefoot). In gait type 4, the knee angle is bent and foot contact is incomplete (only on the forefoot). With gait type 5, which is also known as crouch gait, the knee angle is bent and the foot contact is complete.

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TBI is a major cause of death and disability worldwide, especially in children and young adults. Males sustain traumatic brain injuries around twice as often as females. The 20th century saw developments in diagnosis and treatment that decreased

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Burgess S, Abu-Laban RB, Slavik RS, Vu EN, Zed PJ (April 2016). "A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials Comparing Hypertonic Sodium Solutions and Mannitol for Traumatic Brain Injury: Implications for Emergency Department Management".

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The Amsterdam Gait Classification facilitates the assessment of the gait pattern in patients after a traumatic brain injury. It helps to facilitate communication in the interdisciplinary team between those affected, doctors, physiotherapists and

843:(the damage that occurs at the moment of trauma when tissues and blood vessels are stretched, compressed, and torn) is not adequate to explain this deterioration; rather, it is caused by secondary injury, a complex set of cellular processes and 7419:

Kerkum YL, Harlaar J, Buizer AI, van den Noort JC, Becher JG, Brehm MA (May 2016). "An individual approach for optimizing ankle-foot orthoses to improve mobility in children with spastic cerebral palsy walking with excessive knee flexion".

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Kumar R, Husain M, Gupta RK, Hasan KM, Haris M, Agarwal AK, et al. (April 2009). "Serial changes in the white matter diffusion tensor imaging metrics in moderate traumatic brain injury and correlation with neuro-cognitive function".

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also appears to affect TBI rates; people with lower levels of education and employment and lower socioeconomic status are at greater risk. Approximately half of those incarcerated in prisons and jails in the United States have had TBIs.

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to improve outcomes. Further research is required to determine the effectiveness and clinical importance of positioning the head at different angles (degrees of head-of-bed elevation) while the person is being treated in intensive care.

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increases with severity of trauma and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas. People with early seizures, those occurring within a week of injury, have an increased risk of

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is another cause of TBI, as are work-related and industrial accidents. Firearms and blast injuries from explosions are other causes of TBI, which is the leading cause of death and disability in war zones. According to Representative

2090:. The test requires both attention and working memory which are difficult functions for people with mild traumatic brain injury. The question being studied, is whether results for people with brain injury will show visual-tracking 1149:, appears to be as effective as hypertonic saline at reducing ICP; however, some concerns have been raised regarding some of the studies performed. Hyertonic saline is also suitable in children with severe traumatic brain injury. 5667:

problem solving, and making judgments, which may make it difficult to resume pre-injury work-related activities. Recovery from cognitive deficits is greatest within the first 6 months after the injury and more gradual after that.

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and airbags. Education programs exist to lower the number of crashes. In addition, changes to public policy and safety laws can be made; these include speed limits, seat belt and helmet laws, and road engineering practices.

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to maintain a normal blood pressure. Failing to maintain blood pressure can result in inadequate blood flow to the brain. Blood pressure may be kept at an artificially high level under controlled conditions by infusion of

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that occur in the minutes to days following the trauma. These secondary processes can dramatically worsen the damage caused by primary injury and account for the greatest number of TBI deaths occurring in hospitals.

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is associated with an increased risk of death, and so their routine use is not recommended. There is no strong evidence that the following pharmaceutical interventions should be recommended to routinely treat TBI:

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methods to decrease secondary injury have been the subject of interest follows TBI, trials to test agents that could halt these cellular mechanisms have met largely with failure. For example, interest existed in

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is used to improve safety when standing and walking. (Designation of the orthosis according to the body parts included in the orthosis fitting: ankle and foot, English abbreviation: AFO for ankle-foot orthoses)

1912:, who survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven through his head, destroying one or both of his frontal lobes; numerous cases of personality change after brain injury have been reported since. 263:

efforts in older adults and safety measures for children. Depending on the injury, treatment required may be minimal or may include interventions such as medications, emergency surgery or surgery years later.

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Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, Ullman JS, Hawryluk GW, Bell MJ, Bratton SL, Chesnut R, Harris OA, Kissoon N, Rubiano AM, Shutter L, Tasker RC, Vavilala MS, Wilberger J, Wright DW, Ghajar J (January 2017).

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A large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event; rather than improving after being hospitalized, some 40% of TBI patients deteriorate.

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the necessary levers, matching the gait pattern, in order to support the proprioceptive approaches of physiotherapy. The orthotic concepts of the treatment are based on the concepts for the patients with

553:, areas that are involved in social behavior, emotion regulation, olfaction, and decision-making, hence the common social/emotional and judgment deficits following moderate-severe TBI. Symptoms such as 7646:

Brown AW, Elovic EP, Kothari S, Flanagan SR, Kwasnica C (March 2008). "Congenital and acquired brain injury. 1. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, prognostication, innovative treatments, and prevention".

1964:; however, a 2020 Cochrane review did not find enough evidence to see if it was useful or not. Maintaining a normal temperature in the immediate period after a TBI appeared useful. One review found a 522:, and in the early 2000s, researchers discovered that diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), a way of processing MRI images that shows white matter tracts, was an effective tool for displaying the extent of 1239:, these drugs are used carefully because they can depress breathing and lower blood pressure. Anti-convulsant medications have only been found to be useful for reducing the risk of an early seizure. 7939: 8855: 1120:

to drain, releasing pressure in the skull. Treatment of raised ICP may be as simple as tilting the person's bed and straightening the head to promote blood flow through the veins of the neck.

11396: 819:, respectively). When a moving object impacts the stationary head, coup injuries are typical, while contrecoup injuries are usually produced when the moving head strikes a stationary object. 9905:

Wright DW, Kellermann AL, Hertzberg VS, Clark PL, Frankel M, Goldstein FC, et al. (April 2007). "ProTECT: a randomized clinical trial of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury".

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Further research is necessary to determine if the vasoconstrictor indomethacin (indometacin) can be used to treat increased pressure in the skull following a TBI. In addition, drugs such as

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Burns (2019): Temporal neuronal activity patterns in barrel cortex to simple and complex stimuli and the effects of traumatic brain injury. Monash University. Thesis. 10.26180/5b7166ad13e47

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Li W, Dai S, An J, Li P, Chen X, Xiong R, et al. (February 2008). "Chronic but not acute treatment with caffeine attenuates traumatic brain injury in the mouse cortical impact model".

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is no better than imaging and clinical examination that monitor the neurological status of the brain in prolonging the survival, preserving the mental or functional status of the subject.

346:. A closed (also called nonpenetrating, or blunt) injury occurs when the brain is not exposed. A penetrating, or open, head injury occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the 9720:

Crompton EM, Lubomirova I, Cotlarciuc I, Han TS, Sharma SD, Sharma P (April 2017). "Meta-Analysis of Therapeutic Hypothermia for Traumatic Brain Injury in Adult and Pediatric Patients".

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are still used for head trauma, but evidence suggests they are not useful; head injuries are either so mild that they do not need imaging or severe enough to merit the more accurate CT.

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Gultekin R, Huang S, Clavisi O, Pattuwage L, König TC, Gruen R (March 2016). "Pharmacological interventions in traumatic brain injury: Can we rely on systematic reviews for evidence?".

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Velikonja D, Warriner E, Brum C (July 2010). "Profiles of emotional and behavioral sequelae following acquired brain injury: cluster analysis of the Personality Assessment Inventory".

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Ownsworth T, Fleming J (2005). "The relative importance of metacognitive skills, emotional status, and executive function in psychosocial adjustment following acquired brain injury".

1163:(larger and/or faster breaths) reduces carbon dioxide levels and causes blood vessels to constrict; this decreases blood flow to the brain and reduces ICP, but it potentially causes 8720:

Kreutzer JS, Stejskal TM, Ketchum JM, Marwitz JH, Taylor LA, Menzel JC (June 2009). "A preliminary investigation of the brain injury family intervention: impact on family members".

323:(examples include stroke and infection). All traumatic brain injuries are head injuries, but the latter term may also refer to injury to other parts of the head; however, the terms 6379:

Curry R, Hollingworth W, Ellenbogen RG, Vavilala MS (March 2008). "Incidence of hypo- and hypercarbia in severe traumatic brain injury before and after 2003 pediatric guidelines".

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Rosenthal G, Furmanov A, Itshayek E, Shoshan Y, Singh V (April 2014). "Assessment of a noninvasive cerebral oxygenation monitor in patients with severe traumatic brain injury".

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Further research is required to determine the effectiveness of non-pharmacological treatment approaches for treating depression in children/adolescents and adults with TBI.

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been proposed. Improved equipment design can enhance safety; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk. Rules against dangerous types of contact, such as "spear tackling" in

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injuries and neurotrauma. In neuropsychology research literature, in general the term "traumatic brain injury" is used to refer to non-penetrating traumatic brain injuries.

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Watson HI, Shepherd AA, Rhodes JK, Andrews PJ (June 2018). "Revisited: A Systematic Review of Therapeutic Hypothermia for Adult Patients Following Traumatic Brain Injury".

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Thornton KE, Carmody DP (June 2008). "Efficacy of traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: interventions of QEEG-guided biofeedback, computers, strategies, and medications".

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Head injury is present in ancient myths that may date back before recorded history. Skulls found in battleground graves with holes drilled over fracture lines suggest that

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TBI is usually classified based on severity, anatomical features of the injury, and the mechanism (the causative forces). Mechanism-related classification divides TBI into

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medication intervention). Gains of 2.61 standard deviations have been documented. The TBI's auditory memory ability was superior to the control group after the treatment.

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are likely to be the key medical staff involved, but depending on the person, doctors of other medical specialties may also be helpful. Allied health professions such as

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or it may be floated off with water. Surgeons look for hemorrhaging blood vessels and seek to control bleeding. In penetrating brain injury, damaged tissue is surgically

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mild TBI, the patient may remain conscious or may lose consciousness for a few seconds or minutes. Other symptoms of mild TBI include headache, vomiting, nausea, lack of

1919:

In the 1970s, awareness of TBI as a public health problem grew, and a great deal of progress has been made since then in brain trauma research, such as the discovery of

312:

waves, or penetration by a projectile. Brain function is temporarily or permanently impaired and structural damage may or may not be detectable with current technology.

5374: 3493:

Mohr JP, Weiss GH, Caveness WF, Dillon JD, Kistler JP, Meirowsky AM, Rish BL (December 1980). "Language and motor disorders after penetrating head injury in Viet Nam".

11389: 511:

features. Lesions can be extra-axial, (occurring within the skull but outside of the brain) or intra-axial (occurring within the brain tissue). Damage from TBI can be

456:

outcomes. Because of this, other classification systems such as the one shown in the table are also used to help determine severity. A current model developed by the

4018:

Milders M, Fuchs S, Crawford JR (April 2003). "Neuropsychological impairments and changes in emotional and social behaviour following severe traumatic brain injury".

2017: 1794:

In the US, firearms are the most common cause of fatal TBI, followed by vehicle accidents and then falls. Of deaths from firearms, 75% are considered to be suicides.

1466:. The characteristics of the stiffness of the orthosis shells and the adjustable dynamics in the ankle joint are important elements of the orthosis to be considered. 5574:

Hahn RA, Bilukha O, Crosby A, Fullilove MT, Liberman A, Moscicki E, et al. (February 2005). "Firearms laws and the reduction of violence: a systematic review".

768:

The type, direction, intensity, and duration of forces all contribute to the characteristics and severity of TBI. Forces that may contribute to TBI include angular,

8331:

Draper K, Ponsford J (October 2009). "Long-term outcome following traumatic brain injury: a comparison of subjective reports by those injured and their relatives".

7272: 8004:

Kwasnica C, Brown AW, Elovic EP, Kothari S, Flanagan SR (March 2008). "Congenital and acquired brain injury. 3. Spectrum of the acquired brain injury population".

4309: 1708:, apathy, irritability, problems with social judgment, and impaired conversational skills. TBI appears to predispose survivors to psychiatric disorders including 8874:

Cassidy JD, Carroll LJ, Peloso PM, Borg J, von Holst H, Holm L, et al. (WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury) (February 2004).

10478:

Dengler J, Frenzel C, Vajkoczy P, Wolf S, Horn P (November 2011). "Cerebral tissue oxygenation measured by two different probes: challenges and interpretation".

2052:

Research is also planned to clarify factors correlated to outcome in TBI and to determine in which cases it is best to perform CT scans and surgical procedures.

7385: 6853:

Dunn IF, Ellegala DB (2008). "Decompressive hemicraniectomy in the management of severe traumatic brain injury". In Bhardwaj A, Ellegala DB, Kirsch JR (eds.).

1514:, and longer times spent with high intracranial pressures. Patient characteristics also influence prognosis. Examples of factors thought to worsen it include: 11382: 1138:

saline can improve ICP by reducing the amount of cerebral water (swelling), though it is used with caution to avoid electrolyte imbalances or heart failure.

515:, confined to specific areas or distributed in a more general manner, respectively; however, it is common for both types of injury to exist in a given case. 9483:

Belanger HG, Kretzmer T, Yoash-Gantz R, Pickett T, Tupler LA (January 2009). "Cognitive sequelae of blast-related versus other mechanisms of brain trauma".

10794:

Copplestone S, Welbourne J (February 2018). "A narrative review of the clinical application of pressure reactiviy indices in the neurocritical care unit".

1251:

and may react adversely to some medications. During treatment monitoring continues for signs of deterioration such as a decreasing level of consciousness.

8876:"Incidence, risk factors and prevention of mild traumatic brain injury: results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury" 8813:

León-Carrión J, Domínguez-Morales M, Barroso y Martín JM, Murillo-Cabezas F (2005). "Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage".

7594:"Stiffness modification of two ankle-foot orthosis types to optimize gait in individuals with non-spastic calf muscle weakness - a proof-of-concept study" 11705: 7733:

Armin SS, Colohan AR, Zhang JH (June 2006). "Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage: our current understanding and its evolution over the past half century".

1445:

with dynamic functional elements, whose adjustable spring resistances in plantar and dorsiflexion can be separately adapted to the patient's gait. The

308:

Traumatic brain injury is defined as damage to the brain resulting from external mechanical force, such as rapid acceleration or deceleration, impact,

7817:

Murray ED, Buttner N, Price BH (2012). "Depression and Psychosis in Neurological Practice". In Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (eds.).

7206:

Rodda J, Graham HK (November 2001). "Classification of gait patterns in spastic hemiplegia and spastic diplegia: a basis for a management algorithm".

2074:

As of 2010, the use of predictive visual tracking measurement to identify mild traumatic brain injury was being studied. In visual tracking tests, a

1286:

may be needed. Craniotomy, in which part of the skull is removed, may be needed to remove pieces of fractured skull or objects embedded in the brain.

9942:"Neuroprotection against traumatic brain injury by xenon, but not argon, is mediated by inhibition at the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor glycine site" 2743:

Hannay HJ, Howieson DB, Loring DW, Fischer JS, Lezak MD (2004). "Neuropathology for neuropsychologists". In Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW (eds.).

658:

A person with a moderate or severe TBI may have a headache that does not go away, repeated vomiting or nausea, convulsions, an inability to awaken,

1871:

surgeons continued the practice of trepanation for head injury. In the Middle Ages, physicians further described head injury symptoms and the term

1853:, written around 1650–1550 BC, describes various head injuries and symptoms and classifies them based on their presentation and tractability. 1700:

TBI may cause emotional, social, or behavioral problems and changes in personality. These may include emotional instability, depression, anxiety,

8509:

Hawley LA, Newman JK (2010). "Group interactive structured treatment (GIST): a social competence intervention for individuals with brain injury".

3933:"Functional outcome 10 years after traumatic brain injury: its relationship with demographic, injury severity, and cognitive and emotional status" 10431:"Metabolic crisis without brain ischemia is common after traumatic brain injury: a combined microdialysis and positron emission tomography study" 5118:

Wortzel HS, Arciniegas DB (January 1, 2014). "The DSM-5 approach to the evaluation of traumatic brain injury and its neuropsychiatric sequelae".

1012:

Demonstration in 1912 of the Warren Safety Helmet, which was designed to protect pilots but has often been wrongly described as a football helmet

7092:

McMillan TM, Oddy M (2000). "Service provision for social disability and handicap after acquired brain injury". In Wood RL, McMillan TM (eds.).

890:

from their cell bodies as a result of secondary injury, potentially killing those neurons. Other factors in secondary injury are changes in the

7370: 4818:

Morrison AL, King TM, Korell MA, Smialek JE, Troncoso JC (June 1998). "Acceleration-deceleration injuries to the brain in blunt force trauma".

2115:

characterised as by specific timing effects in the patterns of cortical activity in these upper layers in response to regular sensory stimuli.

212:. TBI can result in physical, cognitive, social, emotional and behavioral symptoms, and outcomes can range from complete recovery to permanent 11341: 7117:

Deb S, Crownshaw T (January 2004). "The role of pharmacotherapy in the management of behaviour disorders in traumatic brain injury patients".

5613: 4973:

Xiong Y, Lee CP, Peterson PL (2000). "Mitochondrial dysfunction following traumatic brain injury". In Miller LP, Hayes RL, Newcomb JK (eds.).

3401:

McDonald S, Flanagan S, Rollins J, Kinch J (2003). "TASIT: A new clinical tool for assessing social perception after traumatic brain injury".

11903: 7844:"Trajectories of life satisfaction after traumatic brain injury: Influence of life roles, age, cognitive disability, and depressive symptoms" 5731:

Greenwald BD, Burnett DM, Miller MA (March 2003). "Congenital and acquired brain injury. 1. Brain injury: epidemiology and pathophysiology".

1632:(shock-like contractions of muscles), and loss of movement range and control (in particular with a loss of movement repertoire). The risk of 1581:(in which patients show minimal signs of being aware of self or environment). Lying still for long periods can cause complications including 957:(CT): it is quick, accurate, and widely available. Follow-up CT scans may be performed later to determine whether the injury has progressed. 8601:

Hesdorffer DC, Rauch SL, Tamminga CA (2009). "Long-term psychiatric outcomes following traumatic brain injury: a review of the literature".

1155:, drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system, may be used to treat high intracranial pressures, but may cause 7958:

Schiff ND, Plum F, Rezai AR (March 2002). "Developing prosthetics to treat cognitive disabilities resulting from acquired brain injuries".

5184: 1565:

than any physiological limitation to further progress. Children recover better in the immediate time frame and improve for longer periods.

982:

can measure cerebral blood flow or metabolism, inferring neuronal activity in specific regions and potentially helping to predict outcome.

5388:

Liu BC, Ivers R, Norton R, Boufous S, Blows S, Lo SK (January 2008). Liu BC (ed.). "Helmets for preventing injury in motorcycle riders".

1266:

or to eliminate objects that have penetrated the brain. Mass lesions such as contusions or hematomas causing a significant mass effect (

1387:, including day centers and leisure facilities for disabled people, offers time off for caregivers, and activities for people with TBI. 9023: 8763:

Kreutzer JS, Kolakowsky-Hayner SA, Demm SR, Meade MA (August 2002). "A structured approach to family intervention after brain injury".

1757:

Europe it is responsible for more years of disability than any other cause. It also plays a significant role in half of trauma deaths.

9368:

Eslinger PJ, Damasio AR (December 1985). "Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: patient EVR".

7778:"Ability of Functional Independence Measure to accurately predict functional outcome of stroke-specific population: systematic review" 526:. Types of injuries considered diffuse include edema (swelling), concussion and diffuse axonal injury, which is widespread damage to 10165:"PPARgamma agonist rosiglitazone is neuroprotective after traumatic brain injury via anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative mechanisms" 7029: 6886:

Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, Murray L, Arabi YM, Davies AR, D'Urso P, Kossmann T, Ponsford J, Seppelt I, Reilly P, Wolfe R (April 2011).

5652:. NIH Publication No. 02-2478. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health. Archived from 3885:

Busch RM, McBride A, Curtiss G, Vanderploeg RD (November 2005). "The components of executive functioning in traumatic brain injury".

10610:

Bennett MH, Trytko B, Jonker B (December 2012). "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for the adjunctive treatment of traumatic brain injury".

9812:

Martín-Saborido C, López-Alcalde J, Ciapponi A, Sánchez Martín CE, Garcia Garcia E, Escobar Aguilar G, et al. (November 2019).

2044:

In addition to traditional imaging modalities, there are several devices that help to monitor brain injury and facilitate research.

11171: 10214:"Neuroprotection against focal ischemic brain injury by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist rosiglitazone" 6283:"Guidelines for the Acute Medical Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in Infants, Children, and Adolescents-Second Edition" 5811:

Wang F, Wang Y, Sun T, Yu HL (May 2016). "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for the treatment of traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis".

5649: 1193: 10390:"Changes in cortical extracellular levels of energy-related metabolites and amino acids following concussive brain injury in rats" 7496:"Ankle foot orthoses in cerebral palsy: Effects of ankle stiffness on trunk kinematics, gait stability and energy cost of walking" 1955:. The variety of pathological events presents opportunities to find treatments that interfere with the damage processes. Although 1442: 319:(brain damage that occur after birth); the other subset is non-traumatic brain injury, which does not involve external mechanical 1543: 518:

Diffuse injury manifests with little apparent damage in neuroimaging studies, but lesions can be seen with microscopy techniques

4454:

Comper P, Bisschop SM, Carnide N, Tricco A (October 2005). "A systematic review of treatments for mild traumatic brain injury".

996:. Instruments range from short measures of general mental functioning to complete batteries formed of different domain-specific 11739: 5539:

Crooks CY, Zumsteg JM, Bell KR (November 2007). "Traumatic brain injury: a review of practice management and recent advances".

5025:"Evidence-based emergency medicine/systematic review abstract. Mannitol for traumatic brain injury: searching for the evidence" 11363:

Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center – U.S. Department of Defense Military Health System center for traumatic brain injury

4616: 1665:

hypopituitarism. Screening should take place 3 to 6 months, and 12 months after injury, but problems may occur more remotely.

1270:) are considered emergencies and are removed surgically. For intracranial hematomas, the collected blood may be removed using 11540: 11155: 11132: 11109: 11088: 9420: 9352: 9323: 9291: 9208: 8978: 8645: 8183: 7826: 7543:"Modifying ankle foot orthosis stiffness in patients with calf muscle weakness: gait responses on group and individual level" 7354: 7327: 7282: 7101: 6870: 6834: 6772: 6683: 5366: 5225: 5007: 4982: 4498: 4392: 4356: 4256: 4176: 3696: 3605: 3245: 3217: 3053: 3024: 2873: 2831: 2752: 2672: 2640: 2399: 2143: 2082:

capability shows an object moving in a regular pattern. People without brain injury are able to track the moving object with

1072:

have been proposed with the aim of guiding decisions in TBI treatment, as defined by an authoritative examination of current

11351:

The Brain Injury Hub – information and practical advice to parents and family members of children with acquired brain injury

10310:

Kelly DF, Lee SM, Pinanong PA, Hovda DA (May 1997). "Paradoxical effects of acute ethanolism in experimental brain injury".

3721: 8860: 8166:

Arlinghaus KA, Shoaib AM, Price TR (2005). "Neuropsychiatric assessment". In Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yudofsky SC (eds.).

7944: 6480: 3679:

Arlinghaus KA, Shoaib AM, Price TR (2005). "Neuropsychiatric assessment". In Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yudofsky SC (eds.).

1327: 8123:

Aimaretti G, Ghigo E (April 2007). "Should every patient with traumatic brain injury be referred to an endocrinologist?".

1943:

and EEG, which has no specific patterns in TBI is used in research settings to differentiate between mild TBI and no TBI.

1560:

A CT of the head years after a traumatic brain injury showing an empty space where the damage occurred marked by the arrow

12342: 12233: 1861:

understood the brain to be the center of thought, probably due to their experience observing the effects of head trauma.

1920: 840: 9085: 3266:

Mattson AJ, Levin HS (May 1990). "Frontal lobe dysfunction following closed head injury. A review of the literature".

1849:

knew of head injury and some of its effects, including seizures, paralysis, and loss of sight, hearing or speech. The

1247:

appear to have similar levels of effectiveness for preventing early seizures. People with TBI are more susceptible to

4688:

Thornton KE, Carmody DP (March 2009). "Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: QEEG biofeedback treatment protocols".

777: 7397: 1390:

Pharmacological treatment can help to manage psychiatric or behavioral problems. Medication is also used to control

545:. Research shows that the most common areas to have focal lesions in non-penetrating traumatic brain injury are the 12327: 12238: 11794: 11640: 6184:"Hypertonic saline versus other intracranial pressure-lowering agents for people with acute traumatic brain injury" 4219:"Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths, 2002–2006" 1897: 1343: 1262:. These conditions must be adequately treated and stabilised as part of the core care. Surgery can be performed on 1108:

Neuroimaging is helpful but not flawless in detecting raised ICP. A more accurate way to measure ICP is to place a

993: 4998:

Scalea TM (2005). "Does it matter how head injured patients are resuscitated?". In Valadka AB, Andrews BT (eds.).

11675: 9448:

Jones E, Fear NT, Wessely S (November 2007). "Shell shock and mild traumatic brain injury: a historical review".

1965: 1492: 8657: 1641:(recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma). People may lose or experience altered 587:

Hematomas, also focal lesions, are collections of blood in or around the brain that can result from hemorrhage.

12289: 11353: 10998:"The acute phase of mild traumatic brain injury is characterized by a distance-dependent neuronal hypoactivity" 9617:"Interventions to reduce body temperature to 35 °C to 37 °C in adults and children with traumatic brain injury" 1552:

The relative risk of post-traumatic seizures (PTS) increases with the severity of traumatic brain injury (TBI).

964: 512: 461: 5854:

Alarcon JD, Rubiano AM, Okonkwo DO, Alarcón J, Martinez-Zapata MJ, Urrútia G, Bonfill Cosp X (December 2017).

11374: 9689: 7032:"Clinical Practice Guideline for the Rehabilitation of Adults with Modarate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury" 4198:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. July 7, 2007 2629:"Communication problems resulting from brain injury in children: Special issues of assessment and management" 1709: 1534:

acute injury and this may result with difficulties in day-to-day activities and increased levels of fatigue.

1339: 985: 978:

may be used to detect blood vessel pathology when risk factors such as penetrating head trauma are involved.

812:

can also destroy tissue along the path of a projectile, compounding the damage caused by the missile itself.

717:, a characteristic positioning of the limbs caused by severe diffuse injury or high ICP, is an ominous sign. 576:

in particular, because of bony protrusions on the interior skull ridge above the eyes. In a similar injury,

6643:

Forsyth RJ, Jayamoni B, Paine TC (October 2006). "Monoaminergic agonists for acute traumatic brain injury".

1875:

became more widespread. Concussion symptoms were first described systematically in the 16th century by

1350:

will be essential to assess function and design the rehabilitation activities for each person. Treatment of

12322: 11930: 11898: 6755:

Adams JP (2010). "Non-neurological complications of brain injury". In Adams JP, Bell D, McKinlay J (eds.).

2274: 2083: 1952: 17: 7030:

Ontario Neurotrauma Foundation and Institut national d'excellence en santé et en services sociaux (2015).

3238:

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Postconcussion Syndrome: The New Evidence Base for Diagnosis and Treatment

3131:"White matter integrity and cognition in chronic traumatic brain injury: a diffusion tensor imaging study" 2332:"Basic Information about Traumatic Brain Injury | Concussion | Traumatic Brain Injury | CDC Injury Center" 11578: 11573: 9200:

Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian Medicine: Ancient Sources, Translations, and Modern Medical Analyses

8418:

Temkin NR, Corrigan JD, Dikmen SS, Machamer J (2009). "Social functioning after traumatic brain injury".

7457:"The effect of ankle foot orthosis stiffness on trunk movement and walking energy cost in cerebral palsy" 4408:

Bay E, McLean SA (February 2007). "Mild traumatic brain injury: an update for advanced practice nurses".

1574: 1511: 915: 604: 444: 189: 7056:

Soo C, Tate R (July 2007). "Psychological treatment for anxiety in people with traumatic brain injury".

3972:

Williams C, Wood RL (March 2010). "Alexithymia and emotional empathy following traumatic brain injury".

2512:

Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R (August 2008). "Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults".

1577:(in which patients are unable to achieve a state of alertness to interact with their surroundings), and 11101:

Traumatic Brain Injury: Methods for Clinical & Forensic Neuropsychiatric Assessment, Second Edition

9133: 7495: 1177: 960: 831: 241: 7842:

Juengst SB, Adams LM, Bogner JA, Arenth PM, O'Neil-Pirozzi TM, Dreer LE, et al. (November 2015).

4853:

Poirier MP (2003). "Concussions: Assessment, management, and recommendations for return to activity".

2275:"The American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Diagnostic Criteria for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury" 2063:

reporting. HBO for TBI is controversial with further evidence required to determine if it has a role.

1059:" following the injury. People with moderate to severe injuries are likely to receive treatment in an 192:(mTBI/concussion) to severe traumatic brain injury. TBI can also be characterized based on mechanism ( 12337: 12253: 11971: 11721: 11533: 11365: 10690:"Non-pharmacological interventions for depression in adults and children with traumatic brain injury" 5856:"Elevation of the head during intensive care management in people with severe traumatic brain injury" 3794:

Stone VE, Baron-Cohen S, Knight RT (September 1998). "Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind".

2102: 1968:

was useful in adults but not children. While two other reviews found it did not appear to be useful.

1578: 1287: 1248: 1185: 1101: 815:

Damage may occur directly under the site of impact, or it may occur on the side opposite the impact (

285: 11680: 8681:"Capture by misleading information and its false acceptance in patients with traumatic brain injury" 7304: 5328: 4776: 3808: 1254:

Traumatic brain injury may cause a range of serious coincidental complications that include cardiac

11867: 11859: 11751: 11625: 11253: 10645:

Rockswold SB, Rockswold GL, Defillo A (March 2007). "Hyperbaric oxygen in traumatic brain injury".

4032: 3240:. American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Workshop Series. New York: Oxford University Press. 2029: 1972: 1894:

was due to a disturbance of the brain tissue or psychological factors. The debate continues today.

1891: 1765: 1674: 1498:

Medical complications are associated with a bad prognosis. Examples of such complications include:

947: 588: 542: 8679:

Dockree PM, O'Keeffe FM, Moloney P, Bishara AJ, Carton S, Jacoby LL, Robertson IH (January 2006).

6887: 3577:

TBI is highest in young adults aged 15 to 24 years and higher in men than women in all age groups.

1235:

needs, potentially depriving it of nutrients. Seizures are common. While they can be treated with

738:, and the death rate is higher among these cases. Although men are twice as likely to have a TBI. 619:. Subarachnoid hemorrhage involves bleeding into the space between the arachnoid membrane and the 591:, with bleeding in the brain tissue itself, is an intra-axial lesion. Extra-axial lesions include 12098: 12093: 11734: 11700: 11657: 11598: 11565: 11507: 9814:"Indomethacin for intracranial hypertension secondary to severe traumatic brain injury in adults" 3850:

Kim E (2002). "Agitation, aggression, and disinhibition syndromes after traumatic brain injury".

2691:

Blissitt PA (September 2006). "Care of the critically ill patient with penetrating head injury".

2164:"Rapid progression of traumatic bifrontal contusions to transtentorial herniation: A case report" 2013: 1638: 1507: 1391: 1319: 1207: 1073: 997: 852: 600: 581: 343: 197: 65: 12294: 11940: 11935: 11756: 11746: 11630: 4384: 4221:. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4027: 3803: 1678: 1633: 1594: 1590: 1211: 1056: 946:

Diagnosis is suspected based on lesion circumstances and clinical evidence, most prominently a

911: 816: 706: 690: 682: 681:, abbreviated ICP) rises too high, it can be deadly. Signs of increased ICP include decreasing 481: 469: 452: 378: 332: 11293: 9283: 9276: 9198: 8175: 7344: 6862: 6824: 6764: 4344: 4272: 4164: 3688: 3593: 3207: 3012: 2660: 2628: 2218: 12282: 12068: 12028: 11872: 11842: 11690: 11685: 11647: 10837:

Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Carney N, Dikmen S, Rondina C, Videtta W, et al. (December 2012).

9311: 7163:

Agrawal A, Timothy J, Pandit L, Manju M (July 2006). "Post-traumatic epilepsy: an overview".

6029:"Hypotonic vs isotonic saline solutions for intravenous fluid management of acute infections" 5213: 4310:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control

3724:. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. September 15, 2008. Archived from 3041: 2133: 1089: 907: 678: 523: 473: 457: 383: 316: 233: 11120: 11099: 11076: 9271: 9026:(Report). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. HCUP Statistical Brief. Archived from 8812: 8167: 6854: 6756: 4924:

Narayan RK, Michel ME, Ansell B, Baethmann A, Biegon A, Bracken MB, et al. (May 2002).

4376: 4244: 3680: 2863: 2387: 1020:

Protective sports equipment such as helmets can partially protect athletes from head injury.

12332: 12243: 11882: 11787: 11635: 11526: 11423: 10950: 10750: 4375:

Elovic E, Zafonte R (2005). "Prevention". In Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yudofsky SC (eds.).

3446:"Traumatic aphasia in children and adults: a comparison of clinical features and evolution" 2357: 2075: 1818: 1682: 1660:, occurring immediately or years after injury in 10 to 15% of TBI patients. Development of 1347: 1231:. Body temperature is carefully regulated because increased temperature raises the brain's 1043: 1042:

prevent head injuries. Child abuse prevention is another tactic; programs exist to prevent

801: 792:, are the cause of most focal injuries, and movement of the brain within the skull, termed 735: 573: 546: 331:

are often used interchangeably. Similarly, brain injuries fall under the classification of

289: 277: 256: 10558:"Assessment, investigation, and early management of head injury: summary of NICE guidance" 8: 12078: 12048: 11652: 11615: 11222: 9544: 5309:

Evaluation of the Disability Determination Process for Traumatic Brain Injury in Veterans

4218: 3374: 2055: 1976: 1924: 1876: 1850: 1835: 1218:(low blood pressure), which has a devastating outcome in TBI, can be prevented by giving 1117: 1096:. Other methods to prevent damage include management of other injuries and prevention of 1092:(ICP), since high ICP deprives the brain of badly needed blood flow and can cause deadly 1060: 954: 891: 844: 569: 237: 229: 11168: 10954: 10754: 10429:

Vespa P, Bergsneider M, Hattori N, Wu HM, Huang SC, Martin NA, et al. (June 2005).

9940:

Harris K, Armstrong SP, Campos-Pires R, Kiru L, Franks NP, Dickinson R (November 2013).

9027: 8041:"Interventions for managing skeletal muscle spasticity following traumatic brain injury" 5653: 2949: 2822:

McCaffrey RJ (1997). "Special issues in the evaluation of mild traumatic brain injury".

200:) or other features (e.g., occurring in a specific location or over a widespread area). 12213: 12192: 12151: 12018: 11667: 11610: 11487: 11022: 10997: 10973: 10938: 10914: 10887: 10863: 10838: 10819: 10771: 10738: 10714: 10689: 10670: 10582: 10557: 10503: 10455: 10430: 10370: 10358: 10292: 10243: 10189: 10164: 10140: 10119: 10064: 10039: 10015: 9990: 9971: 9887: 9838: 9813: 9789: 9764: 9745: 9702: 9641: 9616: 9592: 9567: 9508: 9393: 9066: 8946: 8921: 8838: 8788: 8745: 8626: 8578: 8553: 8534: 8491: 8443: 8356: 8308: 8265: 8148: 8065: 8040: 8039:

Synnot A, Chau M, Pitt V, O'Connor D, Gruen RL, Wasiak J, et al. (November 2017).

7983: 7917: 7892: 7868: 7843: 7758: 7715: 7620: 7593: 7569: 7542: 7523: 7364: 7292: 7274:

Assessment and orthotic management of gait dysfunction in individuals with brain injury

7231: 7188: 7142: 7004: 6979: 6960: 6620: 6595: 6571: 6546: 6522: 6497: 6448: 6423: 6404: 6356: 6331: 6257: 6232: 6208: 6183: 6159: 6134: 6112: 6053: 6028: 6009: 5880: 5855: 5836: 5705: 5680: 5511: 5486: 5459: 5434: 5316: 4950: 4925: 4759: 4713: 4670: 4593: 4568: 4499:"Injuries from explosions: physics, biophysics, pathology, and required research focus" 4479: 4433: 4195: 4096: 4053: 3997: 3910: 3829: 3661: 3518: 3475: 3426: 3335: 3310: 3291: 3099: 2922: 2897: 2799: 2774: 2609: 2537: 2331: 2313: 2190: 2163: 1786: 1661: 1598: 1523: 1291: 1271: 1135: 1113: 1069: 979: 809: 714: 694: 648: 639: 624: 577: 448: 373: 339: 273: 224: 220: 193: 156: 97: 61: 11247: 11243: 11239: 11235: 11231: 11227: 10087:

Arango MF, Bainbridge D (October 2008). "Magnesium for acute traumatic brain injury".

9918: 9086:"The prevalence, course and clinical features of post-concussion syndrome in children" 9054: 6980:"Multi-disciplinary rehabilitation for acquired brain injury in adults of working age" 5916: 5041: 5024: 4866: 4747: 3649: 3564: 3462: 3445: 2525: 2058:(HBO) has been evaluated as an add on treatment following TBI. The findings of a 2012 764:

Ricochet of the brain within the skull may account for the coup-contrecoup phenomenon.

615:

surrounding the brain. In subdural hematoma, bleeding occurs between the dura and the

236:. Some of the imaging techniques used for diagnosis of moderate to severe TBI include 12063: 12058: 12013: 11761: 11593: 11588: 11264: 11151: 11128: 11105: 11084: 11027: 10978: 10919: 10868: 10811: 10776: 10762: 10719: 10662: 10627: 10587: 10538: 10495: 10460: 10411: 10362: 10327: 10284: 10279: 10262: 10235: 10230: 10213: 10194: 10145: 10100: 10069: 10020: 9963: 9922: 9879: 9843: 9794: 9737: 9694: 9646: 9615:

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Perhaps the first reported case of personality change after brain injury is that of

1904:

with the tamping iron that entered his left cheek and emerged at the top of his head

1298:, or severe disability when compared to those receiving standard medical therapies. 12208: 12172: 11605: 11466: 11304: 11052: 11017: 11009: 10968: 10958: 10909: 10899: 10858: 10850: 10803: 10766: 10758: 10709: 10705: 10701: 10654: 10623: 10619: 10577: 10569: 10530: 10487: 10450: 10442: 10401: 10354: 10319: 10274: 10225: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10135: 10127: 10096: 10092: 10059: 10051: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9975: 9953: 9914: 9871: 9833: 9829: 9825: 9784: 9780: 9776: 9763:

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of TBI varies by age, gender, region and other factors. Findings of incidence and

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caused by an external force. TBI can be classified based on severity ranging from

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is a way to track progress and degree of independence throughout rehabilitation.

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In the 19th century it was noted that TBI is related to the development of

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through the skull and brain, resulting in tissue damage. Shock waves caused by

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is a broader category that may involve damage to other structures such as the

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are often used. Propofol and midazolam are equally effective as sedatives.

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results. When the pressure within the skull rises too high, it can cause

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commonly manifests as diffuse injury. In impact loading, the force sends

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symptoms such as emotional distress and clinical depression may involve

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may be used to ensure proper oxygen supply and provide a secure airway.

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Physical, cognitive, sensory, social, emotional, and behavioral symptoms

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for nearly a decade and there is still no plan to treat these soldiers.

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It is important to begin emergency treatment within the so-called "

919: 895: 652: 623:. Intraventricular hemorrhage occurs when there is bleeding in the 612: 572:, occurs when the tissue is cut or torn. Such tearing is common in 351: 11350: 9762: 9482: 8762: 6829:. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 370. 3019:. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. pp. 385–406. 52: 10939:"Sensory cortex underpinnings of traumatic brain injury deficits" 9347:. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. p. 213. 8969:

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Physical therapy will commonly include muscle strength exercise.

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Other techniques may be used to confirm a particular diagnosis.

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rehabilitation unit of the medical center or to an independent

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the US. A non invasive model called CerOx is in development.

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Movement disorders that may develop after TBI include tremor,

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The original version of this article contained text from the

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may have been used to treat TBI in ancient times. Ancient

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The preferred radiologic test in the emergency setting is

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can also occur when less commonly affected areas such as

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showing spread of the subdural hematoma (single arrows),

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and is, therefore, used only in the short term. Giving

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symptoms related to the functions of the damaged area

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There is also displaced 12226: 12201: 12165: 12114: 11991: 11984: 11972:Resuscitative thoracotomy 11964: 11923: 11916: 11891: 11860:Clinical prediction rules 11858: 11851: 11810: 11752:Injury of accessory nerve 11720: 11666: 11556: 11500: 11475: 11444: 11433: 11414: 11368:October 12, 2019, at the 11279: 11189: 10535:10.3171/2013.12.JNS131089 10492:10.1007/s00134-011-2316-z 10267:Journal of Neurochemistry 10218:Journal of Neurochemistry 10132:10.1002/14651858.CD000565 9497:10.1017/S1355617708090036 9134:"An Unrecognized Problem" 8893:10.1080/16501960410023732 8827:10.1007/s11102-006-6041-5 8734:10.1080/02699050902926291 8480:10.1080/13803390903401302 8345:10.1080/17405620802613935 8218:10.1176/appi.psy.46.3.195 7848:Rehabilitation Psychology 7795:10.1682/JRRD.2009.08.0140 7611:10.1186/s13047-019-0348-8 7560:10.1186/s12984-019-0600-2 7036:braininjuryguidelines.org 6514:10.1002/14651858.CD001527 6348:10.1002/14651858.CD000566 5825:10.1007/s10072-015-2460-2 5553:10.1016/j.pmr.2007.06.005 4702:10.1007/s10484-009-9075-4 4659:10.1007/s10484-008-9056-z 4468:10.1080/02699050400025042 3986:10.1080/13803390902976940 3950:10.1017/S1355617708080272 3899:10.1080/13803390490919263 3224:brain injury biomechanics 2103:Pressure reactivity index 2056:Hyperbaric oxygen therapy 1973:NMDA receptor antagonists 1962:cooling the injured brain 1579:minimally conscious state 1288:Decompressive craniectomy 1102:hyperbaric oxygen therapy 724: 400: 395: 234:pressure within the skull 152: 135: 122: 114: 106: 96: 80: 59: 50: 42: 37: 11868:Abbreviated Injury Scale 11626:Post-concussion syndrome 11356:October 5, 2020, at the 10905:10.3389/fnsys.2016.00047 10659:10.1179/016164107X181798 10447:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600073 8102:10.33588/rn.3405.2001439 7747:10.1179/016164106X115053 6809:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkr006 5998:10.1177/1060028016628893 5769:Moppett IK (July 2007). 5503:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018200 5451:10.1136/bmj.327.7411.351 5189:www.hsrd.research.va.gov 5002:. Thieme. pp. 3–4. 4736:Progress in Neurobiology 4306:"Traumatic brain injury" 2441:10.1176/appi.psy.41.2.95 2245:"Traumatic Brain Injury" 2014:calcium channel blockers 1892:post-concussion syndrome 1675:Post-concussion syndrome 948:neurological examination 589:Intracerebral hemorrhage 12328:Intensive care medicine 12099:Penetrating head injury 12094:Intracranial hemorrhage 11735:Peripheral nerve injury 11701:Posterior cord syndrome 11658:Penetrating head injury 11599:Subarachnoid hemorrhage 11566:Intracranial hemorrhage 11508:Penetrating head injury 11336:considered for deletion 10523:Journal of Neurosurgery 10480:Intensive Care Medicine 10312:Journal of Neurosurgery 5745:10.1053/apmr.2003.50052 5697:10.17179/excli2020-3161 5615:. Accessed: May 1, 2009 5097:10.1067/mem.2001.113505 3818:10.1162/089892998562942 3327:10.1089/neu.2005.22.845 3013:"Injury to the cranium" 2661:"Acquired brain injury" 2181:10.1186/1757-1626-1-203 1720:, clinical depression, 1693:, memory problems, and 1639:post-traumatic epilepsy 1634:post-traumatic seizures 1508:blood oxygen saturation 1392:post-traumatic epilepsy 1320:rehabilitation hospital 1208:Endotracheal intubation 1047:of deaths or injuries. 892:blood flow to the brain 601:subarachnoid hemorrhage 582:intracranial hemorrhage 344:penetrating head injury 300:and improved outcomes. 198:penetrating head injury 12295:Subcutaneous emphysema 12254:Volkmann's contracture 12104:Traumatic brain injury 11941:Early appropriate care 11936:Damage control surgery 11757:Brachial plexus injury 11747:Wallerian degeneration 11681:Brown-Séquard syndrome 11631:Second-impact syndrome 11558:Traumatic brain injury 11148:Traumatic Brain Injury 11146:. 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Stuttgart: Thieme. 11123:. In Weber JT (ed.). 11098:Granacher RA (2007). 11014:10.1089/neu.2014.3343 10855:10.1056/NEJMoa1207363 10647:Neurological Research 9538:Bush GH (July 1990). 9341:"Psychotic disorders" 8242:Seminars in Neurology 8137:10.1038/ncpendmet0460 8090:Revista de Neurología 7960:Neurological Research 7735:Neurological Research 6907:10.1056/NEJMoa1102077 5813:Neurological Sciences 5411:10536/DRO/DU:30009360 5214:"Craniofacial trauma" 4886:The Journal of Trauma 4529:on September 23, 2017 4503:The Journal of Trauma 4247:. In Weber JT (ed.). 3363:Archives of Neurology 3185:10.1089/neu.2008.0461 2914:10.1089/neu.2008.0586 2514:The Lancet. Neurology 1900: 1857:physicians including 1833: 1751: 1559: 1551: 1441: 1410: 1309: 1090:intracranial pressure 1019: 1011: 941: 908:intracranial pressure 878:, and dysfunction of 830: 763: 693:or is slow to do so. 679:intracranial pressure 638: 524:diffuse axonal injury 495: 488:Pathological features 474:loss of consciousness 458:Department of Defense 317:acquired brain injury 12244:Compartment syndrome 11883:Revised Trauma Score 11636:Dementia pugilistica 9243:10.3171/FOC-07/07/E5 9030:on December 1, 2016. 8973:. DIANE. p. 9. 8698:10.1093/brain/awh664 8644:Fleminger S (2010). 7654:(3 Suppl 1): S3–S8. 5739:(3 Suppl 1): S3–S7. 5656:on December 18, 2016 5582:(2 Suppl 1): 40–71. 4196:"Signs and Symptoms" 3148:10.1093/brain/awm216 3141:(Pt 10): 2508–2519. 2791:10.1136/adc.78.5.403 2219:"TBI: Get the Facts" 2076:head-mounted display 1819:Socioeconomic status 1683:Dementia pugilistica 1348:occupational therapy 1044:shaken baby syndrome 845:biochemical cascades 841:Primary brain injury 810:penetrating injuries 802:shaken baby syndrome 778:translational forces 689:, one that fails to 574:orbitofrontal cortex 547:orbitofrontal cortex 290:supported employment 278:occupational therapy 257:drinking and driving 176:), also known as an 12323:Medical emergencies 12079:Blunt kidney trauma 12049:Pulmonary contusion 11653:Abusive head trauma 11616:Cerebral laceration 11104:. Boca Raton: CRC. 10955:2012PLoSO...752169A 10755:2010NYASA1208...58M 9545:Library of Congress 9230:Neurosurgical Focus 9114:on October 19, 2013 8886:(43 Suppl): 28–60. 8254:10.1055/s-2000-9826 7214:(Suppl 5): 98–108. 6471:Campbell J (2018). 5120:NeuroRehabilitation 4585:10.1503/cmaj.080282 3852:NeuroRehabilitation 3728:on December 3, 2016 3011:Valadka AB (2004). 2098:Monitoring pressure 1931:Research directions 1925:Decade of the Brain 1877:Berengario da Carpi 1851:Edwin Smith Papyrus 1836:Edwin Smith Papyrus 1516:abuse of substances 1443:Ankle-foot orthosis 1118:cerebrospinal fluid 1070:clinical guidelines 1061:intensive care unit 955:computed tomography 853:blood–brain barrier 703:high blood pressure 653:ringing in the ears 570:cerebral laceration 366: 238:computed tomography 230:cerebral blood flow 178:intracranial injury 62:cerebral contusions 12193:Spinal cord injury 12152:Penetrating trauma 12019:Soft tissue injury 11668:Spinal cord injury 11611:Cerebral contusion 11488:Perforated eardrum 11280:External resources 11142:Marion DW (1999). 7860:10.1037/rep0000056 7461:Gait & Posture 7455:Kerkum YL (2016). 7422:Gait & Posture 6496:Roberts I (2000). 5788:10.1093/bja/aem128 5547:(4): 681–710, vi. 5349:. August 23, 2021. 5282:10.1093/bja/aem141 5132:10.3233/NRE-141086 4165:"Prehospital care" 3750:Kushner D (1998). 3559:(2): 175–87, vii. 2110:Sensory processing 1983:showed promise in 1906: 1839: 1787:case fatality rate 1754: 1730:lack of initiative 1662:diabetes insipidus 1599:pulmonary embolism 1597:, which can cause 1562: 1554: 1451: 1414: 1376:cognitive deficits 1372:neuropsychologists 1312: 1292:Glasgow Coma Scale 1220:intravenous fluids 1022: 1014: 990:cognitive sequelae 980:Functional imaging 944: 836: 766: 715:Abnormal posturing 649:motor coordination 644: 640:Unequal pupil size 631:Signs and symptoms 578:cerebral contusion 505: 449:Glasgow Coma Scale 362: 274:recreation therapy 225:vehicle collisions 157:Behavioral therapy 118:Trauma to the head 12308: 12307: 12222: 12221: 12064:Internal bleeding 12059:Cardiac tamponade 12014:Joint dislocation 11980: 11979: 11912: 11911: 11770: 11769: 11762:Traumatic neuroma 11722:Peripheral nerves 11594:Epidural hematoma 11589:Subdural hematoma 11516: 11515: 11496: 11495: 11320: 11319: 11157:978-0-86577-727-9 11134:978-0-444-53017-2 11111:978-0-8493-8138-6 11090:978-0-19-517355-0 11045:Burns TF (2019). 11008:(22): 1881–1895. 10849:(26): 2471–2481. 10568:(7622): 719–720. 10486:(11): 1809–1815. 10044:Neurotherapeutics 9456:(11): 1641–1645. 9422:978-0-19-513764-4 9376:(12): 1731–1741. 9354:978-1-58562-105-7 9325:978-1-57230-078-1 9293:978-0-19-503008-2 9210:978-0-252-02956-1 9049:(9409): 584–585. 8980:978-0-7881-8376-8 8691:(Pt 1): 128–140. 8660:on March 16, 2020 8517:(11): 1292–1297. 8185:978-1-58562-105-7 7828:978-1-4377-0434-1 7356:978-0-323-03931-4 7329:978-3-13-151351-9 7301:|periodical= 7284:978-0-323-03931-4 7103:978-0-86377-889-6 6872:978-1-4200-4794-3 6836:978-1-58255-423-5 6774:978-1-84882-069-2 6685:978-0-7817-8275-3 6243:(7590): 392–394. 5679:Kawada T (2020). 5445:(7411): 351–352. 5227:978-0-7817-6135-2 5009:978-3-13-130781-1 4984:978-0-471-36015-5 4394:978-1-58562-105-7 4358:978-0-07-137069-1 4258:978-0-444-53017-2 4243:Reilly P (2007). 4178:978-0-07-137069-1 4123:(12): 1561–1573. 3762:(15): 1617–1624. 3698:978-1-58562-105-7 3644:(9233): 923–929. 3607:978-1-888799-93-4 3501:(12): 1273–1279. 3247:978-0-19-532829-5 3236:McCrea M (2007). 3219:978-0-387-98820-7 3055:978-0-7817-6135-2 3026:978-0-07-137069-1 2875:978-0-444-53017-2 2833:978-0-306-45256-7 2754:978-0-19-511121-7 2674:978-0-443-06224-7 2642:978-0-86377-724-0 2401:978-0-7923-7532-6 2145:978-0-19-970870-3 2132:Jones DK (2010). 1726:anxiety disorders 1531:Life satisfaction 1324:multidisciplinary 1182:dopamine agonists 1036:American football 740:Domestic violence 597:subdural hematoma 593:epidural hematoma 441: 440: 166: 165: 143:neurological exam 137:Diagnostic method 70:subdural hematoma 32:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 12350: 12338:Injuries of head 12214:Pediatric trauma 12209:Geriatric trauma 12173:Abdominal trauma 11989: 11988: 11921: 11920: 11856: 11855: 11797: 11790: 11783: 11774: 11773: 11606:Brain herniation 11543: 11536: 11529: 11520: 11519: 11467:Corneal abrasion 11442: 11441: 11399: 11392: 11385: 11376: 11375: 11339: 11187: 11186: 11161: 11138: 11115: 11094: 11061: 11060: 11042: 11036: 11035: 11025: 10993: 10987: 10986: 10976: 10966: 10934: 10928: 10927: 10917: 10907: 10883: 10877: 10876: 10866: 10834: 10828: 10827: 10791: 10785: 10784: 10774: 10734: 10728: 10727: 10717: 10700:(12): CD009871. 10685: 10679: 10678: 10642: 10636: 10635: 10607: 10596: 10595: 10585: 10553: 10547: 10546: 10518: 10512: 10511: 10475: 10469: 10468: 10458: 10426: 10420: 10419: 10409: 10385: 10379: 10378: 10353:(4): 1198–1207. 10342: 10336: 10335: 10307: 10301: 10300: 10282: 10273:(4): 1336–1345. 10258: 10252: 10251: 10233: 10209: 10203: 10202: 10192: 10160: 10154: 10153: 10143: 10115: 10109: 10108: 10084: 10078: 10077: 10067: 10035: 10029: 10028: 10018: 10001:(12): CD000033. 9986: 9980: 9979: 9961: 9952:(5): 1137–1148. 9937: 9931: 9930: 9902: 9896: 9895: 9870:(5): 1305–1315. 9858: 9852: 9851: 9841: 9809: 9803: 9802: 9792: 9760: 9754: 9753: 9717: 9711: 9710: 9692: 9664: 9655: 9654: 9644: 9627:(10): CD006811. 9612: 9606: 9605: 9595: 9563: 9557: 9556: 9554: 9552: 9535: 9529: 9526:Boake and Diller 9523: 9517: 9516: 9480: 9474: 9473: 9445: 9439: 9433: 9427: 9426: 9408: 9402: 9401: 9365: 9359: 9358: 9336: 9330: 9329: 9307: 9298: 9297: 9281: 9267: 9256: 9255: 9245: 9221: 9215: 9214: 9194: 9188: 9182: 9169: 9166:Boake and Diller 9163: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9147: 9138: 9130: 9124: 9123: 9121: 9119: 9113: 9107:. Archived from 9090: 9081: 9075: 9074: 9038: 9032: 9031: 9019: 9013: 9012: 9010: 9008: 8999: 8991: 8985: 8984: 8966: 8960: 8959: 8949: 8917: 8906: 8905: 8895: 8871: 8865: 8853: 8847: 8846: 8821:(3–4): 197–202. 8810: 8797: 8796: 8760: 8754: 8753: 8717: 8711: 8710: 8700: 8676: 8670: 8669: 8667: 8665: 8641: 8635: 8634: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8581: 8549: 8543: 8542: 8506: 8500: 8499: 8463: 8452: 8451: 8415: 8406: 8405: 8395: 8371: 8365: 8364: 8328: 8317: 8316: 8280: 8274: 8273: 8237: 8231: 8230: 8220: 8196: 8190: 8189: 8173: 8163: 8157: 8156: 8120: 8114: 8113: 8085: 8079: 8078: 8068: 8051:(11): CD008929. 8036: 8030: 8029: 8001: 7992: 7991: 7955: 7949: 7937: 7931: 7930: 7920: 7903:(12): CD006123. 7888: 7882: 7881: 7871: 7839: 7833: 7832: 7814: 7808: 7807: 7797: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7730: 7724: 7723: 7705: 7684:Frey LC (2003). 7681: 7672: 7671: 7643: 7634: 7633: 7623: 7613: 7589: 7583: 7582: 7572: 7562: 7538: 7532: 7531: 7491: 7485: 7484: 7452: 7446: 7445: 7416: 7410: 7409: 7407: 7405: 7396:. Archived from 7390:The O&P EDGE 7384:Muñoz S (2018). 7381: 7375: 7374: 7368: 7360: 7340: 7334: 7333: 7322:. Renata Horst. 7318:Horst R (2005). 7315: 7309: 7308: 7302: 7298: 7296: 7288: 7268: 7262: 7261: 7249: 7240: 7239: 7203: 7197: 7196: 7160: 7151: 7150: 7114: 7108: 7107: 7089: 7078: 7077: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7042: 7027: 7018: 7017: 7007: 6990:(12): CD004170. 6975: 6969: 6968: 6950: 6925: 6919: 6918: 6901:(16): 1493–502. 6892: 6883: 6877: 6876: 6860: 6850: 6841: 6840: 6820: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6785: 6779: 6778: 6762: 6752: 6746: 6745: 6735: 6711: 6690: 6689: 6671: 6665: 6664: 6640: 6634: 6633: 6623: 6591: 6585: 6584: 6574: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6525: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6482:978-1292-17084-8 6468: 6462: 6461: 6451: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6359: 6327: 6321: 6320: 6302: 6277: 6271: 6270: 6260: 6228: 6222: 6221: 6211: 6179: 6173: 6172: 6162: 6130: 6121: 6120: 6102: 6073: 6067: 6066: 6056: 6024: 6018: 6017: 5980: 5971: 5970: 5942: 5929: 5928: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5883: 5866:(12): CD009986. 5851: 5845: 5844: 5808: 5802: 5800: 5790: 5766: 5757: 5756: 5728: 5719: 5718: 5708: 5676: 5670: 5669: 5663: 5661: 5645: 5616: 5606: 5600: 5599: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5536: 5525: 5524: 5514: 5482: 5473: 5472: 5462: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5413: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5326: 5322: 5320: 5312: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5284: 5260: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5249: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5209: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5181: 5175: 5174: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5080: 5055: 5054: 5044: 5020: 5014: 5013: 4995: 4989: 4988: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4953: 4921: 4912: 4911: 4901: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4798: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4731: 4722: 4721: 4685: 4679: 4678: 4642: 4633: 4632: 4626: 4624: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4596: 4579:(9): 1163–1170. 4564: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4525:. Archived from 4494: 4488: 4487: 4451: 4442: 4441: 4405: 4399: 4398: 4382: 4372: 4363: 4362: 4340: 4334: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4302: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4279:. April 20, 2023 4269: 4263: 4262: 4240: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4192: 4183: 4182: 4160: 4141: 4140: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4035: 4015: 4006: 4005: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3952: 3928: 3919: 3918: 3893:(8): 1022–1032. 3882: 3876: 3875: 3847: 3838: 3837: 3811: 3791: 3782: 3781: 3771: 3747: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3718: 3703: 3702: 3686: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3633: 3612: 3611: 3589: 3580: 3579: 3548: 3527: 3526: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3465: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3398: 3387: 3386: 3358: 3349: 3348: 3338: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3263: 3252: 3251: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3150: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3071: 3060: 3059: 3037: 3031: 3030: 3008: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2947: 2936: 2935: 2925: 2893: 2880: 2879: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2838: 2837: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2802: 2770: 2759: 2758: 2740: 2717: 2716: 2688: 2679: 2678: 2656: 2647: 2646: 2624: 2618: 2617: 2581: 2546: 2545: 2509: 2454: 2453: 2443: 2419: 2406: 2405: 2383: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2279: 2269: 2260: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2225:. March 11, 2019 2215: 2204: 2203: 2193: 2183: 2159: 2150: 2149: 2129: 2030:NMDA antagonists 1953:secondary injury 1941:Quantitative EEG 1722:bipolar disorder 1352:neuropsychiatric 1296:vegetative state 1202:antifibrinolytic 1161:Hyperventilation 1130:paralytic agents 1094:brain herniation 928:brain herniation 865:neurotransmitter 798:inertial loading 513:focal or diffuse 367: 361: 350:, the outermost 266:Physical therapy 60:CT scan showing 55: 35: 34: 21: 12358: 12357: 12353: 12352: 12351: 12349: 12348: 12347: 12313: 12312: 12309: 12304: 12218: 12197: 12161: 12110: 11985:Pathophysiology 11976: 11960: 11908: 11887: 11847: 11806: 11801: 11771: 11766: 11716: 11662: 11552: 11547: 11517: 11512: 11492: 11471: 11435: 11429: 11410: 11403: 11370:Wayback Machine 11358:Wayback Machine 11324: 11321: 11316: 11315: 11275: 11274: 11198: 11184: 11176:Wayback Machine 11164: 11158: 11135: 11112: 11091: 11070: 11065: 11064: 11043: 11039: 10994: 10990: 10935: 10931: 10884: 10880: 10835: 10831: 10792: 10788: 10735: 10731: 10686: 10682: 10643: 10639: 10608: 10599: 10554: 10550: 10519: 10515: 10476: 10472: 10427: 10423: 10386: 10382: 10343: 10339: 10308: 10304: 10259: 10255: 10210: 10206: 10161: 10157: 10126:(4): CD000565. 10116: 10112: 10091:(4): CD005400. 10085: 10081: 10036: 10032: 9987: 9983: 9938: 9934: 9903: 9899: 9859: 9855: 9810: 9806: 9775:(9): CD001048. 9761: 9757: 9718: 9714: 9665: 9658: 9613: 9609: 9564: 9560: 9550: 9548: 9536: 9532: 9524: 9520: 9481: 9477: 9446: 9442: 9434: 9430: 9423: 9409: 9405: 9366: 9362: 9355: 9337: 9333: 9326: 9308: 9301: 9294: 9268: 9259: 9222: 9218: 9211: 9195: 9191: 9183: 9172: 9164: 9155: 9145: 9143: 9136: 9132: 9131: 9127: 9117: 9115: 9111: 9088: 9082: 9078: 9039: 9035: 9020: 9016: 9006: 9004: 8992: 8988: 8981: 8967: 8963: 8918: 8909: 8872: 8868: 8854: 8850: 8811: 8800: 8761: 8757: 8718: 8714: 8677: 8673: 8663: 8661: 8650:Psychiatr Times 8642: 8638: 8599: 8595: 8564:(2): CD006341. 8550: 8546: 8507: 8503: 8464: 8455: 8416: 8409: 8372: 8368: 8329: 8320: 8281: 8277: 8238: 8234: 8197: 8193: 8186: 8164: 8160: 8121: 8117: 8086: 8082: 8037: 8033: 8002: 7995: 7956: 7952: 7938: 7934: 7889: 7885: 7840: 7836: 7829: 7815: 7811: 7774: 7770: 7731: 7727: 7682: 7675: 7644: 7637: 7590: 7586: 7539: 7535: 7492: 7488: 7453: 7449: 7417: 7413: 7403: 7401: 7400:on June 6, 2021 7382: 7378: 7362: 7361: 7357: 7341: 7337: 7330: 7316: 7312: 7300: 7299: 7290: 7289: 7285: 7269: 7265: 7250: 7243: 7204: 7200: 7161: 7154: 7115: 7111: 7104: 7090: 7081: 7060:(3): CD005239. 7054: 7050: 7040: 7038: 7028: 7021: 6976: 6972: 6926: 6922: 6890: 6884: 6880: 6873: 6851: 6844: 6837: 6821: 6817: 6786: 6782: 6775: 6753: 6749: 6712: 6693: 6686: 6672: 6668: 6647:(4): CD003984. 6641: 6637: 6606:(1): CD003986. 6592: 6588: 6557:(1): CD006686. 6543: 6539: 6508:(4): CD001527. 6494: 6490: 6483: 6469: 6465: 6434:(1): CD000196. 6420: 6416: 6377: 6373: 6342:(2): CD000566. 6328: 6324: 6278: 6274: 6229: 6225: 6194:(1): CD010904. 6180: 6176: 6145:(8): CD001049. 6131: 6124: 6074: 6070: 6039:(2): CD004169. 6025: 6021: 5981: 5974: 5943: 5932: 5901: 5897: 5852: 5848: 5809: 5805: 5767: 5760: 5729: 5722: 5677: 5673: 5659: 5657: 5646: 5619: 5607: 5603: 5572: 5568: 5537: 5528: 5483: 5476: 5431: 5427: 5396:(1): CD004333. 5386: 5382: 5358: 5354: 5341: 5340: 5336: 5324: 5323: 5314: 5313: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5261: 5257: 5247: 5245: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5228: 5210: 5203: 5193: 5191: 5183: 5182: 5178: 5151: 5147: 5116: 5112: 5081: 5058: 5021: 5017: 5010: 4996: 4992: 4985: 4971: 4967: 4922: 4915: 4878: 4874: 4851: 4847: 4816: 4812: 4775: 4771: 4732: 4725: 4686: 4682: 4643: 4636: 4622: 4620: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4565: 4542: 4532: 4530: 4495: 4491: 4462:(11): 863–880. 4452: 4445: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4373: 4366: 4359: 4341: 4337: 4329: 4325: 4315: 4313: 4304: 4303: 4292: 4282: 4280: 4271: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4241: 4234: 4224: 4222: 4215: 4211: 4201: 4199: 4194: 4193: 4186: 4179: 4161: 4144: 4112: 4108: 4069: 4065: 4016: 4009: 3970: 3966: 3929: 3922: 3883: 3879: 3848: 3841: 3809:10.1.1.330.1488 3792: 3785: 3748: 3741: 3731: 3729: 3720: 3719: 3706: 3699: 3677: 3673: 3634: 3615: 3608: 3590: 3583: 3549: 3530: 3491: 3487: 3442: 3438: 3399: 3390: 3359: 3352: 3307: 3303: 3264: 3255: 3248: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3204: 3200: 3168: 3164: 3127: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3072: 3063: 3056: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3009: 2974: 2966: 2962: 2954: 2948: 2939: 2894: 2883: 2876: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2841: 2834: 2820: 2816: 2771: 2762: 2755: 2741: 2720: 2689: 2682: 2675: 2657: 2650: 2643: 2625: 2621: 2582: 2549: 2510: 2457: 2420: 2409: 2402: 2384: 2377: 2367: 2365: 2364:. March 4, 2019 2356: 2355: 2351: 2341: 2339: 2338:. March 6, 2019 2330: 2329: 2325: 2277: 2270: 2263: 2253: 2251: 2249:medlineplus.gov 2243: 2242: 2238: 2228: 2226: 2217: 2216: 2207: 2160: 2153: 2146: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2112: 2100: 2069: 2042: 1957:neuroprotection 1949: 1938: 1933: 1828: 1804: 1785:In the US, the 1783: 1774:epidemiological 1746: 1714:substance abuse 1658:hypopituitarism 1546: 1540: 1484: 1476:plantar flexion 1436: 1405: 1304: 1260:pulmonary edema 1258:and neurogenic 1237:benzodiazepines 1169:corticosteroids 1085:Tranexamic acid 1082: 1053: 1006: 936: 825: 758: 756:Physical forces 753: 727: 699:slow heart rate 695:Cushing's triad 633: 617:arachnoid mater 503:(double arrows) 490: 436: 420: 415: 402: 397: 360: 306: 261:fall prevention 219:Causes include 147:medical imaging 33: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12356: 12346: 12345: 12340: 12335: 12330: 12325: 12306: 12305: 12303: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12287: 12286: 12285: 12280: 12270: 12269: 12268: 12266:Rhabdomyolysis 12261:Crush syndrome 12258: 12257: 12256: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12230: 12228: 12224: 12223: 12220: 12219: 12217: 12216: 12211: 12205: 12203: 12199: 12198: 12196: 12195: 12190: 12185: 12180: 12175: 12169: 12167: 12163: 12162: 12160: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12144: 12139: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12118: 12116: 12112: 12111: 12109: 12108: 12107: 12106: 12101: 12096: 12088: 12087: 12086: 12084:Splenic injury 12081: 12073: 12072: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12053: 12052: 12051: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12031: 12023: 12022: 12021: 12016: 12011: 12006: 11997: 11995: 11986: 11982: 11981: 11978: 11977: 11975: 11974: 11968: 11966: 11962: 11961: 11959: 11958: 11953: 11951:Trauma surgery 11948: 11943: 11938: 11933: 11927: 11925: 11918: 11914: 11913: 11910: 11909: 11907: 11906: 11901: 11895: 11893: 11892:Investigations 11889: 11888: 11886: 11885: 11880: 11875: 11870: 11864: 11862: 11853: 11849: 11848: 11846: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11814: 11812: 11808: 11807: 11800: 11799: 11792: 11785: 11777: 11768: 11767: 11765: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11749: 11744: 11743: 11742: 11740:classification 11737: 11726: 11724: 11718: 11717: 11715: 11714: 11713:(Quadriplegia) 11708: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11672: 11670: 11664: 11663: 11661: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11628: 11618: 11613: 11608: 11603: 11602: 11601: 11596: 11591: 11583: 11582: 11581: 11576: 11568: 11562: 11560: 11554: 11553: 11546: 11545: 11538: 11531: 11523: 11514: 11513: 11511: 11510: 11504: 11502: 11498: 11497: 11494: 11493: 11491: 11490: 11484: 11482: 11473: 11472: 11470: 11469: 11464: 11459: 11453: 11451: 11439: 11431: 11430: 11428: 11427: 11418: 11416: 11412: 11411: 11402: 11401: 11394: 11387: 11379: 11373: 11372: 11360: 11348: 11318: 11317: 11314: 11313: 11296: 11284: 11283: 11281: 11277: 11276: 11273: 11272: 11261: 11250: 11215: 11199: 11194: 11193: 11191: 11190:Classification 11183: 11182:External links 11180: 11163: 11162: 11156: 11144:"Introduction" 11139: 11133: 11116: 11110: 11095: 11089: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11063: 11062: 11037: 10988: 10949:(12): e52169. 10929: 10878: 10829: 10786: 10729: 10680: 10653:(2): 162–172. 10637: 10597: 10548: 10529:(4): 901–907. 10513: 10470: 10441:(6): 763–774. 10421: 10400:(5): 631–637. 10380: 10337: 10318:(5): 876–882. 10302: 10253: 10224:(2): 435–448. 10204: 10169:Brain Research 10155: 10110: 10079: 10030: 9981: 9946:Anesthesiology 9932: 9913:(4): 391–402. 9897: 9853: 9804: 9755: 9728:(4): 575–583. 9712: 9675:(6): 972–979. 9656: 9607: 9558: 9530: 9518: 9475: 9440: 9428: 9421: 9403: 9360: 9353: 9331: 9324: 9299: 9292: 9257: 9216: 9209: 9189: 9170: 9153: 9125: 9099:(6): 457–464. 9076: 9033: 9014: 8986: 8979: 8961: 8932:(6): 731–735. 8907: 8866: 8848: 8798: 8771:(4): 349–367. 8755: 8728:(6): 535–547. 8712: 8671: 8636: 8609:(6): 452–459. 8593: 8544: 8501: 8474:(6): 610–621. 8453: 8426:(6): 460–467. 8407: 8386:(6): 421–423. 8366: 8339:(5): 645–661. 8318: 8291:(3): 249–262. 8275: 8248:(2): 179–185. 8232: 8211:(3): 195–202. 8205:Psychosomatics 8191: 8184: 8158: 8131:(4): 318–319. 8115: 8096:(5): 448–459. 8092:(in Spanish). 8080: 8031: 7993: 7966:(2): 116–124. 7950: 7932: 7883: 7854:(4): 353–364. 7834: 7827: 7809: 7768: 7741:(4): 445–452. 7725: 7696:(s10): 11–17. 7673: 7635: 7584: 7533: 7486: 7447: 7411: 7376: 7355: 7335: 7328: 7310: 7283: 7263: 7241: 7198: 7171:(5): 433–439. 7152: 7109: 7102: 7079: 7048: 7019: 6970: 6920: 6878: 6871: 6842: 6835: 6815: 6780: 6773: 6747: 6726:(3): 546–561. 6691: 6684: 6666: 6635: 6586: 6537: 6488: 6481: 6463: 6414: 6387:(2): 141–146. 6371: 6322: 6272: 6223: 6174: 6122: 6085:(8): 679–683. 6068: 6019: 5992:(4): 291–300. 5972: 5953:(3): 516–524. 5930: 5911:(2): 339–343. 5895: 5846: 5819:(5): 693–701. 5803: 5758: 5720: 5671: 5617: 5610:Time Magazine, 5601: 5566: 5526: 5497:(6): 314–318. 5474: 5425: 5380: 5352: 5334: 5325:|journal= 5296: 5255: 5233: 5226: 5201: 5176: 5165:(2): 159–164. 5145: 5126:(4): 613–623. 5110: 5091:(3): 318–332. 5056: 5035:(3): 298–300. 5015: 5008: 4990: 4983: 4965: 4936:(5): 503–557. 4913: 4892:(2): 185–193. 4872: 4845: 4826:(2): 109–112. 4810: 4789:(1): 206–210. 4769: 4742:(4): 281–344. 4723: 4680: 4634: 4608: 4540: 4489: 4443: 4400: 4393: 4364: 4357: 4335: 4333:(2007). p. 16. 4323: 4290: 4264: 4257: 4232: 4209: 4184: 4177: 4142: 4106: 4079:(4): 315–332. 4063: 4033:10.1.1.510.871 4026:(2): 157–172. 4007: 3980:(3): 259–267. 3964: 3943:(2): 233–242. 3920: 3877: 3858:(4): 297–310. 3839: 3802:(5): 640–656. 3783: 3739: 3704: 3697: 3671: 3613: 3606: 3581: 3528: 3485: 3456:(4): 501–514. 3436: 3409:(3): 219–238. 3388: 3369:(8): 873–880. 3350: 3321:(8): 845–856. 3301: 3274:(5): 282–291. 3253: 3246: 3228: 3218: 3198: 3179:(4): 481–495. 3162: 3121: 3119:(2007). p. 32. 3109: 3082:(4): 307–316. 3061: 3054: 3032: 3025: 2972: 2960: 2937: 2908:(7): 719–738. 2881: 2874: 2854: 2850:LaPlaca et al. 2839: 2832: 2814: 2785:(5): 403–406. 2760: 2753: 2718: 2699:(3): 321–332. 2680: 2673: 2648: 2641: 2619: 2592:(3): 119–135. 2547: 2520:(8): 728–741. 2455: 2428:Psychosomatics 2407: 2400: 2375: 2349: 2323: 2261: 2236: 2205: 2151: 2144: 2123: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2111: 2108: 2099: 2096: 2068: 2065: 2041: 2038: 1981:excitotoxicity 1948: 1945: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1827: 1824: 1803: 1800: 1782: 1779: 1745: 1742: 1583:pressure sores 1542:Main article: 1539: 1536: 1483: 1480: 1464:cerebral palsy 1435: 1432: 1424:cerebral palsy 1404: 1401: 1303: 1300: 1225:norepinephrine 1081: 1078: 1063:followed by a 1052: 1049: 1005: 1002: 994:rehabilitation 935: 932: 904:cerebral edema 872:excitotoxicity 824: 821: 790:impact loading 757: 754: 752: 749: 726: 723: 632: 629: 551:temporal lobes 489: 486: 468:, duration of 439: 438: 433: 430: 427: 423: 422: 419:>30 min to 417: 414:>1 to <7 412: 409: 405: 404: 399: 394: 391: 387: 386: 381: 376: 371: 359: 356: 305: 304:Classification 302: 282:vision therapy 270:speech therapy 164: 163: 161:speech therapy 154: 150: 149: 139: 133: 132: 126: 120: 119: 116: 112: 111: 110:Mild to severe 108: 104: 103: 100: 94: 93: 84: 78: 77: 74:skull fracture 57: 56: 48: 47: 44: 40: 39: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12355: 12344: 12341: 12339: 12336: 12334: 12331: 12329: 12326: 12324: 12321: 12320: 12318: 12311: 12301: 12300:Wound healing 12298: 12296: 12293: 12291: 12288: 12284: 12281: 12279: 12276: 12275: 12274: 12271: 12267: 12264: 12263: 12262: 12259: 12255: 12252: 12251: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12229: 12227:Complications 12225: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12206: 12204: 12200: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12186: 12184: 12183:Facial trauma 12181: 12179: 12176: 12174: 12171: 12170: 12168: 12164: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12147:Gunshot wound 12145: 12143: 12142:Electrocution 12140: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12119: 12117: 12113: 12105: 12102: 12100: 12097: 12095: 12092: 12091: 12089: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12076: 12074: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12056: 12054: 12050: 12047: 12045: 12042: 12040: 12037: 12035: 12032: 12030: 12027: 12026: 12024: 12020: 12017: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12007: 12005: 12004:Bone fracture 12002: 12001: 11999: 11998: 11996: 11994: 11990: 11987: 11983: 11973: 11970: 11969: 11967: 11963: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11947: 11946:Trauma center 11944: 11942: 11939: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11928: 11926: 11922: 11919: 11915: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11897: 11896: 11894: 11890: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11866: 11865: 11863: 11861: 11857: 11854: 11850: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11838:Resuscitation 11836: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11819: 11816: 11815: 11813: 11809: 11805: 11798: 11793: 11791: 11786: 11784: 11779: 11778: 11775: 11763: 11760: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11732: 11731: 11728: 11727: 11725: 11723: 11719: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11673: 11671: 11669: 11665: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11623: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11604: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11586: 11584: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11571: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11563: 11561: 11559: 11555: 11551: 11544: 11539: 11537: 11532: 11530: 11525: 11524: 11521: 11509: 11506: 11505: 11503: 11499: 11489: 11486: 11485: 11483: 11481: 11479: 11474: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11454: 11452: 11450: 11448: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11437:facial trauma 11434:Extracranial/ 11432: 11426: 11425: 11420: 11419: 11417: 11413: 11408: 11400: 11395: 11393: 11388: 11386: 11381: 11380: 11377: 11371: 11367: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11355: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11343: 11337: 11333: 11332: 11328: 11323: 11322: 11312: 11309: 11306: 11302: 11301: 11297: 11295: 11291: 11290: 11286: 11285: 11282: 11278: 11271: 11267: 11266: 11262: 11260: 11256: 11255: 11251: 11249: 11245: 11241: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11225: 11224: 11220: 11216: 11214: 11210: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11200: 11197: 11192: 11188: 11179: 11178: 11177: 11173: 11170: 11159: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11140: 11136: 11130: 11126: 11122: 11117: 11113: 11107: 11103: 11102: 11096: 11092: 11086: 11082: 11078: 11073: 11072: 11058: 11054: 11050: 11049: 11041: 11033: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10992: 10984: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10956: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10933: 10925: 10921: 10916: 10911: 10906: 10901: 10897: 10893: 10889: 10882: 10874: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10848: 10844: 10840: 10833: 10825: 10821: 10817: 10813: 10809: 10805: 10801: 10797: 10790: 10782: 10778: 10773: 10768: 10764: 10760: 10756: 10752: 10748: 10744: 10740: 10733: 10725: 10721: 10716: 10711: 10707: 10703: 10699: 10695: 10691: 10684: 10676: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10660: 10656: 10652: 10648: 10641: 10633: 10629: 10625: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10606: 10604: 10602: 10593: 10589: 10584: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10552: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10528: 10524: 10517: 10509: 10505: 10501: 10497: 10493: 10489: 10485: 10481: 10474: 10466: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10448: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10425: 10417: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10399: 10395: 10391: 10384: 10376: 10372: 10368: 10364: 10360: 10356: 10352: 10348: 10341: 10333: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10306: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10281: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10264: 10257: 10249: 10245: 10241: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10223: 10219: 10215: 10208: 10200: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10182: 10178: 10174: 10170: 10166: 10159: 10151: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10125: 10121: 10114: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10094: 10090: 10083: 10075: 10071: 10066: 10061: 10057: 10053: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10034: 10026: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10008: 10004: 10000: 9996: 9992: 9985: 9977: 9973: 9969: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9936: 9928: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9912: 9908: 9901: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9865: 9857: 9849: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9808: 9800: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9759: 9751: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9716: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9682: 9678: 9674: 9670: 9663: 9661: 9652: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9611: 9603: 9599: 9594: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9577: 9573: 9569: 9562: 9547: 9546: 9541: 9534: 9527: 9522: 9514: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9479: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9455: 9451: 9444: 9438:(1999). p. 3. 9437: 9432: 9424: 9418: 9414: 9407: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9387: 9383: 9379: 9375: 9371: 9364: 9356: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9335: 9327: 9321: 9317: 9313: 9306: 9304: 9295: 9289: 9285: 9280: 9279: 9273: 9266: 9264: 9262: 9253: 9249: 9244: 9239: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9220: 9212: 9206: 9202: 9201: 9193: 9187:(2007). p. 1. 9186: 9181: 9179: 9177: 9175: 9167: 9162: 9160: 9158: 9142: 9135: 9129: 9110: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9094: 9087: 9080: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9037: 9029: 9025: 9018: 9003: 8998: 8990: 8982: 8976: 8972: 8965: 8957: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8923: 8916: 8914: 8912: 8903: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8870: 8863: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8809: 8807: 8805: 8803: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8759: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8716: 8708: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8675: 8659: 8655: 8651: 8647: 8640: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8597: 8589: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8548: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8505: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8462: 8460: 8458: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8414: 8412: 8403: 8399: 8394: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8370: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8325: 8323: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8290: 8286: 8279: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8236: 8228: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8195: 8187: 8181: 8177: 8172: 8171: 8162: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8119: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8084: 8076: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8035: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8000: 7998: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7954: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7928: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7887: 7879: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7838: 7830: 7824: 7820: 7813: 7805: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7772: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7729: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7680: 7678: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7642: 7640: 7631: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7603: 7600:(in German). 7599: 7595: 7588: 7580: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7490: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7451: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7415: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7380: 7372: 7366: 7358: 7352: 7348: 7347: 7339: 7331: 7325: 7321: 7314: 7306: 7294: 7286: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7267: 7259: 7255: 7248: 7246: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7202: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7159: 7157: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7113: 7105: 7099: 7095: 7088: 7086: 7084: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7052: 7037: 7033: 7026: 7024: 7015: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6974: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6924: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6889: 6882: 6874: 6868: 6864: 6859: 6858: 6849: 6847: 6838: 6832: 6828: 6827: 6819: 6810: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6784: 6776: 6770: 6766: 6761: 6760: 6751: 6743: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6710: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6687: 6681: 6677: 6670: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6639: 6631: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6590: 6582: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6541: 6533: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6492: 6484: 6478: 6474: 6467: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6418: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6367: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6326: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6276: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6227: 6219: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6178: 6170: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6127: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6072: 6064: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6023: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5979: 5977: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5939: 5937: 5935: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5899: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5807: 5798: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5765: 5763: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5727: 5725: 5716: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5691:: 1547–1548. 5690: 5686: 5685:EXCLI Journal 5682: 5675: 5668: 5655: 5651: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5614: 5611: 5605: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5570: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5479: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5384: 5376: 5373:(in German). 5372: 5368: 5362: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5338: 5330: 5318: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5259: 5243: 5237: 5229: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5206: 5190: 5186: 5180: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5149: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5061: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5011: 5005: 5001: 4994: 4986: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4918: 4909: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4876: 4868: 4864: 4861:(3): 179–85. 4860: 4856: 4849: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4773: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4730: 4728: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4653:(2): 101–24. 4652: 4648: 4641: 4639: 4631: 4618: 4612: 4604: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4448: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4396: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4380: 4371: 4369: 4360: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4339: 4332: 4327: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4260: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4237: 4220: 4213: 4197: 4191: 4189: 4180: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4014: 4012: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3927: 3925: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3846: 3844: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3788: 3779: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3744: 3727: 3723: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3700: 3694: 3690: 3685: 3684: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3355: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3249: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3221: 3215: 3211: 3210: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3118: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3057: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3036: 3028: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2970:(1999). p. 4. 2969: 2964: 2953: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2877: 2871: 2867: 2866: 2858: 2852:(2007). p. 16 2851: 2846: 2844: 2835: 2829: 2825: 2818: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2685: 2676: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2655: 2653: 2644: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2451: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2434:(2): 95–103. 2433: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2403: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2380: 2363: 2359: 2353: 2337: 2333: 2327: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2276: 2268: 2266: 2250: 2246: 2240: 2224: 2220: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2168:Cases Journal 2165: 2158: 2156: 2147: 2141: 2137: 2136: 2135:Diffusion MRI 2128: 2124: 2116: 2107: 2104: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2072: 2067:Psychological 2064: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2050: 2047: 2046:Microdialysis 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994:dexamethasone 1991: 1986: 1985:animal trials 1982: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1855:Ancient Greek 1852: 1848: 1847:Mesopotamians 1844: 1837: 1832: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1810: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1750: 1741: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1566: 1558: 1550: 1545: 1538:Complications 1535: 1532: 1528: 1525: 1521: 1520:illicit drugs 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1488: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1467: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1431: 1427: 1425: 1420: 1409: 1400: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1368:psychiatrists 1365: 1364:psychologists 1361: 1357: 1356:mental health 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:physiotherapy 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1308: 1302:Chronic stage 1299: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1245:leviteracetam 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1190:aminosteroids 1187: 1183: 1179: 1178:monoaminergic 1175: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1066: 1065:neurosurgical 1062: 1058: 1048: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1031: 1028: 1018: 1010: 1001: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 981: 977: 973: 968: 966: 962: 958: 956: 951: 949: 940: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 866: 862: 858: 854: 849: 846: 842: 833: 829: 820: 818: 813: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 781: 779: 775: 771: 762: 748: 746: 745:Bill Pascrell 741: 737: 733: 722: 718: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 675: 673: 669: 665: 661: 656: 654: 650: 641: 637: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 585: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 539: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 516: 514: 510: 502: 501:midline shift 498: 494: 485: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 466:resuscitation 463: 459: 454: 450: 446: 434: 431: 428: 425: 424: 421:<24 hours 418: 413: 410: 407: 406: 389: 388: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 369: 368: 365: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 336: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 301: 299: 293: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 262: 258: 254: 250: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 226: 222: 217: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 162: 158: 155: 151: 148: 144: 140: 138: 134: 131: 127: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 58: 54: 49: 45: 41: 36: 30: 19: 12310: 12178:Chest injury 12137:Crush injury 12127:Blunt trauma 12122:Blast injury 12103: 12044:Pneumothorax 11828:Traumatology 11823:Major trauma 11730:Nerve injury 11585:Extra-axial 11570:Intra-axial 11557: 11476: 11445: 11421: 11415:Intracranial 11342:Brain injury 11329: 11298: 11287: 11263: 11252: 11217: 11202: 11166: 11165: 11147: 11124: 11100: 11080: 11047: 11040: 11005: 11001: 10991: 10946: 10942: 10932: 10895: 10891: 10881: 10846: 10842: 10832: 10799: 10795: 10789: 10749:(1): 58–66. 10746: 10742: 10732: 10697: 10693: 10683: 10650: 10646: 10640: 10618:: CD004609. 10615: 10611: 10565: 10561: 10551: 10526: 10522: 10516: 10483: 10479: 10473: 10438: 10434: 10424: 10397: 10393: 10383: 10350: 10347:Neuroscience 10346: 10340: 10315: 10311: 10305: 10270: 10266: 10256: 10221: 10217: 10207: 10172: 10168: 10158: 10123: 10113: 10088: 10082: 10050:(1): 91–99. 10047: 10043: 10033: 9998: 9994: 9984: 9949: 9945: 9935: 9910: 9906: 9900: 9867: 9863: 9856: 9821: 9817: 9807: 9772: 9768: 9758: 9725: 9721: 9715: 9672: 9668: 9624: 9620: 9610: 9575: 9571: 9561: 9549:. Retrieved 9543: 9533: 9528:(2005). p. 8 9521: 9488: 9484: 9478: 9453: 9449: 9443: 9431: 9412: 9406: 9373: 9369: 9363: 9344: 9334: 9315: 9277: 9233: 9229: 9219: 9199: 9192: 9168:(2005). p. 3 9144:. Retrieved 9140: 9128: 9116:. Retrieved 9109:the original 9096: 9092: 9079: 9046: 9042: 9036: 9028:the original 9017: 9007:December 16, 9005:. Retrieved 9001: 8989: 8970: 8964: 8929: 8925: 8883: 8879: 8869: 8859: 8851: 8818: 8814: 8768: 8764: 8758: 8725: 8722:Brain Injury 8721: 8715: 8688: 8684: 8674: 8662:. Retrieved 8658:the original 8653: 8649: 8639: 8606: 8602: 8596: 8561: 8557: 8547: 8514: 8511:Brain Injury 8510: 8504: 8471: 8467: 8423: 8419: 8383: 8379: 8369: 8336: 8332: 8288: 8284: 8278: 8245: 8241: 8235: 8208: 8204: 8194: 8169: 8161: 8128: 8124: 8118: 8093: 8089: 8083: 8048: 8044: 8034: 8009: 8005: 7963: 7959: 7953: 7943: 7935: 7900: 7896: 7886: 7851: 7847: 7837: 7818: 7812: 7788:(1): 17–29. 7785: 7781: 7771: 7738: 7734: 7728: 7693: 7689: 7651: 7647: 7601: 7597: 7587: 7550: 7546: 7536: 7503: 7499: 7489: 7464: 7460: 7450: 7425: 7421: 7414: 7402:. Retrieved 7398:the original 7393: 7389: 7379: 7345: 7338: 7319: 7313: 7273: 7266: 7257: 7253: 7211: 7207: 7201: 7168: 7164: 7122: 7119:Brain Injury 7118: 7112: 7093: 7057: 7051: 7039:. 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Retrieved 2222: 2171: 2167: 2134: 2127: 2113: 2101: 2086:and correct 2080:eye-tracking 2073: 2070: 2054: 2051: 2043: 2022:curcuminoids 2006:barbiturates 1998:progesterone 1970: 1950: 1939: 1918: 1914: 1910:Phineas Gage 1907: 1902:Phineas Gage 1885: 1881: 1872: 1863: 1840: 1817: 1813: 1805: 1802:Demographics 1796: 1792: 1784: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1744:Epidemiology 1738: 1699: 1695:parkinsonism 1667: 1655: 1619: 1567: 1563: 1529: 1497: 1489: 1485: 1472:dorsiflexion 1468: 1452: 1428: 1415: 1389: 1385:Respite care 1332:neurologists 1328:Physiatrists 1313: 1264:mass lesions 1253: 1249:side effects 1206: 1186:progesterone 1151: 1134: 1107: 1083: 1054: 1040: 1032: 1023: 984: 969: 959: 952: 945: 884:white matter 880:mitochondria 861:free radical 857:inflammation 850: 837: 814: 797: 793: 789: 785: 782: 767: 728: 719: 676: 657: 645: 586: 567: 540: 532:white matter 517: 509:pathological 506: 478:neuroimaging 442: 363: 337: 329:brain injury 328: 324: 314: 307: 294: 246: 218: 177: 173: 169: 167: 124:Risk factors 87:Neurosurgery 29: 18:Brain trauma 12333:Neurotrauma 12249:Contracture 12202:Demographic 12188:Head injury 12034:Flail chest 11956:Trauma team 11711:Tetraplegia 11550:Neurotrauma 11501:Either/both 11424:neurotrauma 11407:head injury 11289:MedlinePlus 11068:Cited texts 10802:(1): 4–12. 10175:: 164–172. 9578:(1): 8–15. 9551:October 22, 9146:October 13, 9118:January 26, 7428:: 104–111. 7404:October 25, 7125:(1): 1–31. 6941:(1): 6–15. 5371:Der Spiegel 5194:November 5, 4623:January 23, 4316:October 28, 4277:www.cdc.gov 4225:October 22, 4202:October 27, 3732:October 27, 2336:www.cdc.gov 1947:Medications 1869:Renaissance 1859:Hippocrates 1843:trepanation 1671:Memory loss 1571:brain death 1500:hypotension 1412:orthotists. 1256:arrhythmias 1216:Hypotension 1198:haemostatic 1157:hypovolemia 1080:Acute stage 1057:golden hour 976:Angiography 924:brain death 912:mass effect 806:shock waves 732:child abuse 687:blown pupil 672:Alexithymia 555:hemiparesis 520:post-mortem 472:(PTA), and 325:head injury 298:death rates 202:Head injury 43:Other names 12317:Categories 12157:Stab wound 12039:Hemothorax 11965:Procedures 11924:Principles 11917:Management 11878:NACA score 11852:Assessment 11818:Polytrauma 11811:Principles 11696:Paraplegia 11621:Concussion 11462:Eye injury 11409:) and neck 11265:DiseasesDB 9572:J Med Life 9491:(1): 1–8. 7553:(1): 120. 7254:Pediatrica 5660:August 17, 4783:Pediatrics 2174:(1): 203. 2119:References 2088:trajectory 2078:unit with 2040:Procedures 2020:agonists, 1873:concussion 1770:prevalence 1734:asociality 1626:spasticity 1603:meningitis 1396:caregiving 1380:outpatient 1360:therapists 1284:craniotomy 1136:Hypertonic 1126:analgesics 1004:Prevention 794:noncontact 770:rotational 711:Anisocoria 668:dysarthria 625:ventricles 609:dura mater 530:including 480:, such as 432:>7 days 348:dura mater 286:Counseling 249:seat belts 216:or death. 214:disability 91:pediatrics 66:hemorrhage 12115:Mechanism 12009:Degloving 11457:Black eye 11334:is being 11308:neuro/153 11300:eMedicine 9370:Neurology 9236:(1): E5. 9185:Granacher 8815:Pituitary 8664:April 23, 8631:205643570 8539:207447494 8361:205907369 7690:Epilepsia 7528:212641072 7506:: 68–74. 7481:0966-6362 7365:cite book 7303:ignored ( 7293:cite book 7041:April 27, 6309:1529-7535 6293:: S1–S2. 5327:ignored ( 5317:cite book 4331:Granacher 4028:CiteSeerX 3834:207724498 3804:CiteSeerX 3495:Neurology 3117:Granacher 2318:258821806 2302:1532-821X 2010:magnesium 1936:Diagnosis 1888:psychosis 1781:Mortality 1766:incidence 1718:dysthymia 1702:hypomania 1630:myoclonus 1615:aneurysms 1611:vasospasm 1607:abscesses 1587:pneumonia 1510:), lower 1482:Prognosis 1455:orthotics 1434:Orthotics 1241:Phenytoin 1233:metabolic 1229:perfusion 1174:magnesium 1153:Diuretics 1122:Sedatives 1051:Treatment 1027:roll bars 934:Diagnosis 868:glutamate 751:Mechanism 621:pia mater 613:membranes 408:Moderate 240:(CT) and 153:Treatment 141:Based on 128:Old age, 82:Specialty 12273:Embolism 11366:Archived 11354:Archived 11327:template 11305:med/2820 11172:Archived 11032:24927383 10983:23284921 10943:PLOS ONE 10924:27313514 10873:23234472 10824:26020481 10816:29298527 10781:20955326 10724:26663136 10675:35914918 10667:17439701 10632:23235612 10592:17916856 10543:24484228 10508:23154956 10500:21809108 10465:15716852 10375:29276898 10367:18207647 10297:13345179 10289:18208543 10248:37759164 10240:16539667 10199:18948087 10150:14583925 10105:18843689 10074:20129501 10025:23235573 9968:23867231 9927:17011666 9892:23399305 9884:23474678 9848:31752052 9799:28933514 9750:19064475 9742:27941370 9699:29601315 9651:33126293 9602:32341694 9513:21648436 9505:19128523 9470:17974926 9398:22373825 9252:17961064 9105:15998982 9093:Medicina 9071:28381295 9063:14987880 9002:Medscape 8956:15542983 8902:15083870 8843:23713764 8835:16508717 8793:20918911 8785:12106003 8750:12428952 8742:19484627 8707:16280354 8623:19940678 8588:19370632 8531:20735320 8496:21067999 8488:20029697 8448:43384334 8440:19940679 8402:19940674 8353:19629849 8313:20238578 8270:41087553 8262:10946737 8227:15883140 8153:26338743 8145:17377615 8110:12040514 8075:29165784 8026:18295644 7980:11877893 7927:29286534 7878:26618215 7804:20437324 7763:23726077 7755:16759448 7720:34749005 7712:14511389 7668:18295647 7630:31406508 7579:31623670 7520:32147412 7442:27131186 7260:: 30–34. 7236:45860264 7228:11851738 7185:16225987 7147:24775120 7139:14660233 7074:17636792 7014:26694853 6957:27654000 6915:21434843 6742:10981741 6661:17054192 6630:14974051 6581:18254109 6532:11034722 6458:15674869 6401:18477926 6366:10796728 6317:22217782 6267:17322250 6218:31978260 6169:23918314 6117:24947684 6109:23811861 6063:15106241 6014:23859003 6006:26825644 5967:26589595 5925:12391640 5890:29283434 5841:10548255 5833:26746238 5801:Moppet07 5797:17545555 5753:12708551 5715:33343272 5596:15698747 5561:17967360 5521:15911597 5469:12919964 5420:18254047 5375:Archived 5291:17573394 5171:24986342 5140:24820171 5105:11223769 5051:18763356 4960:12042091 4805:11433079 4764:46514293 4756:12207973 4710:19199027 4667:18551365 4603:18427091 4523:19430256 4484:34912966 4476:16296570 4438:44600297 4430:17396538 4283:April 1, 4137:18047870 4101:41271134 4093:16030439 4050:12754675 4002:34126700 3994:19548166 3959:18282321 3907:16207623 3872:12547978 3666:45288155 3658:11036909 3573:12391630 3523:25106246 3431:22361889 3423:12802165 3345:16083352 3296:27836314 3193:19196176 3157:17872928 3096:16222127 2932:18627252 2713:16962454 2614:46012183 2606:17622833 2542:14071224 2534:18635021 2450:10749946 2342:July 21, 2310:37211140 2200:18831756 2034:caffeine 1990:mannitol 1979:such as 1975:to halt 1865:Medieval 1691:dementia 1518:such as 1459:Orthosis 1447:orthosis 1370:, while 1316:subacute 1280:debrided 1165:ischemia 1147:diuretic 1140:Mannitol 1110:catheter 1098:seizures 1074:evidence 967:(HDFT). 920:ischemia 896:ischemia 888:separate 832:MRI scan 660:dilation 482:swelling 403:minutes 358:Severity 244:(MRIs). 180:, is an 98:Symptoms 12055:Cardio 11311:ped/929 11259:D001930 11023:4224042 10974:3528746 10951:Bibcode 10915:4889613 10864:3565432 10772:3021720 10751:Bibcode 10715:8761477 10583:2001047 10456:4347944 10416:2384536 10332:9126906 10190:2603294 10141:7032539 10065:5084116 10016:7061245 9976:9756580 9839:6872435 9790:6483736 9707:4495428 9642:8094748 9593:7175442 9390:4069365 8947:2672045 8579:7390354 8305:8567192 8066:6486165 7918:6486048 7869:4667543 7621:6686412 7570:6798503 7193:2650670 7005:8629646 6965:3616546 6621:6984678 6572:7387850 6523:8406780 6449:7043302 6409:9927553 6357:7061354 6258:1804156 6209:6984412 6160:7050611 6054:6986696 5881:6486002 5706:7744966 5512:1725244 5460:1126775 5347:Fda.gov 4951:1462953 4908:7869433 4840:9662103 4718:7928780 4675:7262160 4594:2292762 4533:May 16, 4058:2264964 3915:8840941 3826:9802997 3778:9701095 3515:7192808 3480:4477808 3472:1706973 3383:8352676 3336:2377024 3288:2187053 3104:1527912 2923:2721779 2809:9659083 2800:1717568 2368:May 28, 2254:May 28, 2229:May 28, 2191:2566562 2026:ethanol 1826:History 1647:hearing 1524:alcohol 1504:hypoxia 1276:forceps 1272:suction 1204:drugs. 1144:osmotic 1112:into a 900:hypoxia 876:neurons 786:contact 664:aphasia 559:aphasia 497:CT scan 435:>24 426:Severe 253:helmets 184:to the 130:alcohol 12166:Region 12090:Neuro 11993:Injury 11833:Triage 11804:Trauma 11346:Curlie 11340: 11331:Curlie 11294:000028 11154: 11131: 11108: 11087: 11030: 11020: 10981: 10971: 10922: 10912: 10898:: 47. 10871: 10861: 10822: 10814: 10779: 10769: 10722: 10712: 10673: 10665: 10630: 10590: 10580: 10541: 10506: 10498: 10463: 10453: 10414: 10373: 10365: 10330: 10295: 10287: 10246: 10238: 10197: 10187: 10148: 10138: 10103: 10072: 10062: 10023: 10013: 9974: 9966: 9925: 9890: 9882: 9846: 9836: 9824:(11). 9797: 9787: 9748: 9740: 9705: 9697: 9649: 9639: 9600: 9590: 9511: 9503: 9468: 9436:Marion 9419: 9396: 9388: 9351: 9322: 9290: 9250: 9207: 9103: 9069: 9061: 9043:Lancet 8977: 8954: 8944: 8900: 8856:"Coma" 8841: 8833: 8791: 8783: 8748: 8740: 8705: 8629: 8621: 8586: 8576: 8537: 8529: 8494: 8486: 8446: 8438: 8400: 8359: 8351: 8311: 8303: 8268: 8260: 8225: 8182: 8151: 8143: 8108: 8073: 8063: 8024: 7988:347998 7986: 7978: 7925: 7915: 7876: 7866: 7825: 7802: 7761: 7753: 7718: 7710: 7666: 7628: 7618: 7604:: 41. 7577: 7567: 7526: 7518: 7479: 7440: 7353: 7326: 7281: 7234: 7226: 7191: 7183: 7145: 7137: 7100: 7072: 7012: 7002: 6963: 6955: 6913: 6869: 6833: 6771: 6740: 6682: 6659: 6628: 6618: 6579: 6569: 6530: 6520: 6479: 6456: 6446: 6407: 6399: 6364: 6354: 6315: 6307: 6265: 6255: 6216: 6206: 6167: 6157: 6115: 6107: 6061: 6051: 6012: 6004: 5965: 5947:Injury 5923: 5888: 5878: 5839: 5831: 5795: 5751: 5713: 5703: 5594: 5559: 5519: 5509: 5467: 5457: 5418: 5361:Flight 5289: 5224: 5169: 5138: 5103: 5049: 5006: 4981: 4958: 4948: 4906: 4838: 4803: 4762: 4754: 4716: 4708: 4673: 4665: 4601: 4591: 4521: 4482: 4474: 4436: 4428: 4391: 4355: 4349:Trauma 4312:. 2007 4255: 4175: 4169:Trauma 4135: 4099: 4091: 4056: 4048: 4030: 4000: 3992: 3957: 3913: 3905: 3870: 3832: 3824: 3806: 3776: 3695: 3664: 3656: 3638:Lancet 3604: 3571: 3521: 3513: 3478: 3470: 3429: 3421: 3381: 3343: 3333: 3294: 3286: 3244: 3216: 3191: 3155: 3102: 3094: 3052: 3023: 3017:Trauma 2968:Marion 2930: 2920: 2872: 2830: 2807: 2797: 2751: 2711: 2671: 2639: 2612: 2604: 2540: 2532: 2448: 2398: 2316: 2308: 2300: 2198: 2188: 2142: 2018:PPAR-γ 1809:median 1724:, and 1687:boxers 1643:vision 1622:ataxia 1593:, and 1569:coma, 1366:, and 1346:, and 1282:, and 972:X-rays 776:, and 725:Causes 603:, and 536:cortex 437:hours 370: 340:closed 255:, not 194:closed 182:injury 115:Causes 12025:Resp 11325:‹The 11248:854.1 11244:850.0 11240:804.9 11236:803.0 11232:801.9 11228:800.0 10820:S2CID 10671:S2CID 10504:S2CID 10371:S2CID 10293:S2CID 10244:S2CID 9972:S2CID 9888:S2CID 9746:S2CID 9703:S2CID 9509:S2CID 9394:S2CID 9137:(PDF) 9112:(PDF) 9089:(PDF) 9067:S2CID 8839:S2CID 8789:S2CID 8746:S2CID 8685:Brain 8627:S2CID 8535:S2CID 8492:S2CID 8444:S2CID 8357:S2CID 8309:S2CID 8266:S2CID 8178:–62. 8149:S2CID 7984:S2CID 7759:S2CID 7716:S2CID 7524:S2CID 7467:: 2. 7232:S2CID 7189:S2CID 7143:S2CID 6961:S2CID 6891:(PDF) 6767:–88. 6405:S2CID 6113:S2CID 6010:S2CID 5837:S2CID 5359:From 4760:S2CID 4714:S2CID 4671:S2CID 4480:S2CID 4434:S2CID 4097:S2CID 4054:S2CID 3998:S2CID 3911:S2CID 3830:S2CID 3691:–65. 3662:S2CID 3519:S2CID 3476:S2CID 3427:S2CID 3292:S2CID 3135:Brain 3100:S2CID 2955:(PDF) 2610:S2CID 2538:S2CID 2314:S2CID 2278:(PDF) 2002:xenon 1706:mania 1651:smell 1649:, or 1506:(low 1243:and 1142:, an 998:tests 774:shear 701:with 563:motor 528:axons 396:<1 393:13–15 390:Mild 321:force 310:blast 221:falls 210:skull 206:scalp 186:brain 107:Types 12132:Burn 12000:MSK 11422:see 11270:5671 11254:MeSH 11223:9-CM 11152:ISBN 11129:ISBN 11106:ISBN 11085:ISBN 11028:PMID 10979:PMID 10920:PMID 10869:PMID 10812:PMID 10777:PMID 10747:1208 10720:PMID 10698:2015 10663:PMID 10628:PMID 10588:PMID 10539:PMID 10496:PMID 10461:PMID 10412:PMID 10363:PMID 10328:PMID 10285:PMID 10236:PMID 10195:PMID 10173:1244 10146:PMID 10101:PMID 10070:PMID 10021:PMID 9999:2012 9964:PMID 9923:PMID 9880:PMID 9844:PMID 9822:2019 9795:PMID 9773:2017 9738:PMID 9695:PMID 9647:PMID 9625:2020 9598:PMID 9553:2013 9501:PMID 9466:PMID 9417:ISBN 9386:PMID 9349:ISBN 9320:ISBN 9288:ISBN 9248:PMID 9205:ISBN 9148:2019 9120:2007 9101:PMID 9059:PMID 9009:2007 8975:ISBN 8952:PMID 8898:PMID 8831:PMID 8781:PMID 8738:PMID 8703:PMID 8666:2010 8619:PMID 8584:PMID 8562:2009 8527:PMID 8484:PMID 8436:PMID 8398:PMID 8349:PMID 8301:PMID 8258:PMID 8223:PMID 8180:ISBN 8141:PMID 8106:PMID 8071:PMID 8049:2017 8022:PMID 7976:PMID 7923:PMID 7901:2017 7874:PMID 7823:ISBN 7800:PMID 7751:PMID 7708:PMID 7664:PMID 7626:PMID 7575:PMID 7516:PMID 7477:ISSN 7438:PMID 7406:2021 7371:link 7351:ISBN 7324:ISBN 7305:help 7279:ISBN 7224:PMID 7181:PMID 7135:PMID 7098:ISBN 7070:PMID 7043:2020 7010:PMID 6988:2015 6953:PMID 6911:PMID 6867:ISBN 6865:–2. 6831:ISBN 6769:ISBN 6738:PMID 6680:ISBN 6657:PMID 6626:PMID 6604:2003 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