Bracero Program - Knowledge

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produce which was packaged. Either way, these two contracted working groups were shorted more times than not. Bracero contracts indicated that they were to earn nothing less than minimum wage. In an article titled, "Proof of a Life Lived: The Plight of the Braceros and What It Says About How We Treat Records" written by Jennifer Orsorio, she describes this portion of wage agreement, "Under the contract, the braceros were to be paid a minimum wage (no less than that paid to comparable American workers), with guaranteed housing, and sent to work on farms and in railroad depots throughout the country - although most braceros worked in the western United States." Unfortunately, this was not always simple and one of the most complicated aspects of the bracero program was the worker's wage garnishment. The U.S. and Mexico made an agreement to garnish bracero wages, save them for the contracted worker (agriculture or railroad), and put them into bank accounts in Mexico for when the bracero returned to their home. Like many, braceros who returned home did not receive those wages. Many never had access to a bank account at all. It is estimated that the money the U.S. "transferred" was about $ 32 million. Often braceros would have to take legal action in attempts to recover their garnished wages. According to bank records money transferred often came up missing or never went into a Mexican banking system. In addition to the money transfers being missing or inaccessible by many braceros, the everyday battles of wage payments existed up and down the railroads, as well as in all the country's farms.

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written that, "The bracero railroad contract would preserve all the guarantees and provisions extended to agricultural workers." Only eight short months after agricultural braceros were once again welcomed to work, so were braceros on the railroads. The "Immigration and Naturalization authorized, and the U.S. attorney general approved under the 9th Proviso to Section 3 of the Immigration Act of February 5, 1917, the temporary admission of unskilled Mexican non-agricultural workers for railroad track and maintenance-of-way employment. The authorization stipulated that railroad braceros could only enter the United States for the duration of the war." Over the course of the next few months, braceros began coming in by the thousands to work on railroads. Multiple railroad companies began requesting Mexican workers to fill labor shortages. Bracero railroaders were also in understanding of an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico to pay a living wage, and provide adequate food, housing, and transportation. Working in the U.S. was not easy for bracero railroaders. Oftentimes, just like agricultural braceros, the railroaders were subject to rigged wages, harsh or inadequate living spaces, food scarcity, and racial discrimination . Exploitation of the braceros went on well into the 1960s.

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Zacatecas). The Catholic Church warned that emigration would break families apart and expose braceros to Protestant missionaries and to labor camps where drinking, gambling, and prostitution flourished. Others deplored the negative image that the braceros' departure produced for the Mexican nation. The political opposition even used the exodus of braceros as evidence of the failure of government policies, especially the agrarian reform program implemented by the post-revolutionary government in the 1930s. On the other hand, historians like Michael Snodgrass and Deborah Cohen demonstrate why the program proved popular among so many migrants, for whom seasonal work in the US offered great opportunities, despite the poor conditions they often faced in the fields and housing camps. They saved money, purchased new tools or used trucks, and returned home with new outlooks and with a greater sense of dignity. Social scientists doing field work in rural Mexico at the time observed these positive economic and cultural effects of bracero migration. The bracero program looked different from the perspective of the participants rather than from the perspective of its many critics in the U.S. and Mexico.

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Gamboa points out, farmers controlled the pay (and kept it very low), hours of work and even transportation to and from work. Transportation and living expenses from the place of origin to destination, and return, as well as expenses incurred in the fulfillment of any requirements of a migratory nature, should have been met by the employer. Most employment agreements contained language to the effect of, "Mexican workers will be furnished without cost to them with hygienic lodgings and the medical and sanitary services enjoyed without cost to them will be identical with those furnished to the other agricultural workers in regions where they may lend their services." These were the words of agreements that all bracero employers had to come to but employers often showed that they couldn't stick with what they agreed on. Braceros had no say on any committees, agencies or boards that existed ostensibly to help establish fair working conditions for them. The lack of quality food angered braceros all over the U.S. According to the War Food Administrator, "Securing able cooks who were Mexicans or who had had experience in Mexican cooking was a problem that was never completely solved."

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and worked to found a home for a family. The only way to communicate their plans for their families' futures was through mail in letters sent to their women. These letters went through the US postal system and originally they were inspected before being posted for anything written by the men indicating any complaints about unfair working conditions. However, once it became known that men were actively sending for their families to permanently reside in the US, they were often intercepted, and many men were left with no responses from their women. Permanent settlement of bracero families was feared by the US, as the program was originally designed as a temporary work force which would be sent back to Mexico eventually.

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used to increase their wages was by "loading sacks" which consisted of braceros loading their harvest bags with rock in order to make their harvest heavier and therefore be paid more for the sack. Also, braceros learned that timing was everything. Strikes were more successful when combined with work stoppages, cold weather, and a pressing harvest period. The notable strikes throughout the Northwest proved that employers would rather negotiate with braceros than to deport them, employers had little time to waste as their crops needed to be harvested and the difficulty and expense associated with the bracero program forced them to negotiate with braceros for fair wages and better living conditions.

5778: 1576:, in the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), highlighted the substandard conditions and documented the ultimate destiny of the savings accounts deductions, but the suit was thrown out because the Mexican banks in question never operated in the United States. Today, it is stipulated that ex-braceros can receive up to $ 3,500.00 as compensation for the 10% only by supplying check stubs or contracts proving they were part of the program during 1942 to 1948. It is estimated that, with interest accumulated, $ 500 million is owed to ex-braceros, who continue to fight to receive the money owed to them. 1769:

most were assigned to the Southwest and two were responsible for the northwestern area." The lack of inspectors made the policing of pay and working conditions in the Northwest extremely difficult. The farmers set up powerful collective bodies like the Associated Farmers Incorporated of Washington with a united goal of keeping pay down and any union agitators or communists out of the fields. The Associated Farmers used various types of law enforcement officials to keep "order" including privatized law enforcement officers, the state highway patrol, and even the National Guard.

929:(USPHS) along with other military personnel. Braceros frequently dealt with harassment from these officials and could be kept for extended periods of time in the examination rooms. These rooms held as many as 40 men at a time, and migrants would have to wait 6 or more hours to be examined. According to first hand accounts, personnel would often process 800 to 1600 braceros at a time and, on occasion, upwards of 3100. The invasive health procedures and overcrowded processing centers would continue to persist throughout the program's 22-year tenure. 2285: 1816:

governments had to pitch the program to. Local Mexican government was well aware that whether male business owners went into the program came down to the character of their wives; whether they would be willing to take on the family business on their own in place of their husbands or not. Workshops were often conducted in villages all over Mexico open to women for them to learn about the program and to encourage their husbands to integrate into it as they were familiarized with the possible benefits of the program

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meant that full payment was delayed for long after the end of regular pay periods. It was also charged that time actually worked was not entered on the daily time slips and that payment was sometimes less than 30 cents per hour. April 9, 1943, the Mexican Labor Agreement is sanctioned by Congress through Public Law 45 which led to the agreement of a guaranteed a minimum wage of 30 cents per hour and "humane treatment" for workers involved in the program.

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the restriction order was voided. Those in power actually showed little concern over the alleged assault. Their real concern was ensuring the workers got back into the fields. Authorities threatened to send soldiers to force them back to work. Two days later the strike ended. Many of the Japanese and Mexican workers had threatened to return to their original homes, but most stayed there to help harvest the pea crop.

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1.) the quantity of food is sufficient, 2.) evening meals are plentiful, 3.) breakfast often is served earlier than warranted, 4.) bag lunches are universally disliked ... In some camps, efforts have been made to vary the diet more in accord with Mexican taste. The cold sandwich lunch with a piece of fruit, however, persists almost everywhere as the principal cause of discontent."

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threats of deportation harder to follow through with. Braceros in the Northwest could not easily skip out on their contracts due to the lack of a prominent Mexican-American community which would allow for them to blend in and not have to return to Mexico as so many of their counterparts in the Southwest chose to do and also the lack of proximity to the border.

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braceros suffered food poisoning, one of the most severe cases reported in the Northwest. This detrition of the quality and quantity of food persisted into 1945 until the Mexican government intervened. Lack of food, poor living conditions, discrimination, and exploitation led braceros to become active in strikes and to successfully negotiate their terms.

2115:. The exhibition included a collection of photographs taken by photojournalist Leonard Nadel in 1956, as well as documents, objects, and an audio station featuring oral histories collected by the Bracero Oral History Project. The exhibition closed on January 3, 2010. The exhibition was converted to a traveling exhibition in February 2010 and traveled to 1950:. These efforts demanded change for labor rights, wages and the general mistreatment of workers that had gained national attention with the Bracero Program. Change ensued with the UFW championing a 40% wage increase for grape farm laborers nationwide. While the federal minimum wage remained at $ 1.25 per hour, laborers operating under the 751:) and a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour, as well as protections from forced military service, and guaranteed that a part of wages was to be put into a private savings account in Mexico. The program also allowed the importation of contract laborers from Guam as a temporary measure during the early phases of 1965:

report found that the Bracero Program was "instrumental" in significantly reducing illegal immigration by the mid-1950s. The end of the program saw a rise in Mexican legal immigration between 1963 and 1972, as many Mexican men who had already lived in the United States chose to return, bringing along

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The Bracero Program was an attractive opportunity for men who wished to either begin a family with a head start with to American wages, or to men who were already settled and who wished to expand their earnings or their businesses in Mexico. As such, women were often those to whom both Mexican and US

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John Willard Carrigan, who was an authority on this subject after visiting multiple camps in California and Colorado in 1943 and 1944, commented, "Food preparation has not been adapted to the workers' habits sufficiently to eliminate vigorous criticisms. The men seem to agree on the following points:

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in Salinas, California made headlines illustrating just how harsh braceros situations were in California. In the accident 31 braceros lost their lives in a collision with a train and a bracero transportation truck. This particular accident led activist groups from agriculture and the cities to come

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Bracero men's prospective in-laws were often wary of men who had a history of abandoning wives and girlfriends in Mexico and not coming back from the U.S. or not reaching out when they were back in the country. The women's families were not persuaded then by confessions and promises of love and good

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Another difference is the proximity, or not, to the Mexican border. In the Southwest, employers could easily threaten braceros with deportation knowing the ease with which new braceros could replace them. However, in the Northwest due to the much farther distance and cost associated with travel made

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The Bracero Program operated as a joint program under the State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) in the Department of Justice. Under this pact, the laborers were promised decent living conditions in labor camps, such as adequate shelter, food

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The role of women in the bracero movement was often that of the homemaker, the dutiful wife who patiently waited for their men; cultural aspects also demonstrate women as a deciding factor for if men answered to the bracero program and took part in it. Women and families left behind were also often

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One key difference between the Northwest and braceros in the Southwest or other parts of the United States involved the lack of Mexican government labor inspectors. According to Galarza, "In 1943, ten Mexican labor inspectors were assigned to ensure contract compliance throughout the United States;

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The number of strikes in the Pacific Northwest is much longer than this list. Two strikes, in particular, should be highlighted for their character and scope: the Japanese-Mexican strike of 1943 in Dayton, Washington and the June 1946 strike of 1000 plus braceros that refused to harvest lettuce and

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The workers who participated in the bracero program have generated significant local and international struggles challenging the U.S. government and Mexican government to identify and return 10 percent mandatory deductions taken from their pay, from 1942 to 1948, for savings accounts that they were

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in the 1950s. In 1955, the AFL and CIO spokesman testified before a Congressional committee against the program, citing lack of enforcement of pay standards by the Labor Department. The Department of Labor eventually acted upon these criticisms and began closing numerous bracero camps in 1957–1958,

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President Truman signed Public Law 78 (which did not include employer sanctions) in July 1951. Soon after it was signed, United States negotiators met with Mexican officials to prepare a new bilateral agreement. This agreement made it so that the U.S. government were the guarantors of the contract,

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As men stayed in the U.S., wives, girlfriends, and children were left behind often for decades. Bracero men searched for ways to send for their families and saved their earnings for when their families were able to join them. In the U.S., they made connections and learned the culture, the system,

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The workers' response came in the form of a strike against this perceived injustice. Some 170 Mexicans and 230 Japanese struck. After multiple meetings including some combination of government officials, Cannery officials, the county sheriff, the Mayor of Dayton and representatives of the workers,

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During a 1963 debate over extension, the House of Representatives rejected an extension of the program. However, the Senate approved an extension that required U.S. workers to receive the same non-wage benefits as braceros. The House responded with a final one-year extension of the program without

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The Department of Labor continued to try to get more pro-worker regulations passed, however the only one that was written into law was the one guaranteeing U.S. workers the same benefits as the braceros, which was signed in 1961 by President Kennedy as an extension of Public Law 78. After signing,

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The outcome of this meeting was that the United States ultimately got to decide how the workers would enter the country by way of reception centers set up in various Mexican states and at the United States border. At these reception centers, potential braceros had to pass a series of examinations.

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Moreover, Truman's Commission on Migratory Labor in 1951 disclosed that the presence of Mexican workers depressed the income of American farmers, even as the U.S. Department of State urged a new bracero program to counter the popularity of communism in Mexico. Furthermore, it was seen as a way for

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However, the unionization efforts of the United Farm Workers, as popular as they were, were increasingly challenged by farm owners in the 1970s. Employers would pit unions against one another as they increasingly hired workers from the Teamster union, for example, that challenged the earlier work

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Labor unions that tried to organize agricultural workers after World War II targeted the Bracero Program as a key impediment to improving the wages of domestic farm workers. These unions included the National Farm Laborers Union (NFLU), later called the National Agricultural Workers Union (NAWU),

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Braceros met the challenges of discrimination and exploitation by finding various ways in which they could resist and attempt to improve their living conditions and wages in the Pacific Northwest work camps. Over two dozen strikes were held in the first two years of the program. One common method

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In a newspaper article titled "U.S. Investigates Bracero Program", published by The New York Times on January 21, 1963, claims the U.S. Department of Labor was checking false-record keeping. In this short article the writer explains, "It was understood that five or six prominent growers have been

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in June 1954, as a way to repatriate illegal laborers back to Mexico. The illegal workers who came over to the states at the initial start of the program were not the only ones affected by this operation, there were also massive groups of workers who felt the need to extend their stay in the U.S.

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American growers longed for a system that would admit Mexican workers and guarantee them an opportunity to grow and harvest their crops, and place them on the American market. Thus, during negotiations in 1948 over a new bracero program, Mexico sought to have the United States impose sanctions on

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Due to gender roles and expectations, bracero wives and girlfriends left behind had the obligation to keep writing love letters, to stay in touch, and to stay in love while bracero men in the U.S. did not always respond or acknowledge them. Married women and young girls in relationships were not

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Braceros were also discriminated and segregated in the labor camps. Some growers went to the extent of building three labor camps, one for whites, one for blacks, and the one for Mexicans. The living conditions were horrible, unsanitary, and poor. For example, in 1943 in Grants Pass, Oregon, 500

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Knowing this difficulty, the Mexican consulate in Salt Lake City, and later the one in Portland, Oregon, encouraged workers to protest their conditions and advocated on their behalf much more than the Mexican consulates did for braceros in the Southwest. Combine all these reasons together and it

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Not only was the pay extremely low, but braceros often weren't paid on a timely basis. A letter from Howard A. Preston describes payroll issues that many braceros faced, "The difficulty lay chiefly in the customary method of computing earnings on a piecework basis after a job was completed. This

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Males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction or parentage are restricted to that area of Main Street of Dayton, lying between Front Street and the easterly end of Main Street. The aforesaid males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction are expressly forbidden to enter at any time any portion of the

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during World War II, to leave the camps in order to work on farms in the Northwest. The strike at Blue Mountain Cannery erupted in late July. After "a white female came forward stating that she had been assaulted and described her assailant as 'looking Mexican' ... the prosecutor's and sheriff's

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was having a hard time keeping full-time rail crews on hand. The dilemma of short handed crews prompted the railway company to ask the government permission to have workers come in from Mexico. The railroad version of the Bracero Program carried many similarities to agricultural braceros. It was

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College of Washington and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Specialist Record of County Visit, Columbia County, Walter E. Zuger, Assistant State Farm Labor Supervisor, July 21–22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the

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Despite what the law extended to braceros and what growers agreed upon in their contracts, braceros often faced rigged wages, withheld pay, and inconsistent disbursement of wages. Bracero railroaders were usually paid by the hour, whereas agricultural braceros sometime were paid by the piece of

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First, like braceros in other parts of the U.S., those in the Northwest came to the U.S. looking for employment with the goal of improving their lives. Yet, the power dynamic all braceros encountered offered little space or control by them over their living environment or working conditions. As

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Bracero railroad workers were often distinguished from their agricultural counterparts. Railroad workers closely resembled agriculture contract workers between Mexico and the U.S. Being a bracero on the railroad meant lots of demanding manual labor, including tasks such as expanding rail yards,

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Recent scholarship illustrates that the program generated controversy in Mexico from the outset. Mexican employers and local officials feared labor shortages, especially in the states of west-central Mexico that traditionally sent the majority of migrants north (Jalisco, Guanajuato, Michoacan,

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In studies published in 2018 and 2023, it was found that the Bracero Program did not have an adverse effect on the wages or employment for American-born farm workers, and that termination of the program had adverse impact on American-born farmers and resulted in increased farm mechanization.

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From 1942 to 1947, only a relatively small number of braceros were admitted, accounting for less than 10 percent of U.S. hired workers. Yet both U.S. and Mexican employers became heavily dependent on braceros for willing workers; bribery was a common way to get a contract during this time.

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The aftermath of the Bracero Program's effect on labor conditions for agricultural workers continues to be debated. On one hand, the end of the program allowed workers to unionize and facilitated victories made by labor organizations and other individuals. A key victory for these former

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In the first year, over a million Mexicans were sent back to Mexico; 3.8 million were repatriated when the operation was finished. The criticisms of unions and churches made their way to the U.S. Department of Labor, as they lamented that the braceros were negatively affecting the U.S.

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wages to help start a family and care for it. As a result, bracero men who wished to marry had to repress their longings and desires as did women to demonstrate to the women's family that they were able to show strength in emotional aspects, and therefore worthy of their future wife.

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Some consider the H-2A visa program to be a repeat of the abuses of the Bracero Program where workers report dangerous conditions. For example, a blueberry farm worker in Washington died in August 2017 for reported 12-hour shifts under hot conditions to meet production quotas.

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supposed to voice their concerns or fears about the strength of their relationship with bracero men, and women were frowned upon if they were to speak on their sexual and emotional longings for their men as it was deemed socially, religiously, and culturally inappropriate.

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was opposed to the Bracero Program, objecting to the separation of husbands and wives and the resulting disruption of family life; to the supposed exposure of migrants to vices such as prostitution, alcohol, and gambling in the United States; and to migrants' exposure to

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Kennedy said, "I am aware ... of the serious impact in Mexico if many thousands of workers employed in this country were summarily deprived of this much-needed employment." Thereupon, bracero employment plummeted; going from 437,000 workers in 1959 to 186,000 in 1963.

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opened a bilingual exhibition titled, "Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program, 1942–1964." Through photographs and audio excerpts from oral histories, this exhibition examined the experiences of bracero workers and their families while providing insight into the

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not U.S. employers. The braceros could not be used as replacement workers for U.S. workers on strike; however, the braceros were not allowed to go on strike or renegotiate wages. The agreement set forth that all negotiations would be between the two governments.

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found that the Bracero program did not have any adverse impact on the labor market outcomes of American-born farm workers. The study found that ending the Bracero program did not raise wages or employment for American-born farm workers. A 2023 study in the

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under scrutiny by both regional and national officials of the department." This article came out of Los Angeles particular to agriculture braceros. However, just like many other subjections of the bracero, this article can easily be applied to railroaders.

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pleaded on several occasions to the Mexican government that the ban be lifted to no avail. The program lasted 22 years and offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states—becoming the largest foreign worker program in U.S. history.

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in August 1942, was intended to fill the labor shortage in agriculture because of World War II. In Texas, the program was banned by Mexico for several years during the mid-1940s due to the discrimination and maltreatment of Mexicans, which included

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1943: In Medford, Oregon, one of the first notable strikes was by a group of braceros that staged a work stoppage to protest their pay based on per box versus per hour. The growers agreed to pay them 75 cents an hour versus the 8 or 10 cents per

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workers. The wartime labor shortage not only led to tens of thousands of Mexican braceros being used on Northwest farms, it also saw the U.S. government allow some ten thousand Japanese Americans, who were placed against their will in

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In 1942 when the Bracero Program came to be, it was not only agriculture work that was contracted, but also railroad work. Just like braceros working in the fields, Mexican contract workers were recruited to work on the railroads. The

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done by the UFW to achieve favorable contracts. Furthermore, union participation has decreased among many farmworkers, reaching a 90% decline from 1975 to 2000, consequently lowering the bargaining power of these organizations.

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spurred by the efforts of American lawyer Maurice Jordan. Jordan was successfully able to win a case against California growers, claiming that the tool did not increase crop yield and caused several health issues for workers.

911:, which overheard complaints about Public Law 78 and how it did not adequately provide them with a reliable supply of workers. Simultaneously, unions complained that the braceros' presence was harmful to U.S. workers. 832:

Mexico to be involved in the Allied armed forces. The first braceros were admitted on September 27, 1942, for the sugar-beet harvest season. From 1948 to 1964, the U.S. allowed in on average 200,000 braceros per year.

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referring to Mexican labor, which included the lines "Should Americans pick crops? George says "No" / 'Cause no-one but a Mexican would stoop so low / And after all, even in Egypt, the pharaohs / Had to import Hebrew

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their families. The dissolution of the Bracero program also saw a rise in undocumented immigration, despite the efforts of Operation Wetback, and American growers hired increasing numbers of undocumented migrants.

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laying track at port facilities, and replacing worn rails. Railroad work contracts helped the war effort by replacing conscripted farmworkers, staying in effect until 1945 and employing about 100,000 men."

721:, meaning "manual laborer" or "one who works using his arms") was a U.S. Government-sponsored program that imported Mexican farm and railroad workers into the United States between the years 1942 and 1964. 5254: 1841:

for teenagers. More than 18,000 17-year-old high school students were recruited to work on farms in Texas and California. Only 3,300 ever worked in the fields, and many of them quickly quit or staged

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The first step in this process required that the workers pass a local level selection before moving onto a regional migratory station where the laborers had to pass a number of physical examinations.

5269: 5058: 3133:"Cannery Shut Down By Work Halt." Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, July 22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 113. 591: 1658:

office imposed a mandatory 'restriction order' on both the Mexican and Japanese camps." No investigation took place nor were any Japanese or Mexican workers asked their opinions on what happened.

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legally guaranteed to receive upon their return to Mexico at the conclusion of their contracts. Many field working braceros never received their savings, but most railroad working braceros did.

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they also imposed new minimum wage standards and in 1959 they demanded that American workers recruited through the Employment Service be entitled to the same wages and benefits as the braceros.

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June 1945: Braceros from Caldwell-Boise sugar beet farms struck when hourly wages were 20 cents less than the established rate set by the County Extension Service. They won a wage increase.

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Consequently, several years of the short-term agreement led to an increase in undocumented immigration and a growing preference for operating outside of the parameters set by the program.

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and sanitation, as well as a minimum wage pay of 30 cents an hour. The agreement also stated that braceros would not be subject to discrimination such as exclusion from "white" areas.

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Narrative, October 1944, Sugar City, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho; Narrative, October 1944, Lincoln, Idaho; all in GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.

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January–February (exact dates aren't noted) 1943: In Burlington, Washington, braceros strike because farmers were paying higher wages to Anglos than to the braceros doing similar work

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Narrative, July 1944, Rupert, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho; Narrative, October 1944, Lincoln, Idaho; all in GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", pp. 81–82.

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The program, which was designed to fill agriculture shortages during World War II, offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states. It was the largest

5650: 903:. However the Texas Proviso stated that employing unauthorized workers would not constitute as "harboring or concealing" them. This also led to the establishment of the 3772: 5625: 5544: 5125: 4459: 1606:

May–June 1945: Bracero asparagus cutters in Walla Walla, Washington, struck for twelve days complaining they grossed only between $ 4.16 and $ 8.33 in that time period

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Annual Report of State Supervisor of Emergency Farm Labor Program 1945, Extension Service, p. 56, OSU. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.

6809: 6804: 4764: 4556: 3692:"A Town Full of Dead Mexicans: The Salinas Valley Bracero Tragedy of 1963, the End of the Bracero Program, and the Evolution of California's Chicano Movement" 2077:

describes the history of the bracero program. It includes interviews with several former braceros and family members, and with labor historian Henry Anderson.

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July 1945: In Idaho Falls, 170 braceros organized a sit-down strike that lasted nine days after fifty cherry pickers refused to work at the prevailing rate.

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made $ 1.50. In order to avoid increased wages, farmers who formerly employed braceros would later turn to the mechanization of labor-intensive tasks.

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for two days which resulted in them effectively receiving a 50 cent raise which put them 20 cents over the prevailing wage of the contracted labor

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Idaho Falls Post Register, September 12, 1938; Yakima Daily Republic, August 25, 1933. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 76.

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November 1946: In Wenatchee, Washington, 100 braceros refused to be transported to Idaho to harvest beets and demanded a train back to Mexico.

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Visitation Reports, Walter E. Zuger, Walla Walla County, June 12, 1945, EFLR, WSUA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

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because of the poor working conditions, including oppressive heat and decrepit housing. The program was cancelled after the first summer.

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October 1945: In Klamath Falls, Oregon, braceros and transient workers from California refuse to pick potatoes due to insufficient wages

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average calculated from total of 401,845 braceros under the period of negotiated administrative agreements, cited in Navarro, Armando,

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created a climate where braceros in the Northwest felt they had no other choice, but to strike in order for their voices to be heard.

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To address the overwhelming amount of undocumented migrants in the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service launched

6857: 5611: 4445: 1943: 4340: 2859:(U.S. Statutes at Large, Volume 56 (1942), 77th Congress, Session II). United States Library of Congress: 1759–1769. August 4, 1942. 2682: 1999:

found that the termination of the program had adverse economic effects on American farmers and prompted greater farm mechanization.

7137: 6764: 6737: 6651: 5484: 5202: 4944: 4496: 447: 420: 6774: 6732: 5723: 5694: 4974: 4712: 4708: 2983:

Narrative, June 1944, Preston, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho, GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 81.

872: 851: 643: 210: 3884:"The Abolition of El Cortito, the Short-Handled Hoe: A Case Study in Social Conflict and State Policy in California Agriculture" 3654: 7087: 5834: 5819: 5792: 5177: 5145: 4969: 4805: 884: 613: 453: 907:

program, which enabled laborers to enter the U.S. for temporary work. There were a number of hearings about the United States–

7117: 6890: 5891: 5352: 4186:. Foreign Agricultural Economic Report, No. 34. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 3574: 3531: 2592: 2467: 2462:, How Migrant Workers Fought for Racial, Sexual, and Political Freedom, University of North Carolina Press, pp. 97–136, 2438: 633: 1603:

October 1944: Braceros in Sugar City and Lincoln, Idaho refused to harvest beets after earning higher wages picking potatoes

305: 7020: 5859: 5854: 5829: 5704: 5655: 5347: 5182: 3309:

Ernesto Galarza, "Personal and Confidential Memorandum". pp. 8–9. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 75.

2707: 355: 3114:

Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 104.

2553: 2362:

We find that bracero exclusion failed to raise wages or substantially raise employment for domestic workers in the sector.

1707: 1699: 7102: 6742: 6106: 5874: 5869: 5849: 5844: 5018: 4845: 4785: 4682: 4423: 2740:"Borders, Laborers, and Racialized Medicalization Mexican Immigration and US Public Health Practices in the 20th Century" 2103: 2012: 926: 535: 360: 7147: 7077: 6943: 5667: 4959: 4299: 4145: 2083:(2014) urges viewers not to let their governments repeat "the follies" of the Braceros program, during the end credits. 425: 310: 3285: 7112: 6714: 5120: 4220:. Agricultural Economic Report, No. 77. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 3481: 2218: 1725: 70: 3286:"U.S. INVESTIGATES BRACERO PROGRAM; Labor Department Checking False-Record Report Rigging Is Denied Wage Rates Vary" 6910: 6484: 5699: 5634: 5317: 5207: 4840: 4617: 4468: 4329: 1654: 563: 180: 4109:"Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942–1964 / Cosecha Amarga Cosecha Dulce: El Programa Bracero 1942–1964" 1794:

seen as threats by the US government because of the possible motives for the full migration of the entire family.

7152: 6948: 6928: 5797: 5327: 5228: 5223: 5026: 4870: 4546: 3691: 918:

Lastly, at the U.S. reception centers, workers were inspected by health departments, stripped & sprayed with

542: 487: 5088: 1837:, program of 1965 was meant to simultaneously deal with the resulting shortage of farmworkers and a shortage of 731:

The program was the result of a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the

5479: 5042: 4984: 4431: 2869:

average for '43, 45–46 calculated from total of 220,000 braceros contracted '42-47, cited in Navarro, Armando,

1962: 1880: 6405: 6256: 5807: 5529: 5413: 5279: 5135: 5002: 3193:[Memorandum transmitted to Brig. Gen. Philip G. Burton by John Willard Carigan, September 23, 1944]. 2497: 880: 370: 4002: 3977:"Labor Relations in California Agriculture: 1975-2000 -- Philip Martin - Changing Face | Migration Dialogue" 3724: 3093:

Jerry Garcia; Gilberto Garcia. "Chapter 3: Japanese and Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest, 1900–1945".

6064: 5966: 5879: 5864: 5755: 5677: 5662: 4979: 4912: 4790: 4234:

They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle Over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California.

2108: 103: 48: 2889:

average for '47–48 calculated from total of 74,600 braceros contracted '47–49, cited in Navarro, Armando,

2651:"Veto of Bill To Revise the Laws Relating to Immigration, Naturalization, and Nationality - June 25, 1952" 2379:"Labor Supply and Directed Technical Change: Evidence from the Termination of the Bracero Program in 1964" 380: 6462: 6096: 6091: 6069: 5682: 4860: 1863:

missionary activity while in the United States. Starting in 1953, Catholic priests were assigned to some

876: 335: 160: 6994: 6829: 6819: 6474: 6022: 5839: 5549: 5539: 5524: 5418: 5403: 5299: 4855: 4612: 4561: 4541: 4525: 4521: 4517: 2632:"Special Message to the Congress on the Employment of Agricultural Workers from Mexico - July 13, 1951" 1662: 1544: 1490: 1464: 1424: 1370: 1344: 1318: 1278: 1239: 1188: 1162: 1136: 1110: 1084: 1058: 1032: 1006: 925:

They were then sent to contractors that were looking for workers. Operations were primarily run by the

786:

Since abolition of the Bracero Program, temporary agricultural workers have been admitted with H-2 and

759: 220: 4437: 2554:"World War II Homefront Era: 1940s: Bracero Program Establishes New Migration Patterns | Picture This" 6799: 6236: 6079: 5978: 5884: 5812: 5289: 4882: 4657: 2316:"Immigration Restrictions as Active Labor Market Policy: Evidence from the Mexican Bracero Exclusion" 2152: 1855: 1613: 205: 4282:

Michael Snodgrass, "Patronage and Progress: The bracero program from the Perspective of Mexico," in

2966: 340: 6616: 6611: 6494: 5738: 5591: 5519: 5342: 4892: 4865: 4800: 4652: 4551: 4292:

Grounds for dreaming: Mexican Americans, Mexican immigrants, and the California farmworker movement

3224:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. p. 232. 3197:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. p. 230. 3170:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. p. 229. 3052:

Idaho Daily Statesman, July 11, 14, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

2650: 2631: 1892: 772: 330: 240: 140: 2019:

being repatriated to Mexico in January 1948. The song has been recorded by dozens of folk artists.

385: 285: 7142: 6794: 6784: 6479: 6368: 6216: 6174: 6027: 6005: 5337: 4744: 4739: 4662: 4647: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4607: 4586: 4571: 4419: 4381:. Bracero Program - USCIS History Library. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. January 7, 2020. 2140: 195: 155: 3318:

Northwest Farm News, January 13, 1938. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 76.

3043:

Idaho Daily Statesman, June 29, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

2956:

Northwest Farm News, February 3, 1944. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 80.

2430: 1879:, and the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), AFL-CIO. During his tenure with the 7044: 6824: 6589: 6388: 6356: 6140: 6054: 5988: 5914: 5585: 5010: 3248:"Proof of a Life Lived: The Plight of the Braceros and What It Says About How We Treat Records" 3220:[Letter, Howard A. Preston to Chief of Operations, Chicago, Illinois, Sept. 24, 1945]. 3217: 3190: 3163: 2668: 2616: 2172: 776: 459: 315: 4200: 3019:

Idaho Daily Statesman, June 8, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

1628:

A majority of Oregon's Mexican labor camps were affected by labor unrest and stoppages in 1945

325: 6895: 6661: 6086: 5993: 5983: 5931: 5926: 5072: 4815: 4810: 4576: 4362: 4172:

Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States and Mexico

2787: 2112: 2059: 577: 514: 430: 215: 150: 5777: 2477: 2455: 1895:'s administration of the program. In January 1961, in an effort to publicize the effects of 7056: 6564: 6373: 6291: 6251: 6221: 6199: 6128: 6113: 6042: 6015: 5464: 5434: 5408: 5398: 5393: 5383: 5140: 5115: 3061:

Daily Statesman, October 5, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.

2456:"UNIONIZING THE IMPOSSIBLE: Alianza de Braceros Nacionales de México en los Estados Unidos" 2177: 811: 779:, which set the official parameters for the Bracero Program until its termination in 1964. 725: 665: 570: 476: 345: 300: 245: 225: 4353:

An online exhibition from the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution

4214:"Termination of the Bracero Program: Some Effects on Farm Labor and Migrant Housing Needs" 2378: 1930:(UFW) and the subsequent transformation of American migrant labor under the leadership of 556: 8: 6938: 6549: 6509: 6410: 6306: 6152: 5956: 5373: 5080: 4850: 4687: 4637: 4501: 4279:, Mark Overmyer-Velásquez, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 79–102. 2584:

Bracero Railroaders: The Forgotten World War II Story of Mexican Workers in the U.S. West

2031: 1947: 1927: 1916: 1915:

together and strongly oppose the Bracero Program. According to Manuel Garcia y Griego, a

900: 400: 350: 44: 3515:

Los extranjeros en México y los mexicanos en el extranjero, 1821-1970: Tomo 3, 1910-1970

2260: 7008: 6604: 6455: 6346: 6331: 6241: 5936: 5672: 5378: 5167: 4949: 4264: 4064: 4056: 3958: 3911: 3864: 3825: 3681:

Los Angeles Times, January 23, 1961 "Lettuce Farm Strike Part of Deliberate Union Plan"

3588: 3580: 3537: 3487: 3426:

Erasmo Gamboa (1981). "Mexican Migration into Washington State: A History, 1940–1950".

3267: 2830: 2764: 2739: 2598: 2473: 2423: 2348: 2315: 1888: 1867:

communities, and the Catholic Church engaged in other efforts specifically targeted at

1645: 521: 320: 295: 190: 135: 5187: 4350: 4213: 1899:

labor on labor standards, the AWOC led a strike of lettuce workers at 18 farms in the

6814: 6689: 6519: 6499: 6467: 6420: 6204: 5534: 5509: 5388: 5368: 5192: 5035: 4897: 4400: 4305: 4295: 4221: 4187: 4159: 4151: 4141: 4140:. Austin, Texas: Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. 4108: 4068: 4048: 3950: 3903: 3829: 3817: 3592: 3570: 3527: 3477: 3259: 3225: 3198: 3171: 3095:

Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest

2932: 2769: 2588: 2463: 2434: 2398: 2353: 2335: 2214: 2167: 1931: 1926:

The end of the Bracero Program in 1964 was followed by the rise to prominence of the

1911: 1903:, an agricultural region on the California-Mexico border and a major destination for 1884: 1649: 933: 908: 584: 275: 235: 230: 4375:"Bracero Program: Photographs of the Mexican Agricultural Labor Program ~ 1951-1964" 3491: 3471: 2066: 2026:'s song "Bracero" focuses on the exploitation of the Mexican workers in the program. 6872: 6641: 6393: 6281: 6032: 5603: 5499: 5474: 5150: 4581: 4566: 4427: 4256: 4040: 3946: 3942: 3895: 3856: 3809: 3707: 3703: 3611:"When The U.S. Government Tried To Replace Migrant Farmworkers With High Schoolers" 3562: 3519: 2822: 2759: 2751: 2528: 2390: 2343: 2327: 2182: 1810: 1553: 1499: 1473: 1433: 1379: 1353: 1327: 1248: 1197: 1171: 1093: 1067: 1041: 896: 717: 709: 481: 395: 3976: 1600:

July and September 1944: Braceros near Rupert and Wilder, Idaho, strike over wages

1287: 1145: 1119: 1015: 768: 6923: 6594: 6398: 6361: 5998: 5711: 5514: 5439: 4135: 2157: 2043: 1935: 1900: 1876: 441: 250: 200: 185: 5285:

Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013

6900: 6621: 6529: 6271: 6189: 5564: 5554: 5322: 5050: 4677: 3166:[Letter, War Food Administrator to Secretary of State, June 15, 1943]. 2813:

Scruggs, Otey M. (August 1, 1963). "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947".

1939: 820: 130: 4404: 3385:

Mexican Labor & World War II: Braceros in the Pacific Northwest, 1942–1947

7066: 7032: 6569: 6440: 6378: 6321: 6296: 6261: 6226: 6179: 6133: 6047: 6010: 5971: 5896: 5444: 5065: 4309: 4163: 4111:. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. April 4, 2012 4052: 3954: 3907: 3821: 3263: 2933:"Braceros: History, Compensation – Rural Migration News | Migration Dialogue" 2755: 2402: 2339: 2062: 2008: 1891:, which culminated in a protest of domestic U.S. agricultural workers of the 1860: 1843: 732: 549: 4286:, Leon Fink, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 245–266. 4225: 4083: 3229: 3202: 3175: 2657:. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 441–447. 2638:. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 389–393. 6631: 6554: 6311: 6145: 6059: 5951: 5919: 5569: 5332: 4755:

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) (1996)

4672: 4392: 4356: 4335: 4191: 4179: 3584: 3541: 2773: 2602: 2582: 2357: 1921:

The Importation of Mexican Contract Laborers to the United States 1942–1964

752: 471: 280: 4388:

Oregon State University, Special Collections and Archives Research Center.

4385: 3566: 3556: 3523: 3513: 6699: 6450: 6336: 6167: 6101: 5941: 4795: 4729: 2394: 2331: 2162: 2100: 1942:. Newly formed labor unions (sponsored by Chávez and Huerta), namely the 1612:

June 1945: In Twin Falls, Idaho, 285 braceros went on strike against the

435: 88: 4060: 4028: 3962: 3930: 3845:"Using and Abusing Mexican Farmworkers: The Bracero Program and the INS" 3271: 3247: 887:

immigration and nationality legislation on June 25, 1952. The H.R. 5678

798: 6979: 6704: 6666: 6209: 6118: 5748: 5559: 4467: 4268: 3868: 3844: 3813: 2834: 2120: 2055: 1838: 1619:

June 1945: Three weeks later braceros at Emmett struck for higher wages

1573: 957: 954:

the non-wage benefits, and the Bracero Program saw its demise in 1964.

942: 888: 744: 740: 390: 290: 145: 4241:

Abrazando el Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border.

4044: 3915: 6964: 6933: 6709: 6694: 6539: 6430: 6157: 5743: 5545:

National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC)

5294: 5249: 4765:

American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act (ACWIA) (1998)

4760:

Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act (NACARA) (1997)

4642: 4591: 4247:

Scruggs, Otey M. (1963). "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947".

3797: 3473:

Abrazando El Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border

2848: 2314:

Clemens, Michael A.; Lewis, Ethan G.; Postel, Hannah M. (June 2018).

2023: 1946:, were responsible for series of public demonstrations including the 904: 787: 758:

The agreement was extended with the Migrant Labor Agreement of 1951 (

4341:

Los Braceros: Strong Arms to Aid the USA – Public Television Program

4284:

Workers Across the Americas: The Transnational Turn in Labor History

4260: 3860: 2826: 2425:

Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America

270: 5155: 4887: 4877: 4084:"George Murphy (incl. The George Murphy Campaign Song and addenda)" 3899: 3655:

Uncovering the Emigration Policies of the Catholic Church in Mexico

2502:

North From Mexico: The Spanish Speaking People of the United States

2211:

Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the I. N. S

2128: 816: 4750:

Immigration and Nationality Technical Corrections Act (INTCA) 1994

3671:

The Fight in the Fields: Cesar Chavez and the Farmworkers Movement

2234: 1833:

After the 1964 termination of the Bracero Program, the A-TEAM, or

3883: 3757:

Snodgrass, "Patronage and Progress," pp.252-61; Michael Belshaw,

2529:"The Bracero Program – Rural Migration News | Migration Dialogue" 2116: 2015:", set to music by Martin Hoffman, commemorates the deaths of 28 1569: 802:

Mexican workers await legal employment in the United States, 1954

83: 4155: 1811:

Women as deciding factors for men in bracero program integration

1648:, is unique in the unity it showed between Mexican braceros and 6974: 4953: 4821:

Ending Discriminatory Bans on Entry to The United States (2021)

4324: 3407:

Robert Bauman (2005). "Jim Crow in the Tri-Cities, 1943–1950".

3218:"A History of the Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, 1943-47" 3191:"A History of the Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, 1943-47" 3164:"A History of the Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, 1943-47" 2132: 736: 493: 7039: 4781:

American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act (AC21) (2000)

4180:"Termination of the Bracero Program: Foreign Economic Aspects" 4137:

The Tracks North: The Railroad Bracero Program of World War II

3770: 6969: 4411: 3370:

Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest

3339:

Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest

3031:

Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest

2849:"Mexico - Migration of Agricultural Workers - August 4, 1942" 2136: 2124: 1819: 365: 3110:

Prisoners Without Trials: Japanese Americans in World War II

3843:

Zatz, Marjorie S.; Calavita, Kitty; Gamboa, Erasmo (1993).

748: 375: 113: 4174:

Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.

2671:. P.L. 82-414 ~ 66 Stat. 163. Congress.gov. June 27, 1952. 6770:

Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954

5734:

Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States

3777:, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 41 3397:

Mario Jimenez Sifuentez. Of Forests and Fields. pp. 28–29

3358:

Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 77.

2712: 2619:. P.L. 82-78 ~ 65 Stat. 119. Congress.gov. July 12, 1951. 1835:

Athletes in Temporary Employment as Agricultural Manpower

919: 4277:

Beyond the Border: The History of Mexican-U.S. Migration

4275:

Michael Snodgrass, "The Bracero Program, 1942–1964," in

2885: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 3639:

The Bracero Program: Interest Groups and Foreign Policy

3367: 3336: 3092: 2973:. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. p. 46. 2047:

explores two federal agents' efforts to end an illegal

1788: 1763: 1670:

residential district of said city under penalty of law.

1597:

May 1944: Braceros in Preston, Idaho, struck over wages

6810:

Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996

6805:

Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990

3725:"Mexican Braceros and US Farm Workers | Wilson Center" 3372:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 25. 3341:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 28. 3033:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 26. 2429:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 6992: 5690:

Early history of food regulation in the United States

4786:

Legal Immigration Family Equity Act (LIFE Act) (2000)

3665: 3663: 3241: 3239: 2876: 2669:"H.R. 5678 - Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952" 2508: 2286:"SmallerLarger Bracero Program Begins, April 4, 1942" 1910:

Prior to the end of the Bracero Program in 1964, The

743:, the agreement guaranteed decent living conditions ( 5633: 5490:

Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles

4029:"Noir Citizenship: Anthony Mann's "Border Incident"" 3152:

Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", pp. 74–75.

2708:"The Bath Riots: Indignity Along the Mexican Border" 958:

Emergency Farm Labor Program and federal public laws

895:

for knowingly concealing, harboring, or shielding a

6780:

California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975

4243:

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2014.

2617:"S. 984 - Agricultural Act, 1949 Amendment of 1951" 858: 4351:Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942–1964 3842: 3660: 3558:Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897–1931 3236: 2422: 2313: 1545: 1491: 1465: 1425: 1371: 1345: 1319: 1279: 1240: 1189: 1163: 1137: 1111: 1085: 1059: 1033: 1007: 937:well after their labor contracts were terminated. 760: 4399:. Wilding-Butler Division of Wilding, Inc. 1959. 4218:National Agricultural Library Digital Collections 3028: 7064: 5234:United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints 4357:University of Texas El Paso Oral History Archive 3774:Temporary Worker Programs: Background and Issues 3604: 3602: 3387:. Seattle: University of Washington. p. 85. 2915:Data 1951–67 cited in Gutiérrez, David Gregory, 2904:Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán 2891:Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán 2871:Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán 7093:History of labor relations in the United States 4424:Smithsonian National Museum of American History 4416:Roy Rosenzwieg Center for History and New Media 3351: 2971:Mexicanos in Oregon: Their Stories, Their Lives 2851:[56 Stat. 1759, E.A.S. 278 - No. 312]. 2204: 2202: 2200: 2198: 5495:Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform 5173:List of people deported from the United States 4236:Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2012. 3759:A Village Economy: Land and People of Huecorio 3465: 3463: 3461: 2965: 2576: 2574: 2309: 2307: 2094: 1887:received a grant from the AWOC to organize in 5619: 4920:Trump administration family separation policy 4453: 3649: 3647: 3599: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3425: 3406: 3382: 3354:Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story 3107: 3083:. Wenatchee, Wash: The Wenatchee World, 2008. 2927: 2925: 2111:and historical context to today's debates on 964:1942-1947 Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program 735:signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with 685: 7128:United States home front during World War II 4970:Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) 3669:Ferris, Susan and Sandoval, Ricardo (1997). 3657:, Migration Police Institute (May 21, 2009). 3512:Navarro, Moisés González (January 1, 1994). 2383:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2195: 864:American employers of undocumented workers. 844: 7098:History of immigration to the United States 5729:Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains 5470:California Coalition for Immigration Reform 4430:, and The Institute of Oral History at the 4386:"Braceros in Oregon Photograph Collection." 4101: 3761:(New York: Columbia University Press, 1967) 2794:. Texas Observer. March 28, 1955. p. 7 2571: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2304: 2029:A minor character in the 1948 Mexican film 1974:was the abolition of the short-handed hoe, 1849: 5717:List of food plants native to the Americas 5626: 5612: 5505:Federation for American Immigration Reform 4460: 4446: 3748:Snodgrass, "The Bracero Program," pp.83-88 3644: 3438: 2922: 2788:"Labor Groups Oppose Bracero Law Features" 1820:US government censorship of family contact 692: 678: 6790:Children's Act for Responsible Employment 5280:Uniting American Families Act (2000–2013) 5275:Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2007 5265:Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2006 5208:Unaccompanied minors from Central America 4965:U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services 4735:Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) 4379:U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services 3215: 3188: 3161: 2763: 2347: 1944:Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee 1797: 1726:Learn how and when to remove this message 1678: 1530:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V 1516:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V 1450:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V 1410:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V 1396:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V 1304:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V 71:Learn how and when to remove this message 6738:National Agricultural Statistics Service 5485:Center for Migration Studies of New York 4628:Immigration Act 1917 (Asian Barred Zone) 4497:Nationality law in the American Colonies 4346:Braceros in Oregon Photograph Collection 4198: 4133: 4026: 3633: 3631: 3608: 2409: 2208: 797: 82: 7133:Government agencies established in 1942 7073:Agricultural labor in the United States 6775:Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000 6733:United States Department of Agriculture 5695:Indentured servitude in British America 5419:"Faithful Patriot" (2018–present) 4975:Executive Office for Immigration Review 4246: 4211: 4199:Koestler, Fred L. (February 22, 2010). 3931:"The California Farm Workers' Struggle" 3771:Congressional Research Service (1980), 3554: 3511: 2812: 873:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 98:This article is part of a series on the 7065: 5435:California DREAM Act (2006–2010) 4289: 4177: 3928: 3881: 3795: 3245: 3112:. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 74. 2737: 2648: 2629: 2580: 2496: 2213:. New York: Quid Pro, LLC. p. 1. 7108:Economic history of the United States 5607: 4683:Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act (1946) 4441: 4207:. Texas State Historical Association. 4081: 4000: 3719: 3717: 3628: 3609:Arellano, Gustavo (August 23, 2018). 3469: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2683:"H-2A Temporary Agricultural Workers" 2058:wrote the song "George Murphy" about 2002: 1750: 1665:reported the restriction order read: 992:56 Stat. 1759, E.A.S. 278 - No. 312 716: 5404:"Return to Sender" (2006–2007) 4709:Immigration and Nationality Act 1952 4369:. United States Library of Congress. 4294:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 3555:Cardoso, Lawrence A. (May 1, 2019). 3518:(1 ed.). El Colegio de México. 2453: 2420: 2372: 2370: 2258: 1789:Role of women and impact on families 1764:Reasons for strikes in the Northwest 1682: 1265:Period of administrative agreements 38:research paper or scientific journal 20: 6743:United States Census of Agriculture 5090:Department of State v. Muñoz (2024) 5060:DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal. 4945:Immigration and Customs Enforcement 4547:Act to Encourage Immigration (1864) 3882:Murray, Douglas L. (October 1982). 3796:Portes, Alejandro (March 1, 1974). 2376: 2104:National Museum of American History 2013:Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos) 1211:1948-1964 Farm Labor Supply Program 927:United States Public Health Service 835: 592:DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal. 536:Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co. 13: 7083:Labor history of the United States 6944:United Food and Commercial Workers 6848:Agricultural workers mental health 5178:Mexico–United States border crisis 4960:U.S. Customs and Border Protection 3714: 3641:(University of Texas Press, 1971). 3476:. University of California Press. 2724: 2720:from the original on July 8, 2023. 2649:Truman, Harry S. (June 25, 1952). 2630:Truman, Harry S. (July 13, 1951). 2587:. University of Washington Press. 1698:tone or style may not reflect the 1584: 1579: 1550:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1496:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1470:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1430:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1376:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1350:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1324:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1284:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1245:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1194:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1168:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1142:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1116:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1090:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1064:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1038:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1012:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 771:), enacted as an amendment to the 765:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 14: 7164: 6715:Pacific Northwest oyster industry 5399:"Streamline" (2005–present) 5121:Central American migrant caravans 4668:Bracero Program (1942–1964) 4317: 3029:Jimenez Sifuentez, Mario (2016). 2744:American Journal of Public Health 2367: 2235:"Bracero History Archive | About" 819:along the border. Texas Governor 810:This program, which commenced in 7050: 7038: 7026: 7014: 7002: 5776: 5635:Agriculture in the United States 5183:Mexico–United States border wall 4658:Filipino Repatriation Act (1935) 4469:Immigration to the United States 4323: 4212:McElroy, Robert C. (June 1965). 3696:The Western Historical Quarterly 3368:Mario Jimenez Sifuentez (2016). 3337:Mario Jimenez Sifuentez (2016). 2086:In 1953, Pedro Infante recorded 1708:guide to writing better articles 1687: 859:1951 negotiations to termination 659: 112: 25: 16:1942–1964 migrant worker program 7138:1942 in international relations 6929:Farm Labor Organizing Committee 4940:Department of Homeland Security 4127: 4075: 4020: 3994: 3969: 3922: 3875: 3836: 3789: 3764: 3751: 3742: 3684: 3675: 3561:. University of Arizona Press. 3548: 3505: 3428:The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 3419: 3409:The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 3400: 3391: 3376: 3361: 3345: 3330: 3321: 3312: 3303: 3278: 3209: 3182: 3155: 3146: 3136: 3127: 3117: 3101: 3086: 3073: 3064: 3055: 3046: 3037: 3022: 3013: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2977: 2959: 2950: 2909: 2896: 2863: 2853:United States Statutes at Large 2841: 2806: 2780: 2700: 2675: 2661: 2642: 2623: 2609: 2546: 1572:presented in federal courts in 793: 529:San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez 211:California agricultural strikes 7123:Mexico–United States relations 5480:Center for Immigration Studies 5409:"Jump Start" (2006–2008) 5394:"Front Line" (2004–2005) 5044:Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting 4985:Office of Refugee Resettlement 4740:American Homecoming Act (1989) 4432:University of Texas at El Paso 3947:10.1080/00064246.1976.11413833 3708:10.2307/westhistquar.44.2.0124 2490: 2447: 2278: 2252: 2227: 2143:Traveling Exhibition Service. 1990:A 2018 study published in the 1963:Congressional Research Service 1881:Community Service Organization 1639: 1: 7088:Labor relations in California 7021:Hispanic and Latino Americans 5530:Minuteman Civil Defense Corps 5374:"Peter Pan" (1960–1962) 5136:Eugenics in the United States 4134:Driscoll, Barbara A. (1999). 4001:Bacon, David (June 1, 2018). 3470:Rosas, Ana Elizabeth (2014). 371:Occupation of Catalina Island 181:1913 El Paso smelters' strike 7118:History of Mexican Americans 6949:Woman's Land Army of America 5678:Eastern Agricultural Complex 5663:Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture 5198:Illegal immigrant population 4980:Board of Immigration Appeals 4816:Executive Order 13780 (2017) 4811:Executive Order 13769 (2017) 4704:UN Refugee Convention (1951) 4618:Gentlemen's Agreement (1907) 3216:Rasmussen, Wayne D. (1951). 3189:Rasmussen, Wayne D. (1951). 3162:Rasmussen, Wayne D. (1951). 2478:10.5149/9781469629773_loza.7 2290:Student Resources in Context 2188: 2109:history of Mexican Americans 1828: 7: 5724:Native American in Virginia 5414:"Phalanx" (2010–2016) 5389:"Endgame" (2003–2012) 5260:McCain–Kennedy (2005) 5250:DREAM Act (2001–2010) 5229:Canada–United States border 5224:Mexico–United States border 4791:H-1B Visa Reform Act (2004) 4653:Tydings–McDuffie Act (1934) 4027:Auerbach, Jonathan (2008). 4003:"'You Came Here to Suffer'" 2146: 2095:Exhibitions and collections 877:82nd United States Congress 161:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 10: 7169: 7103:Economic history of Mexico 6830:Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 6820:Packers and Stockyards Act 6685:Southwestern United States 5774: 5550:Negative Population Growth 5540:National Immigration Forum 5525:Migration Policy Institute 5300:US Citizenship Act of 2021 4856:Temporary protected status 4638:Emergency Quota Act (1921) 3143:Pacific Northwest, p. 113. 3124:Pacific Northwest, p. 112. 2792:Archives.TexasObserver.org 1663:Walla Walla Union-Bulletin 7148:1942 in the United States 7078:Agriculture in California 6957: 6909: 6883: 6863:Genetically modified food 6838: 6800:Food Security Act of 1985 6755: 6723: 6677: 6648:Northern Mariana Islands 6107:genetically modified food 5905: 5885:Connecticut shade tobacco 5785: 5641: 5578: 5453: 5427: 5361: 5308: 5242: 5216: 5099: 4993: 4928: 4883:Security Advisory Opinion 4833: 4773: 4696: 4600: 4534: 4510: 4489: 4476: 4249:Pacific Historical Review 3702:(2): 124–143. July 2013. 3246:Osorio, Jennifer (2005). 2815:Pacific Historical Review 2153:Bracero Selection Process 1997:American Economic Journal 1856:Catholic Church in Mexico 1614:Amalgamated Sugar Company 852:Southern Pacific railroad 845:Southern Pacific Railroad 381:Plan Espiritual de Aztlán 206:Cantaloupe strike of 1928 7113:History of North America 5592:Missing in Brooks County 5520:Mexicans Without Borders 5020:US v. Bhagat Singh Thind 4893:National Origins Formula 4577:Chinese Exclusion (1882) 4552:Civil Rights Act of 1866 4290:Flores, Lori A. (2016). 4205:Handbook of Texas Online 4178:Hirsch, Hans G. (1967). 3849:Law & Society Review 3352:Ernesto Galarza (1964). 2756:10.2105/AJPH.2010.300056 2738:Molina, Natalia (2011). 2558:picturethis.museumca.org 2320:American Economic Review 2292:. Gale, Cengage Learning 2209:Calavita, Kitty (1992). 1992:American Economic Review 1893:U.S. Department of Labor 1850:Significance and effects 773:Agricultural Act of 1949 747:, adequate shelter, and 666:United States portal 421:1985–1987 cannery strike 53:overly technical phrases 45:help improve the article 4871:Central American Minors 4801:Secure Fence Act (2006) 4663:Nationality Act of 1940 4613:Naturalization Act 1906 4587:Immigration Act of 1891 4572:Immigration Act of 1882 4562:Naturalization Act 1870 4542:Naturalization Law 1802 4518:Naturalization Act 1790 4420:George Mason University 4363:"1942: Bracero Program" 3798:"Return of the wetback" 2967:Gonzales-Berry, Erlinda 2581:Gamboa, Erasmo (2016). 2141:Smithsonian Institution 922:a dangerous pesticide. 564:Flores-Figueroa v. U.S. 7153:1964 disestablishments 6825:Pure Food and Drug Act 5586:Borderland (TV series) 5440:Arizona SB 1070 (2010) 4913:Unaccompanied children 4688:Luce–Celler Act (1946) 4478:Relevant colonial era, 3929:CHAVEZ, CESAR (1976). 3785:– via HathiTrust 3383:Erasmo Gamboa (1990). 3108:Roger Daniels (1993). 2139:under the auspices of 1798:Romantic relationships 1679:Reasons for discontent 1672: 803: 777:United States Congress 543:U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce 460:Great American Boycott 341:Las Adelitas de Aztlán 311:Conferencia de Mujeres 92: 6896:California nut crimes 5908:or territory-specific 5163:Immigration reduction 5074:Niz-Chavez v. Garland 4678:War Brides Act (1945) 4557:14th Amendment (1868) 4239:Ana Elizabeth Rosas, 3981:migration.ucdavis.edu 3567:10.2307/j.ctvss3xzr.9 3524:10.2307/j.ctv3f8ns4.6 3081:Wenatchee's Dark Past 3079:Marshall, Maureen E. 2937:migration.ucdavis.edu 2533:migration.ucdavis.edu 2454:Loza, Mireya (2016), 2113:guest worker programs 2099:In October 2009, the 2090:under Peerlees label. 2075:Harvest of Loneliness 2073:The 2010 documentary 2067:infamous racist gaffe 1667: 801: 578:Mendez v. Westminster 515:Botiller v. Dominguez 431:2019 El Paso shooting 414:Post-Chicano Movement 386:Plan de Santa Bárbara 286:Católicos por La Raza 216:Citrus Strike of 1936 151:San Elizario Salt War 124:Early-American period 106:and Mexican Americans 87:Braceros arriving in 86: 5906:State, commonwealth, 5465:Arizona Border Recon 5445:Alabama HB 56 (2011) 5309:Immigration stations 5243:Proposed legislation 5141:Guest worker program 5116:Brooks County, Texas 5028:US v. Brignoni-Ponce 4745:Immigration Act 1990 4648:Immigration Act 1924 4633:Immigration Act 1918 4623:Immigration Act 1907 4608:Immigration Act 1903 4332:at Wikimedia Commons 3729:www.wilsoncenter.org 3492:10.1525/j.ctt13x1hjj 2395:10.1257/app.20200664 2377:San, Shmuel (2023). 2332:10.1257/aer.20170765 2178:Mexican Repatriation 2173:Chualar Bus Incident 2051:smuggling operation. 1225:Applicable U.S. Law 978:Applicable U.S. Law 812:Stockton, California 726:guest worker program 571:Leal Garcia v. Texas 477:Justice for Janitors 346:Los Siete de la Raza 301:Colegio César Chávez 226:Mexican Repatriation 141:Mexican–American War 6939:United Farm Workers 6785:Capper–Volstead Act 6765:Agricultural policy 5384:"Gatekeeper" (1994) 5311:and points of entry 5203:Reverse immigration 5082:Sanchez v. Mayorkas 4995:Supreme Court cases 4851:Visa Waiver Program 4846:Permanent residence 4673:Magnuson Act (1943) 4502:Plantation Act 1740 4414:- a project of the 4367:LOC Research Guides 4336:The Bracero Project 2032:Nosotros los Pobres 1948:Delano grape strike 1928:United Farm Workers 1917:political scientist 1644:The 1943 strike in 1479:September 14, 1960 1222:Number of Braceros 975:Number of Braceros 718:[bɾaˈse.ɾo] 507:Supreme Court cases 426:1992 Drywall Strike 401:United Farm Workers 351:Los Seis de Boulder 336:Land grant struggle 326:Hijas de Cuauhtémoc 246:Sleepy Lagoon trial 104:History of Chicanos 47:by rewriting it in 5673:Columbian exchange 5168:Immigration reform 5004:US v. Wong Kim Ark 4950:U.S. Border Patrol 4866:Green Card Lottery 4834:Visas and policies 4796:Real ID Act (2005) 4730:Refugee Act (1980) 4482:international laws 4471:and related topics 3814:10.1007/BF02695162 3653:David Fitzgerald, 3637:Richard B. Craig, 3290:The New York Times 3097:. pp. 85–128. 2917:Between two worlds 2421:Ngai, Mae (2004). 2259:Koestler, Fred L. 2239:braceroarchive.org 2081:A Convenient Truth 2065:in response to an 2035:wants to become a 2003:In popular culture 1889:Oxnard, California 1751:Wage discrepancies 1646:Dayton, Washington 1559:December 13, 1963 1228:Date of Enactment 1073:December 28, 1945 1047:February 14, 1944 981:Date of Enactment 875:was passed by the 871:A year later, the 804: 728:in U.S. history. 522:Hernandez v. Texas 321:East L.A. walkouts 296:Chicano Moratorium 191:Bisbee Deportation 136:Las Gorras Blancas 93: 49:encyclopedic style 36:is written like a 6990: 6989: 6815:Grain Futures Act 6690:Black Dirt Region 5601: 5600: 5535:Minuteman Project 5510:Improve The Dream 5428:State legislation 5379:"Babylift" (1975) 5353:Washington Avenue 5348:Sullivan's Island 5270:STRIVE Act (2007) 5193:March for America 5146:Human trafficking 5036:Zadvydas v. Davis 4898:Expedited removal 4829: 4828: 4480:United States and 4328:Media related to 4201:"Bracero Program" 4045:10.1353/cj.0.0021 3935:The Black Scholar 3576:978-0-8165-4029-7 3533:978-607-564-044-0 2594:978-0-295-99832-9 2498:McWilliams, Carey 2469:978-1-4696-2976-6 2440:978-0-691-12429-2 2261:"Bracero Program" 2168:Operation Wetback 2088:Canto del Bracero 1912:Chualar Bus Crash 1736: 1735: 1728: 1702:used on Knowledge 1700:encyclopedic tone 1650:Japanese-American 1563: 1562: 1212: 1207: 1206: 965: 934:Operation Wetback 901:illegal immigrant 702: 701: 639:Dallas–Fort Worth 585:Bernal v. Fainter 557:Medellín v. Texas 276:Black-brown unity 241:Porvenir Massacre 236:Plan de San Diego 231:Operation Wetback 81: 80: 73: 7160: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7043: 7042: 7031: 7030: 7029: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7007: 7006: 7005: 6998: 6891:Adulterated food 6873:Ogallala Aquifer 5780: 5651:African-American 5628: 5621: 5614: 5605: 5604: 5500:Community Change 5475:CASA of Maryland 5455:Non-governmental 5369:"Wetback" (1954) 5295:RAISE Act (2017) 5255:H.R. 4437 (2005) 4643:Cable Act (1922) 4592:Geary Act (1892) 4582:Scott Act (1888) 4487: 4486: 4462: 4455: 4448: 4439: 4438: 4428:Brown University 4408: 4397:Internet Archive 4382: 4370: 4327: 4313: 4272: 4229: 4208: 4195: 4184:Internet Archive 4167: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4088:Tom Lehrer Songs 4079: 4073: 4072: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4013: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3973: 3967: 3966: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3768: 3762: 3755: 3749: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3721: 3712: 3711: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3658: 3651: 3642: 3635: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3606: 3597: 3596: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3467: 3436: 3435: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3404: 3398: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3365: 3359: 3357: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3334: 3328: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3310: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3243: 3234: 3233: 3222:Internet Archive 3213: 3207: 3206: 3195:Internet Archive 3186: 3180: 3179: 3168:Internet Archive 3159: 3153: 3150: 3144: 3140: 3134: 3131: 3125: 3121: 3115: 3113: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3090: 3084: 3077: 3071: 3068: 3062: 3059: 3053: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3026: 3020: 3017: 3011: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2929: 2920: 2913: 2907: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2874: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2810: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2767: 2750:(6): 1024–1031. 2735: 2722: 2721: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2655:Internet Archive 2646: 2640: 2639: 2636:Internet Archive 2627: 2621: 2620: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2578: 2569: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2525: 2506: 2505: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2460:Defiant Braceros 2451: 2445: 2444: 2428: 2418: 2407: 2406: 2374: 2365: 2364: 2351: 2326:(6): 1468–1487. 2311: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2206: 2183:Bracero Monument 1731: 1724: 1720: 1717: 1711: 1710:for suggestions. 1706:See Knowledge's 1691: 1690: 1683: 1655:internment camps 1551: 1547: 1505:October 3, 1961 1497: 1493: 1476:| 74 Stat. 1021 1471: 1467: 1439:August 27, 1958 1431: 1427: 1377: 1373: 1351: 1347: 1325: 1321: 1285: 1281: 1251:| 62 Stat. 1238 1246: 1242: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1195: 1191: 1169: 1165: 1143: 1139: 1117: 1113: 1099:August 14, 1946 1096:| 60 Stat. 1062 1091: 1087: 1065: 1061: 1039: 1035: 1013: 1009: 969: 968: 963: 909:Mexico migration 897:foreign national 881:President Truman 836:Railroad workers 766: 762: 720: 694: 687: 680: 664: 663: 662: 482:Murder of Selena 396:Raza Unida Party 264:Chicano Movement 196:Bloody Christmas 116: 95: 94: 76: 69: 65: 62: 56: 29: 28: 21: 7168: 7167: 7163: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7157: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7051: 7049: 7045:Organized labor 7037: 7027: 7025: 7015: 7013: 7003: 7001: 6993: 6991: 6986: 6953: 6924:Convict leasing 6919:Bracero Program 6905: 6879: 6840: 6834: 6757: 6751: 6725: 6719: 6673: 6576:Virgin Islands 6506:South Carolina 5907: 5901: 5781: 5772: 5761:Native American 5712:New World crops 5656:Black land loss 5637: 5632: 5602: 5597: 5574: 5515:Mexica Movement 5458: 5456: 5449: 5423: 5357: 5310: 5304: 5290:SAFE Act (2015) 5238: 5212: 5151:Human smuggling 5126:Economic impact 5104: 5102: 5095: 4989: 4933: 4931: 4924: 4825: 4769: 4697:1950–1999 4692: 4601:1900–1949 4596: 4567:Page Act (1875) 4530: 4506: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4472: 4466: 4412:Bracero Archive 4393:"Why Braceros?" 4391: 4373: 4361: 4330:Bracero program 4320: 4302: 4261:10.2307/4492180 4170:Deborah Cohen, 4148: 4130: 4125: 4124: 4114: 4112: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4080: 4076: 4025: 4021: 4011: 4009: 4007:Progressive.org 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3975: 3974: 3970: 3927: 3923: 3888:Social Problems 3880: 3876: 3861:10.2307/3053955 3841: 3837: 3794: 3790: 3780: 3778: 3769: 3765: 3756: 3752: 3747: 3743: 3733: 3731: 3723: 3722: 3715: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3661: 3652: 3645: 3636: 3629: 3619: 3617: 3607: 3600: 3577: 3553: 3549: 3534: 3510: 3506: 3496: 3494: 3484: 3468: 3439: 3424: 3420: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3381: 3377: 3366: 3362: 3350: 3346: 3335: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3294: 3292: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3252:Archival Issues 3244: 3237: 3214: 3210: 3187: 3183: 3160: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3118: 3106: 3102: 3091: 3087: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2931: 2930: 2923: 2914: 2910: 2901: 2897: 2888: 2877: 2868: 2864: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2827:10.2307/4492180 2811: 2807: 2797: 2795: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2736: 2725: 2706: 2705: 2701: 2691: 2689: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2647: 2643: 2628: 2624: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2595: 2579: 2572: 2562: 2560: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2537: 2535: 2527: 2526: 2509: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2480: 2470: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2419: 2410: 2375: 2368: 2312: 2305: 2295: 2293: 2284: 2283: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2241: 2233: 2232: 2228: 2221: 2207: 2196: 2191: 2158:1917 Bath Riots 2149: 2097: 2054:Famed satirist 2044:Border Incident 2022:Protest singer 2005: 1936:Gilbert Padilla 1901:Imperial Valley 1877:Ernesto Galarza 1852: 1831: 1822: 1813: 1800: 1791: 1766: 1753: 1732: 1721: 1715: 1712: 1705: 1696:This section's 1692: 1688: 1681: 1642: 1636:peas in Idaho. 1587: 1585:Notable strikes 1582: 1580:Organized labor 1556:| 77 Stat. 363 1549: 1502:| 75 Stat. 761 1495: 1469: 1436:| 72 Stat. 934 1429: 1385:August 9, 1955 1382:| 69 Stat. 615 1375: 1359:March 16, 1954 1349: 1333:August 8, 1953 1330:| 67 Stat. 500 1323: 1290:| 65 Stat. 119 1283: 1244: 1200:| 61 Stat. 694 1193: 1174:| 61 Stat. 202 1167: 1148:| 61 Stat. 106 1141: 1125:April 28, 1947 1115: 1089: 1070:| 59 Stat. 632 1063: 1037: 1021:April 29, 1943 1011: 995:August 4, 1942 960: 861: 847: 838: 796: 764: 706:Bracero Program 698: 660: 658: 651: 650: 608: 607: 598: 597: 509: 508: 499: 498: 488:Proposition 187 442:Arizona SB 1070 416: 415: 406: 405: 266: 265: 256: 255: 251:Zoot Suit Riots 201:Bracero program 186:1917 Bath riots 176: 175: 166: 165: 126: 125: 105: 77: 66: 60: 57: 42: 30: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7166: 7156: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7143:1942 in Mexico 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7060: 7059: 7047: 7035: 7023: 7011: 6988: 6987: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6982: 6977: 6967: 6961: 6959: 6955: 6954: 6952: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6915: 6913: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6903: 6901:Cattle raiding 6898: 6893: 6887: 6885: 6881: 6880: 6878: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6865: 6860: 6858:Farmer suicide 6855: 6853:Climate change 6850: 6844: 6842: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6761: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6750: 6749: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6745: 6729: 6727: 6721: 6720: 6718: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6681: 6679: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6646: 6645: 6644: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6626: 6625: 6624: 6619: 6609: 6608: 6607: 6601:West Virginia 6599: 6598: 6597: 6592: 6584: 6583: 6582: 6574: 6573: 6572: 6567: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6534: 6533: 6532: 6524: 6523: 6522: 6514: 6513: 6512: 6504: 6503: 6502: 6497: 6489: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6453: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6435: 6434: 6433: 6425: 6424: 6423: 6415: 6414: 6413: 6406:North Carolina 6403: 6402: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6383: 6382: 6381: 6376: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6343:New Hampshire 6341: 6340: 6339: 6334: 6326: 6325: 6324: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6301: 6300: 6299: 6294: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6276: 6275: 6274: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6246: 6245: 6244: 6239: 6233:Massachusetts 6231: 6230: 6229: 6224: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6194: 6193: 6192: 6190:Louisiana wine 6184: 6183: 6182: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6150: 6149: 6148: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6131: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6074: 6073: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6052: 6051: 6050: 6045: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6030: 6020: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5976: 5975: 5974: 5969: 5961: 5960: 5959: 5954: 5946: 5945: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5924: 5923: 5922: 5911: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5888: 5887: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5825:Christmas tree 5822: 5817: 5816: 5815: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5789: 5787: 5783: 5782: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5763: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5720: 5719: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5702: 5692: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5659: 5658: 5647: 5645: 5639: 5638: 5631: 5630: 5623: 5616: 5608: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5588: 5582: 5580: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5572: 5567: 5565:Save Our State 5562: 5557: 5555:No More Deaths 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5461: 5459: 5454: 5451: 5450: 5448: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5365: 5363: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5314: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5246: 5244: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5220: 5218: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5188:Labor shortage 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5159: 5158: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5107: 5105: 5101:Related issues 5100: 5097: 5096: 5094: 5093: 5086: 5078: 5070: 5056: 5052:Barton v. Barr 5048: 5040: 5032: 5024: 5016: 5008: 4999: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4947: 4942: 4936: 4934: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4910: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4837: 4835: 4831: 4830: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4770: 4768: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4726: 4725: 4723:Section 287(g) 4720: 4718:Section 212(f) 4706: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4604: 4602: 4598: 4597: 4595: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4538: 4536: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4528: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4499: 4493: 4491: 4484: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4465: 4464: 4457: 4450: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4409: 4389: 4383: 4371: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4319: 4318:External links 4316: 4315: 4314: 4301:978-0300196962 4300: 4287: 4280: 4273: 4255:(3): 251–264. 4244: 4237: 4232:Don Mitchell, 4230: 4209: 4196: 4175: 4168: 4147:978-0292715929 4146: 4129: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4100: 4074: 4039:(4): 102–120. 4033:Cinema Journal 4019: 3993: 3968: 3921: 3900:10.2307/800182 3874: 3835: 3788: 3763: 3750: 3741: 3713: 3683: 3674: 3659: 3643: 3627: 3598: 3575: 3547: 3532: 3504: 3482: 3437: 3418: 3399: 3390: 3375: 3360: 3344: 3329: 3320: 3311: 3302: 3277: 3235: 3208: 3181: 3154: 3145: 3135: 3126: 3116: 3100: 3085: 3072: 3063: 3054: 3045: 3036: 3021: 3012: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2958: 2949: 2921: 2908: 2895: 2875: 2862: 2840: 2805: 2779: 2723: 2699: 2674: 2660: 2641: 2622: 2608: 2593: 2570: 2545: 2507: 2489: 2468: 2446: 2439: 2408: 2389:(1): 136–163. 2366: 2303: 2277: 2265:tshaonline.org 2251: 2226: 2219: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2186: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2148: 2145: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2084: 2078: 2071: 2052: 2041:The 1949 film 2039: 2027: 2020: 2004: 2001: 1952:grape contract 1940:Dolores Huerta 1919:and author of 1851: 1848: 1830: 1827: 1821: 1818: 1812: 1809: 1799: 1796: 1790: 1787: 1765: 1762: 1752: 1749: 1734: 1733: 1695: 1693: 1686: 1680: 1677: 1641: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1542: 1539: 1535: 1534: 1533:July 12, 1951 1531: 1528: 1525: 1521: 1520: 1519:July 12, 1951 1517: 1514: 1511: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1488: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1454: 1453:July 12, 1951 1451: 1448: 1445: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1413:July 12, 1951 1411: 1408: 1405: 1401: 1400: 1399:July 12, 1951 1397: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1368: 1365: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1356:| 68 Stat. 28 1342: 1339: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1316: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1307:July 12, 1951 1305: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1294: 1293:July 12, 1951 1291: 1276: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1205: 1204: 1203:July 31, 1947 1201: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1178: 1177:June 30, 1947 1175: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1123: 1122:| 61 Stat. 55 1108: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1082: 1079: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1048: 1045: 1044:| 58 Stat. 11 1030: 1027: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1018:| 57 Stat. 70 1004: 1001: 997: 996: 993: 990: 987: 983: 982: 979: 976: 973: 959: 956: 893:federal felony 860: 857: 846: 843: 837: 834: 821:Coke Stevenson 795: 792: 700: 699: 697: 696: 689: 682: 674: 671: 670: 669: 668: 653: 652: 649: 648: 647: 646: 641: 631: 624: 617: 609: 605: 604: 603: 600: 599: 596: 595: 588: 581: 574: 567: 560: 553: 546: 539: 532: 525: 518: 510: 506: 505: 504: 501: 500: 497: 496: 491: 484: 479: 474: 469: 462: 457: 450: 445: 438: 433: 428: 423: 417: 413: 412: 411: 408: 407: 404: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 331:Huelga schools 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 267: 263: 262: 261: 258: 257: 254: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 177: 173: 172: 171: 168: 167: 164: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 131:Josefa Segovia 127: 123: 122: 121: 118: 117: 109: 108: 100: 99: 79: 78: 33: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7165: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7058: 7057:United States 7048: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7034: 7024: 7022: 7012: 7010: 7000: 6999: 6996: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6960: 6956: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6916: 6914: 6912: 6908: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6882: 6874: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6837: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6754: 6744: 6741: 6740: 6739: 6736: 6735: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6726:organizations 6722: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6637: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6627: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6614: 6613: 6610: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6541: 6538: 6537: 6535: 6531: 6528: 6527: 6525: 6521: 6518: 6517: 6516:South Dakota 6515: 6511: 6508: 6507: 6505: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6491:Rhode Island 6490: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6419: 6418: 6417:North Dakota 6416: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6367: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6277: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6249: 6247: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6197: 6195: 6191: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6176: 6173: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6151: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6126: 6124: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6056: 6053: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6025: 6024: 6021: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6007: 6004: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5980: 5977: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5925: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5916: 5913: 5912: 5910: 5904: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5779: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5754: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5718: 5715: 5714: 5713: 5710: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5684: 5683:Three Sisters 5681: 5680: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5668:Cattle drives 5666: 5664: 5661: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5629: 5624: 5622: 5617: 5615: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5594: 5593: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5579:Documentaries 5577: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5457:organizations 5452: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5360: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5323:Castle Garden 5321: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5241: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5111:2006 protests 5109: 5108: 5106: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5068: 5067: 5066:Wolf v. Vidal 5062: 5061: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5033: 5031: 5029: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5015: 5013: 5009: 5007: 5005: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4996: 4992: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4955: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4932:organizations 4927: 4921: 4918: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 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