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that, "lthough it ultimately failed, the action represented a critical moment in border labor history and revealed that the
Mexican workers were willing to risk their jobs and their lives to be respected as smelter men". According to Mellinger, "ore Mexican working-class community activism developed in the Southwest soon after this strike", and Mellinger theorizes that some of the workers who left El Paso and took up jobs in other metallurgical fields throughout the American Southwest may have been involved in other labor disputes over the next several years. It would not be until the 1930s and 1940s that another major push for unionizing the Mexican workers of the smelter came to fruition, this time under the leadership of the
1407:". While the exact role that the IWW played in the strike is difficult to ascertain with certainty, Mellinger states that the organization "was only a minor player" in the strike. However, according to historian Mario T. GarcĂa, the IWW presence contributed to the CLU's decision to support the strike, and the CLU pushed the strikers to affiliate with the more conservative and AFL-affiliated WFM. Additionally, the CLU disputed a claim made by a local newspaper that the IWW had initiated the strike. The WFM sent organizer Charles Tanner to help organize the strikers, and the union established a
1456:. Others hired included a large number of local non-Hispanic whites and recent Mexican immigrants, and these strikebreakers were protected by company guards, Texas Rangers, and other law enforcement officers. On April 22, a confrontation occurred when strikers began throwing rocks at strikebreakers outside of the smelter, and one Texas Ranger responded by opening fire at the strikers, injuring one. The following day, another confrontation broke out between strikers, strikebreakers, and Texas Rangers that saw one striker shot dead by a Texas Ranger. Eventually, the company began to
1133:. El Paso during this time was a hotbed for radical political activity, and Mexican workers in the city engaged in numerous labor strikes wherein they demanded better wages and improved working conditions. In 1907, the smelting plant was hit by a strike that was partially successful, resulting in pay increases, but also the firing of many strikers. By 1913, tensions had again mounted in the plant, with many workers pushing for a pay increase from $ 1.40 to $ 1.75 per day. Additional demands included a reduction in working hours from 12 to
1493:. While the WFM local union survived the strike, claiming about 40 members in 1914, the company refused to rehire many of the strikers, and by the end of 1913, many of them had left El Paso. Following the strike's collapse, Tanner helped to get the strikers jobs elsewhere throughout the American Southwest. According to an article published by the WFM shortly after the strike's end, the strike may have been undercut by a large availability of workers caused by a mass influx of refugees to El Paso during the
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workers were willing to risk their jobs and their lives to be respected as smelter men". Additionally, historian Philip J. Mellinger speculates that many of the strikers who left El Paso after the strike may have been involved in future labor disputes involving
Mexican Americans in the region. At El Paso, the WFM local union barely survived the strike with a few dozen members, but it would not be until the 1930s and 1940s that the
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1368:, continued to report to work at the smelter. About a week after the start of the strike, some of the striking carpenters spoke at a meeting of El Paso's Central Labor Union (CLU), the local membership organization of the AFL, and convinced them to lend their support to the strike. The CLU donated $ 15 to the
1399:(WFM) had organizers present in El Paso in an attempt to organize the strikers with their respective unions. IWW organizer Fernando Palomarez had about 200 workers sign up with the union during the strike, saying, "the winning of this strike will be the means of organizing large unions of Mexicans all over
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that was often present in their publications. However, according to historian Philip J. Mellinger, this support may not have been wholehearted, as some of the non-Hispanic white workers at the smelter were union members, and had the CLU been fully willing to support the strike, they could have called
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went on strike, demanding a wage increase of 50 percent. In 1907, about 150 workers at the smelter went on strike, demanding a wage increase from $ 1.20 to 1.50 per day. This strike ended in partial success for the smelters, as the company agreed to a $ 1.40 daily wage, but also fired several workers
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While a start date of April 10 is given in a contemporary source, sources are unclear regarding an official end date for the strike. According to a 1995 book by historian Philip J. Mellinger, the strike was mostly broken by late June 1913. Additionally, contemporary reports issued by the company on
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Speaking of the strike in a 1996 book, historian
Camille Guerin-Gonzales stated that, despite its failure, "Mexican immigrant workers had demonstrated their organizational abilities and showed their willingness to fight exploitative conditions", while historian Monica Perales stated in a 2010 book
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Speaking of the strike in a 1981 book, GarcĂa called the 1913 dispute "one of the largest strikes in El Paso's early history". The strike marked one of the first largescale disputes between the IWW and the WFM over organizing workers, and for the WFM, it marked one of their first large attempts to
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In early 1913, tensions began to escalate between the workers and plant management, reaching a peak in April. At the time, the workers worked 12-hour shifts and made $ 1.40 per day. However, many workers began to demand a wage increase to $ 1.75 per day. Additionally, some of the workers wanted an
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While the strike ended in failure for the workers, several historians have noted the significance of the strike, with historian Monica
Perales stating in a 2010 book that, "lthough it ultimately failed, the action represented a critical moment in border labor history and revealed that the Mexican
1176:. In late April, the Texas Rangers and strikers were involved in several confrontations that resulted in a Ranger shooting and killing one striker and injuring another. The strikebreakers damaged the strike, and the strikers were further hurt when the company began to
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striking employees and their families from company-owned housing, with the smelter owning 98 houses in the area. By late June, the strike appeared to be crushed, and reports by the company issued on June 30 stated that they were operating at prestrike capacity.
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as a demand. Ultimately, neither union gained control of the strike, and many strikers remained nonunionized during the strike. Local strike leaders held rallies and meetings where they kept fellow strikers informed and sought to prevent the hiring of
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of about 100 workers. The next day, an additional 300 workers joined the strike, and by the third day, about 650 Mexican workers were on strike. By mid-April, the strike involved about 1,000 workers. The only non-Mexican workers were five
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1411:(El Paso Mill and Smelter Workers Local Number 78) that signed up 413 members. In addition to demands for increased pay and changes to the company's physician and store policies, this local union also added
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succeeded in organizing the plant, later leading a strike in 1946. In the 1970s, residents of
Smeltertown were forced to relocate after environmental studies revealed dangerous amounts of
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1122:, went on strike on April 10, primarily seeking a pay increase, among other demands. The strike collapsed by the end of June, with many of the strikers leaving El Paso in the aftermath.
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neighborhood surrounding the plant. By late June, the strike had been broken. While many strikers attempted to get their jobs back, many were not rehired, and the WFM organized new
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smelting plant in El Paso. In the 1970s, residents of
Smeltertown were forced to relocate after environmental studies revealed hazardous amounts of
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De LeĂłn, Arnoldo (2010). "More than a
Somnolent Type: Tejanos Resist the Rule of Dominance". In Cullen, David O'Donald; Wilkison, Kyle G. (eds.).
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organize
Mexican workers in the Southwest. According to historian Katherine Benton-Cohen, the strike for the IWW was "a harbinger" of later
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June 30 state that they had returned to prestrike production levels by that time. A magazine published on August 14, 1913, by the
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Barton, Josef (2004). "Borderland
Discontents: Mexican Migration in Regional Contexts, 1880–1930". In Rodriguez, Marc S. (ed.).
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in an effort to obtain better pay and working conditions, such as in 1901, when about 200 Mexican construction workers for the
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Repositioning North
American Migration History: New Directions in Modern Continental Migration, Citizenship, and Community
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1252:. The smelter was one of the largest industries in the city and employed about 3,000 people, primarily
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Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900–1939
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GarcĂa, Mario T. (Summer 1975). "Racial Dualism in the El Paso Labor Market, 1880-1920".
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1360:(AFL). Through the duration of the strike, about 250 non-Hispanic white workers, mostly
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From the beginning of the strike, the smelter management had the support of local
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who worked at the smelter. These five men were union members affiliated with the
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On April 10, the workers began a strike against the smelter with a spontaneous
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Borderline Americans: Racial Division and Labor War in the Arizona Borderlands
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The Texas Rangers and the Mexican Revolution: The Bloodiest Decade, 1910–1920
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2383:. Vol. 2: Texas Rangers in the Hall of Fame, 1874–1930. Denton, Texas:
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Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891–1925
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2159:(2515). New York City: William B. Dana Company: 663. September 6, 1913.
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Green, George N. (July 2004). "The Texas Labor Movement, 1870-1920".
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Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896–1918
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Riding Lucifer's Line: Ranger Deaths Along the Texas–Mexico Border
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Corridors of Migration: The Odyssey of Mexican Laborers, 1600–1933
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Increasing tensions between Mexican workers and smelter management
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Smeltertown: Making and Remembering a Southwest Border Community
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employed about 3,000 workers, primarily recent immigrants from
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2241:(11). Chicago: Mining World Company: 474. September 13, 1913.
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strikers and their families from company-owned homes in the
2231:"Semi-Annual Report of American Smelting & Refining Co"
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Labor disputes led by the Industrial Workers of the World
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The Texas Left: The Radical Roots of Lone Star Liberalism
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also states that the strike had been broken by that time.
1145:. On April 10, about 100 workers performed a spontaneous
2312:(Second paperback ed.). New Brunswick, New Jersey:
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2337:(First paperbound ed.). Albuquerque, New Mexico:
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During this time, El Paso and its neighboring city of
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strikers and their families from company-owned housing
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Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880–1920
1947:
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37:
Photo of Smeltertown & ASARCO Plant in the 1910s
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2331:Harris, Charles Houston; Sadler, Louis R. (2007) .
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1717:
1395:During the dispute, both the IWW and the competing
2358:"The Fight in Michigan is a Life and Death Battle"
2044:
1125:During the early 1900s, the smelting plant in the
1391:Labor federation competition in the United States
1172:, and within a few weeks, they began to bring in
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1323:, and others had grievances against the company
167:El Paso Mill and Smelter Workers Local Number 78
2305:
2102:. Foreword by Byron A. Johnson. Denton, Texas:
1758:
1188:jobs for many workers in places throughout the
131:Strike crushed after company began to bring in
1118:, United States. The workers, almost entirely
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1141:policies, and the replacement of the company
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215:
48:(2 months, 2 weeks and 6 days)
3019:Metal and Machinery Workers Industrial Union
2330:
2120:
2002:
1990:
1711:
1663:
229:
2961:Australasian Meat Industry Employees Union
2711:1916–1917 northern Minnesota lumber strike
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1081:
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222:
208:
31:
2981:Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union
2976:Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee
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2188:
2095:
2026:
2014:
1978:
1929:
1917:
1873:
1822:
1743:
1694:
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79:Daily wage increase from $ 1.40 to $ 1.75
3121:Industrial Workers of the World in Texas
2402:Kohout, Martin Donell (March 5, 2019) .
1468:
1440:, requested additional support from the
1339:
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3059:Workers' International Industrial Union
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2038:
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1805:
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487:This article is part of a series on the
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2540:
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2490:
2401:
2245:
2215:"Chronology of Mining for April, 1913"
2050:
1966:
1941:
1793:
1231:American Smelting and Refining Company
1105:American Smelting and Refining Company
175:American Smelting and Refining Company
2701:Bayonne refinery strikes of 1915–1916
2666:1912–1913 Little Falls textile strike
2565:
2420:from the original on January 30, 2023
2274:The Southwestern Historical Quarterly
2270:
2147:"American Smelting & Refining Co"
2067:
1858:
1843:
203:
3146:Progressive Era in the United States
3111:Hispanic and Latino American history
2852:List of General Secretary-Treasurers
2526:UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center
2518:Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies
2376:
2152:Commercial & Financial Chronicle
1726:
1628:Commercial & Financial Chronicle
1503:Congress of Industrial Organizations
1448:that they brought in via train from
1423:
1198:Congress of Industrial Organizations
2541:Tanner, Charles H. (June 5, 1913).
1513:in the area caused by the smelter.
1285:El Paso Electric Street Car Company
1152:During the labor dispute, both the
981:DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.
925:Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co.
13:
3161:1910s strikes in the United States
2971:Education Workers Industrial Union
2651:1912 New York City waiters' strike
2484:
2466:University of North Carolina Press
2414:Texas State Historical Association
2306:Guerin-Gonzales, Camille (1996) .
2283:Texas State Historical Association
2219:The Engineering and Mining Journal
1559:The Engineering and Mining Journal
14:
3172:
3009:Agricultural Workers Organization
2543:"The Situation at El Paso, Texas"
2356:Hepting, John (August 14, 1913).
2835:
2630:Pressed Steel Car strike of 1909
2121:Benton-Cohen, Katherine (2009).
1048:
501:
3096:1913 labor disputes and strikes
3014:Lumber Workers Industrial Union
2782:Stockton cannery strike of 1937
2762:1922 New England Textile Strike
2594:Industrial Workers of the World
2464:. Chapel Hill, North Carolina:
2385:University of North Texas Press
2104:University of North Texas Press
1491:IWW activity in Bisbee, Arizona
1302:Industrial Workers of the World
1300:during this time. By 1912, the
1154:Industrial Workers of the World
918:San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez
600:California agricultural strikes
160:Industrial Workers of the World
16:American labor dispute in Texas
2772:1927–1928 Colorado Coal Strike
2767:1923 San Pedro maritime strike
2339:University of New Mexico Press
2172:Texas A&M University Press
1523:
1204:in the area due to the plant.
1:
2671:1913 El Paso smelters' strike
2625:1907 Skowhegan textile strike
2499:University of Rochester Press
2433:Mellinger, Philip J. (1995).
1541:
1384:
1288:who had been involved in the
1220:
1207:
1097:1913 El Paso smelters' strike
760:Occupation of Catalina Island
570:1913 El Paso smelters' strike
26:1913 El Paso smelters' strike
3156:Western Federation of Miners
3136:History of Mexican Americans
3054:Western Federation of Miners
2646:1912 Lawrence textile strike
2555:Western Federation of Miners
2370:Western Federation of Miners
2235:Engineering and Mining World
2127:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1610:Engineering and Mining World
1532:Western Federation of Miners
1464:
1397:Western Federation of Miners
1358:American Federation of Labor
1158:Western Federation of Miners
165:Western Federation of Miners
7:
2813:2018–2019 Education strikes
2798:1964 Mount Isa Mines strike
2620:First Convention of the IWW
2441:University of Arizona Press
2079:University of Arizona Press
1275:, were hotbeds for radical
1269:Mexico–United States border
550:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
94:Replacement of the company
10:
3177:
2252:. New Haven, Connecticut:
2170:. College Station, Texas:
2060:
1388:
1298:Southwestern United States
1256:, who lived in the nearby
1190:Southwestern United States
1168:officials and, later, the
3116:History of El Paso, Texas
3067:
3031:
2999:
2966:Burgerville Workers Union
2956:
2945:
2905:
2844:
2833:
2790:
2777:1933 Yakima Valley strike
2749:
2691:1913 Ipswich Mills strike
2676:1913 Paterson silk strike
2638:
2612:
2601:
2246:GarcĂa, Mario T. (1981).
1233:, which was owned by the
1103:involving workers of the
770:Plan Espiritual de Aztlán
595:Cantaloupe strike of 1928
237:
190:
185:
148:
143:
127:
108:
73:
65:
52:
42:
30:
25:
3044:Glossary of Wobbly terms
2534:10.1525/azt.1975.6.2.197
2458:Perales, Monica (2010).
2377:Ivey, Darren L. (2018).
2314:Rutgers University Press
2225:(19): 958. May 10, 1913.
2197:Cornell University Press
2189:Derickson, Alan (1988).
2129:Harvard University Press
2003:Harris & Sadler 2007
1991:Harris & Sadler 2007
1712:Harris & Sadler 2007
1516:
1229:In the early 1900s, the
1055:United States portal
810:1985–1987 cannery strike
231:US manufacturing strikes
46:April 10 – June 30, 1913
3126:Labor disputes in Texas
3071:Organized Labour portal
2991:United Campaign Workers
2986:Starbucks Workers Union
2808:2011 Wisconsin protests
2497:. Rochester, New York:
2096:Alexander, Bob (2013).
953:Flores-Figueroa v. U.S.
356:International Harvester
2862:Elizabeth Gurley Flynn
2757:Anaconda Road massacre
2731:Seattle General Strike
2696:1913 Studebaker strike
1485:
1374:anti-Mexican sentiment
1226:
932:U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce
849:Great American Boycott
730:Las Adelitas de Aztlán
700:Conferencia de Mujeres
430:St. Paul Park refinery
3151:Texas Ranger Division
2823:2021 Frito-Lay strike
2818:Lyft and Uber strikes
2254:Yale University Press
1472:
1438:El Paso County, Texas
1389:Further information:
1340:Initial strike action
1215:
967:Mendez v. Westminster
904:Botiller v. Dominguez
820:2019 El Paso shooting
803:Post-Chicano Movement
775:Plan de Santa Bárbara
675:CatĂłlicos por La Raza
605:Citrus Strike of 1936
540:San Elizario Salt War
513:Early-American period
495:and Mexican Americans
2922:Industrial democracy
2721:Green Corn Rebellion
2547:The Miner's Magazine
2501:. pp. 141–205.
2362:The Miner's Magazine
2195:. Ithaca, New York:
2174:. pp. 191–208.
1759:Guerin-Gonzales 1996
1381:from these workers.
1335:Course of the strike
960:Leal Garcia v. Texas
866:Justice for Janitors
735:Los Siete de la Raza
690:Colegio César Chávez
615:Mexican Repatriation
530:Mexican–American War
3049:Little Red Songbook
2937:Solidarity unionism
2927:Industrial unionism
2439:. Tucson, Arizona:
2077:. Tucson, Arizona:
2029:, pp. 137–138.
2017:, pp. 149–150.
1993:, pp. 124–125.
1981:, pp. 209–210.
1944:, pp. 107–108.
1808:, pp. 131–132.
1372:and toned down the
896:Supreme Court cases
815:1992 Drywall Strike
790:United Farm Workers
740:Los Seis de Boulder
725:Land grant struggle
715:Hijas de Cuauhtémoc
635:Sleepy Lagoon trial
493:History of Chicanos
472:United Auto Workers
375:International Paper
3039:Free speech fights
2736:Centralia massacre
2716:Bisbee Deportation
2661:Wheatland hop riot
1495:Mexican Revolution
1486:
1351:non-Hispanic white
1277:political activity
1227:
911:Hernandez v. Texas
710:East L.A. walkouts
685:Chicano Moratorium
580:Bisbee Deportation
525:Las Gorras Blancas
3078:
3077:
3027:
3026:
2831:
2830:
2750:1920s & 1930s
2508:978-1-58046-158-0
2475:978-0-8078-9956-4
2450:978-0-8165-4772-2
2409:Handbook of Texas
2404:"Smeltertown, TX"
2394:978-1-57441-744-9
2348:978-0-8263-3484-8
2323:978-0-8135-2048-3
2263:978-0-300-02883-6
2206:978-1-5017-4569-0
2181:978-1-60344-189-6
2138:978-0-674-05355-7
2113:978-1-57441-499-8
2088:978-0-8165-4329-8
2069:Acuña, Rodolfo F.
1664:Benton-Cohen 2009
1446:African Americans
1424:End of the strike
1413:union recognition
1254:Mexican Americans
1235:Guggenheim family
1137:, changes to the
1120:Mexican Americans
1091:
1090:
1028:Dallas–Fort Worth
974:Bernal v. Fainter
946:MedellĂn v. Texas
665:Black-brown unity
630:Porvenir Massacre
625:Plan de San Diego
620:Operation Wetback
481:
480:
424:Bath shipbuilders
198:
197:
181:
180:
101:Union recognition
3168:
3072:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2909:
2839:
2706:Everett massacre
2681:Paterson pageant
2610:
2609:
2605:
2595:
2586:
2579:
2572:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2537:
2512:
2479:
2454:
2429:
2427:
2425:
2398:
2380:The Ranger Ideal
2373:
2352:
2327:
2302:
2267:
2242:
2226:
2210:
2185:
2160:
2142:
2117:
2092:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1900:
1894:
1877:
1871:
1862:
1856:
1847:
1841:
1826:
1820:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1762:
1756:
1747:
1741:
1730:
1724:
1715:
1709:
1698:
1692:
1667:
1661:
1648:
1642:
1633:
1624:
1615:
1606:
1597:
1591:
1564:
1555:
1535:
1527:
1313:Phoenix, Arizona
1296:industry in the
1225:
1222:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1053:
1052:
1051:
871:Murder of Selena
785:Raza Unida Party
653:Chicano Movement
585:Bloody Christmas
505:
484:
483:
253:El Paso smelters
232:
224:
217:
210:
201:
200:
150:
149:
35:
23:
22:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3106:Copper industry
3081:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3023:
2995:
2947:
2941:
2907:
2901:
2887:Matilda Robbins
2840:
2827:
2786:
2745:
2686:Hopedale strike
2634:
2603:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2553:(519). Denver:
2509:
2487:
2485:Further reading
2482:
2476:
2451:
2423:
2421:
2395:
2368:(529). Denver:
2349:
2324:
2264:
2207:
2182:
2139:
2114:
2089:
2063:
2058:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1965:
1948:
1940:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1916:
1903:
1895:
1880:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1850:
1842:
1829:
1821:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1765:
1757:
1750:
1742:
1733:
1725:
1718:
1710:
1701:
1693:
1670:
1662:
1651:
1643:
1636:
1625:
1618:
1607:
1600:
1592:
1567:
1556:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1538:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1467:
1430:law enforcement
1426:
1393:
1387:
1366:Irish Americans
1342:
1337:
1223:
1210:
1166:law enforcement
1093:
1092:
1087:
1049:
1047:
1040:
1039:
997:
996:
987:
986:
898:
897:
888:
887:
877:Proposition 187
831:Arizona SB 1070
805:
804:
795:
794:
655:
654:
645:
644:
640:Zoot Suit Riots
590:Bracero program
575:1917 Bath riots
565:
564:
555:
554:
515:
514:
494:
482:
477:
383: 1986–1987
377: 1987-1988
233:
230:
228:
177:
170:
61:
60:, United States
47:
38:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3174:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3076:
3075:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3035:
3033:
3032:Related topics
3029:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3005:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2913:
2911:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2857:Eugene V. Debs
2854:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2803:Redwood Summer
2800:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2616:
2614:
2607:
2599:
2598:
2589:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2538:
2513:
2507:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2474:
2455:
2449:
2430:
2399:
2393:
2374:
2353:
2347:
2328:
2322:
2303:
2268:
2262:
2243:
2227:
2211:
2205:
2186:
2180:
2161:
2143:
2137:
2118:
2112:
2093:
2087:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2043:
2041:, p. 201.
2031:
2027:Mellinger 1995
2019:
2015:Mellinger 1995
2007:
2005:, p. 125.
1995:
1983:
1979:Derickson 1988
1971:
1969:, p. 108.
1946:
1934:
1932:, p. 163.
1930:Mellinger 1995
1922:
1920:, p. 137.
1918:Mellinger 1995
1901:
1899:, p. 132.
1878:
1876:, p. 209.
1874:Derickson 1988
1863:
1848:
1846:, p. 176.
1827:
1825:, p. 138.
1823:Mellinger 1995
1810:
1798:
1796:, p. 107.
1763:
1748:
1746:, p. 231.
1744:Alexander 2013
1731:
1729:, p. 451.
1716:
1714:, p. 124.
1699:
1697:, p. 135.
1695:Mellinger 1995
1668:
1666:, p. 203.
1649:
1634:
1632:, p. 663.
1616:
1614:, p. 474.
1598:
1596:, p. 136.
1594:Mellinger 1995
1565:
1563:, p. 958.
1546:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1482:El Paso, Texas
1466:
1463:
1425:
1422:
1418:strikebreakers
1386:
1383:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1321:eight-hour day
1260:neighborhood.
1250:El Paso, Texas
1217:El Paso, Texas
1209:
1206:
1174:strikebreakers
1116:El Paso, Texas
1089:
1088:
1086:
1085:
1078:
1071:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1020:
1013:
1006:
998:
994:
993:
992:
989:
988:
985:
984:
977:
970:
963:
956:
949:
942:
935:
928:
921:
914:
907:
899:
895:
894:
893:
890:
889:
886:
885:
880:
873:
868:
863:
858:
851:
846:
839:
834:
827:
822:
817:
812:
806:
802:
801:
800:
797:
796:
793:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
720:Huelga schools
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
656:
652:
651:
650:
647:
646:
643:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
566:
562:
561:
560:
557:
556:
553:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
520:Josefa Segovia
516:
512:
511:
510:
507:
506:
498:
497:
489:
488:
479:
478:
476:
475:
469:
463:
457:
451:
445:
439:
433:
427:
421:
415:
409:
406:Oil refineries
402:
401:
397:
396:
390:
387:General Motors
384:
378:
372:
369:Todd Shipyards
365:
364:
360:
359:
353:
347:
341:
338:General Motors
335:
332:General Motors
329:
323:
317:
311:
305:
302:Flint sit-down
299:
293:
287:
280:
279:
275:
274:
268:
262:
256:
250:
243:
242:
238:
235:
234:
227:
226:
219:
212:
204:
196:
195:
192:
188:
187:
183:
182:
179:
178:
173:
171:
169:
168:
162:
153:
146:
145:
141:
140:
133:strikebreakers
129:
125:
124:
123:
122:
117:
110:
106:
105:
104:
103:
98:
92:
85:
83:Eight-hour day
80:
75:
71:
70:
67:
63:
62:
58:El Paso, Texas
56:
54:
50:
49:
44:
40:
39:
36:
28:
27:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3173:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3091:1913 in Texas
3089:
3088:
3086:
3073:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3030:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2932:One Big Union
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2917:Dual unionism
2915:
2914:
2912:
2910:
2904:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2726:Tulsa Outrage
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2600:
2596:
2587:
2582:
2580:
2575:
2573:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2477:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2431:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2329:
2325:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2100:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2065:
2052:
2047:
2040:
2035:
2028:
2023:
2016:
2011:
2004:
1999:
1992:
1987:
1980:
1975:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1943:
1938:
1931:
1926:
1919:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1898:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1861:, p. 18.
1860:
1855:
1853:
1845:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1807:
1802:
1795:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1761:, p. 72.
1760:
1755:
1753:
1745:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1647:, p. 13.
1646:
1641:
1639:
1631:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1613:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1595:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1562:
1560:
1554:
1552:
1547:
1533:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1471:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1442:Texas Rangers
1439:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1332:
1330:
1329:company store
1326:
1322:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1294:metallurgical
1291:
1290:labor dispute
1286:
1282:
1281:labor strikes
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1265:Ciudad Juárez
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1241:, operated a
1240:
1239:New York City
1236:
1232:
1218:
1214:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1186:metallurgical
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:Texas Rangers
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:company store
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1072:
1070:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1056:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1034:
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34:
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24:
19:
3000:
2892:Carlo Tresca
2882:Lucy Parsons
2877:Frank Little
2867:Bill Haywood
2670:
2550:
2546:
2521:
2517:
2493:
2460:
2435:
2424:February 27,
2422:. Retrieved
2407:
2379:
2365:
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2234:
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2218:
2191:
2166:
2156:
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2123:
2098:
2073:
2046:
2039:De LeĂłn 2010
2034:
2022:
2010:
1998:
1986:
1974:
1937:
1925:
1897:Perales 2010
1806:Perales 2010
1801:
1645:Hepting 1913
1627:
1609:
1558:
1525:
1507:Phelps-Dodge
1499:
1487:
1427:
1394:
1343:
1317:
1262:
1228:
1194:
1151:
1124:
1101:labor strike
1096:
1094:
1008:California (
979:
972:
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944:
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930:
923:
916:
909:
902:
875:
861:Farah strike
853:
841:
829:
670:Brown Berets
569:
436:Volvo Trucks
308:Akron rubber
284:Tampa cigars
265:Standard Oil
252:
154:
18:
2741:Bisbee Riot
2656:Grabow riot
2528:: 196–218.
2051:Kohout 2019
1967:GarcĂa 1981
1942:GarcĂa 1981
1794:GarcĂa 1981
1409:local union
1377:on greater
1370:strike fund
1309:labor union
1267:across the
1258:Smeltertown
1224: 1910
1182:Smeltertown
1162:local union
1127:border town
1010:Los Angeles
837:Castro 2020
825:Abolish ICE
454:Heaven Hill
400:2010s–2020s
363:1980s–2000s
278:1930s–1970s
241:1800s–1920s
128:Resulted in
87:Changes to
3085:Categories
2908:Philosophy
2897:Ben Legere
2791:After 1940
1859:Green 2004
1844:Acuña 2007
1542:References
1450:East Texas
1385:IWW vs WFM
1379:solidarity
1354:carpenters
1208:Background
1015:Michigan (
780:Quinto Sol
680:Chicanismo
610:La Matanza
545:Sonoratown
535:Mutualista
474: 2023
468: 2021
466:John Deere
462: 2021
456: 2021
450: 2021
444: 2021
438: 2021
432: 2021
426: 2020
420: 2016
414: 2015
408: 2015
395: 2008
389: 2007
381:John Deere
371: 1983
358: 1979
352: 1954
346: 1948
340: 1945
334: 1939
328: 1939
322: 1937
316: 1936
310: 1936
304: 1936
298: 1934
292: 1934
286: 1931
273: 1919
267: 1915
261: 1913
259:Studebaker
255: 1913
249: 1877
186:Casualties
2291:0038-478X
1727:Ivey 2018
1480:plant in
1465:Aftermath
1454:Louisiana
1405:the South
1325:physician
1304:(IWW), a
1248:plant in
1143:physician
1135:8 per day
1114:plant in
1001:Arizona (
995:by region
563:Juan Crow
460:Kellogg's
442:Frito-Lay
314:Remington
290:Auto-Lite
155:Smelters
96:physician
66:Caused by
2948:Sections
2872:Joe Hill
2418:Archived
2372:: 11–13.
2299:30239492
2285:: 1–26.
2071:(2007).
1478:smelting
1327:and the
1306:militant
1246:smelting
1156:and the
1112:smelting
418:Jim Beam
191:Death(s)
53:Location
3001:Extinct
2604:History
2061:Sources
1434:sheriff
1346:walkout
1147:walkout
1033:Houston
1017:Detroit
448:Nabisco
144:Parties
120:Walkout
109:Methods
3101:Asarco
2845:People
2505:
2472:
2447:
2391:
2345:
2320:
2297:
2289:
2260:
2203:
2178:
2135:
2110:
2085:
1484:, 1972
1475:copper
1432:. The
1273:Mexico
1243:copper
1131:Mexico
1109:copper
1099:was a
1003:Tucson
883:Xicanx
660:Aztlán
412:Kohler
393:Boeing
350:Kohler
344:Boeing
296:Kohler
247:Cigars
91:policy
2639:1910s
2613:1900s
2557:: 10.
2524:(2).
2295:JSTOR
2281:(1).
2239:XXXIX
1517:Notes
1458:evict
1401:Texas
1362:Anglo
1178:evict
1023:Texas
755:MEChA
137:evict
74:Goals
2503:ISBN
2470:ISBN
2445:ISBN
2426:2023
2389:ISBN
2343:ISBN
2318:ISBN
2287:ISSN
2258:ISBN
2201:ISBN
2176:ISBN
2133:ISBN
2108:ISBN
2083:ISBN
1630:1913
1612:1913
1561:1913
1511:lead
1473:The
1452:and
1403:and
1364:and
1202:lead
1095:The
855:IRCA
843:DACA
765:PCUN
750:MAYO
745:MANA
695:CFMN
320:Ford
135:and
43:Date
2551:XIV
2530:doi
2366:XIV
2279:108
1436:of
1271:in
1237:of
1107:'s
705:CRP
3087::
2549:.
2545:.
2520:.
2468:.
2443:.
2416:.
2412:.
2406:.
2387:.
2364:.
2360:.
2341:.
2316:.
2293:.
2277:.
2256:.
2237:.
2233:.
2223:95
2221:.
2217:.
2199:.
2157:97
2155:.
2149:.
2131:.
2106:.
2081:.
1949:^
1904:^
1881:^
1866:^
1851:^
1830:^
1813:^
1766:^
1751:^
1734:^
1719:^
1702:^
1671:^
1652:^
1637:^
1619:^
1601:^
1568:^
1550:^
1497:.
1420:.
1221:c.
1219:,
1192:.
2585:e
2578:t
2571:v
2536:.
2532::
2522:6
2511:.
2478:.
2453:.
2428:.
2397:.
2351:.
2326:.
2301:.
2266:.
2209:.
2184:.
2141:.
2116:.
2091:.
2053:.
1082:e
1075:t
1068:v
1019:)
1012:)
1005:)
223:e
216:t
209:v
194:1
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