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produce which was packaged. Either way, these two contracted working groups were shorted more times than not. Bracero contracts indicated that they were to earn nothing less than minimum wage. In an article titled, "Proof of a Life Lived: The Plight of the
Braceros and What It Says About How We Treat Records" written by Jennifer Orsorio, she describes this portion of wage agreement, "Under the contract, the braceros were to be paid a minimum wage (no less than that paid to comparable American workers), with guaranteed housing, and sent to work on farms and in railroad depots throughout the country - although most braceros worked in the western United States." Unfortunately, this was not always simple and one of the most complicated aspects of the bracero program was the worker's wage garnishment. The U.S. and Mexico made an agreement to garnish bracero wages, save them for the contracted worker (agriculture or railroad), and put them into bank accounts in Mexico for when the bracero returned to their home. Like many, braceros who returned home did not receive those wages. Many never had access to a bank account at all. It is estimated that the money the U.S. "transferred" was about $ 32 million. Often braceros would have to take legal action in attempts to recover their garnished wages. According to bank records money transferred often came up missing or never went into a Mexican banking system. In addition to the money transfers being missing or inaccessible by many braceros, the everyday battles of wage payments existed up and down the railroads, as well as in all the country's farms.
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written that, "The bracero railroad contract would preserve all the guarantees and provisions extended to agricultural workers." Only eight short months after agricultural braceros were once again welcomed to work, so were braceros on the railroads. The "Immigration and
Naturalization authorized, and the U.S. attorney general approved under the 9th Proviso to Section 3 of the Immigration Act of February 5, 1917, the temporary admission of unskilled Mexican non-agricultural workers for railroad track and maintenance-of-way employment. The authorization stipulated that railroad braceros could only enter the United States for the duration of the war." Over the course of the next few months, braceros began coming in by the thousands to work on railroads. Multiple railroad companies began requesting Mexican workers to fill labor shortages. Bracero railroaders were also in understanding of an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico to pay a living wage, and provide adequate food, housing, and transportation. Working in the U.S. was not easy for bracero railroaders. Oftentimes, just like agricultural braceros, the railroaders were subject to rigged wages, harsh or inadequate living spaces, food scarcity, and racial discrimination . Exploitation of the braceros went on well into the 1960s.
1969:
Zacatecas). The
Catholic Church warned that emigration would break families apart and expose braceros to Protestant missionaries and to labor camps where drinking, gambling, and prostitution flourished. Others deplored the negative image that the braceros' departure produced for the Mexican nation. The political opposition even used the exodus of braceros as evidence of the failure of government policies, especially the agrarian reform program implemented by the post-revolutionary government in the 1930s. On the other hand, historians like Michael Snodgrass and Deborah Cohen demonstrate why the program proved popular among so many migrants, for whom seasonal work in the US offered great opportunities, despite the poor conditions they often faced in the fields and housing camps. They saved money, purchased new tools or used trucks, and returned home with new outlooks and with a greater sense of dignity. Social scientists doing field work in rural Mexico at the time observed these positive economic and cultural effects of bracero migration. The bracero program looked different from the perspective of the participants rather than from the perspective of its many critics in the U.S. and Mexico.
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Gamboa points out, farmers controlled the pay (and kept it very low), hours of work and even transportation to and from work. Transportation and living expenses from the place of origin to destination, and return, as well as expenses incurred in the fulfillment of any requirements of a migratory nature, should have been met by the employer. Most employment agreements contained language to the effect of, "Mexican workers will be furnished without cost to them with hygienic lodgings and the medical and sanitary services enjoyed without cost to them will be identical with those furnished to the other agricultural workers in regions where they may lend their services." These were the words of agreements that all bracero employers had to come to but employers often showed that they couldn't stick with what they agreed on. Braceros had no say on any committees, agencies or boards that existed ostensibly to help establish fair working conditions for them. The lack of quality food angered braceros all over the U.S. According to the War Food
Administrator, "Securing able cooks who were Mexicans or who had had experience in Mexican cooking was a problem that was never completely solved."
1836:
and worked to found a home for a family. The only way to communicate their plans for their families' futures was through mail in letters sent to their women. These letters went through the US postal system and originally they were inspected before being posted for anything written by the men indicating any complaints about unfair working conditions. However, once it became known that men were actively sending for their families to permanently reside in the US, they were often intercepted, and many men were left with no responses from their women. Permanent settlement of bracero families was feared by the US, as the program was originally designed as a temporary work force which would be sent back to Mexico eventually.
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used to increase their wages was by "loading sacks" which consisted of braceros loading their harvest bags with rock in order to make their harvest heavier and therefore be paid more for the sack. Also, braceros learned that timing was everything. Strikes were more successful when combined with work stoppages, cold weather, and a pressing harvest period. The notable strikes throughout the
Northwest proved that employers would rather negotiate with braceros than to deport them, employers had little time to waste as their crops needed to be harvested and the difficulty and expense associated with the bracero program forced them to negotiate with braceros for fair wages and better living conditions.
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1587:, in the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), highlighted the substandard conditions and documented the ultimate destiny of the savings accounts deductions, but the suit was thrown out because the Mexican banks in question never operated in the United States. Today, it is stipulated that ex-braceros can receive up to $ 3,500.00 as compensation for the 10% only by supplying check stubs or contracts proving they were part of the program during 1942 to 1948. It is estimated that, with interest accumulated, $ 500 million is owed to ex-braceros, who continue to fight to receive the money owed to them.
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most were assigned to the
Southwest and two were responsible for the northwestern area." The lack of inspectors made the policing of pay and working conditions in the Northwest extremely difficult. The farmers set up powerful collective bodies like the Associated Farmers Incorporated of Washington with a united goal of keeping pay down and any union agitators or communists out of the fields. The Associated Farmers used various types of law enforcement officials to keep "order" including privatized law enforcement officers, the state highway patrol, and even the National Guard.
940:(USPHS) along with other military personnel. Braceros frequently dealt with harassment from these officials and could be kept for extended periods of time in the examination rooms. These rooms held as many as 40 men at a time, and migrants would have to wait 6 or more hours to be examined. According to first hand accounts, personnel would often process 800 to 1600 braceros at a time and, on occasion, upwards of 3100. The invasive health procedures and overcrowded processing centers would continue to persist throughout the program's 22-year tenure.
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1827:
governments had to pitch the program to. Local
Mexican government was well aware that whether male business owners went into the program came down to the character of their wives; whether they would be willing to take on the family business on their own in place of their husbands or not. Workshops were often conducted in villages all over Mexico open to women for them to learn about the program and to encourage their husbands to integrate into it as they were familiarized with the possible benefits of the program
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1934:, the Contract-Labor Program "left an important legacy for the economies, migration patterns, and politics of the United States and Mexico". Griego's article discusses the bargaining position of both countries, arguing that the Mexican government lost all real bargaining-power after 1950. In addition to the surge of activism in American migrant labor the Chicano Movement was now in the forefront creating a united image on behalf of the fight against the Bracero Program.
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810:
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meant that full payment was delayed for long after the end of regular pay periods. It was also charged that time actually worked was not entered on the daily time slips and that payment was sometimes less than 30 cents per hour. April 9, 1943, the
Mexican Labor Agreement is sanctioned by Congress through Public Law 45 which led to the agreement of a guaranteed a minimum wage of 30 cents per hour and "humane treatment" for workers involved in the program.
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7051:
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the restriction order was voided. Those in power actually showed little concern over the alleged assault. Their real concern was ensuring the workers got back into the fields. Authorities threatened to send soldiers to force them back to work. Two days later the strike ended. Many of the
Japanese and Mexican workers had threatened to return to their original homes, but most stayed there to help harvest the pea crop.
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1700:
125:
38:
95:
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1.) the quantity of food is sufficient, 2.) evening meals are plentiful, 3.) breakfast often is served earlier than warranted, 4.) bag lunches are universally disliked ... In some camps, efforts have been made to vary the diet more in accord with
Mexican taste. The cold sandwich lunch with a piece of fruit, however, persists almost everywhere as the principal cause of discontent."
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threats of deportation harder to follow through with. Braceros in the Northwest could not easily skip out on their contracts due to the lack of a prominent Mexican-American community which would allow for them to blend in and not have to return to Mexico as so many of their counterparts in the Southwest chose to do and also the lack of proximity to the border.
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braceros suffered food poisoning, one of the most severe cases reported in the Northwest. This detrition of the quality and quantity of food persisted into 1945 until the Mexican government intervened. Lack of food, poor living conditions, discrimination, and exploitation led braceros to become active in strikes and to successfully negotiate their terms.
2126:. The exhibition included a collection of photographs taken by photojournalist Leonard Nadel in 1956, as well as documents, objects, and an audio station featuring oral histories collected by the Bracero Oral History Project. The exhibition closed on January 3, 2010. The exhibition was converted to a traveling exhibition in February 2010 and traveled to
1961:. These efforts demanded change for labor rights, wages and the general mistreatment of workers that had gained national attention with the Bracero Program. Change ensued with the UFW championing a 40% wage increase for grape farm laborers nationwide. While the federal minimum wage remained at $ 1.25 per hour, laborers operating under the
762:) and a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour, as well as protections from forced military service, and guaranteed that a part of wages was to be put into a private savings account in Mexico. The program also allowed the importation of contract laborers from Guam as a temporary measure during the early phases of
1976:
report found that the Bracero Program was "instrumental" in significantly reducing illegal immigration by the mid-1950s. The end of the program saw a rise in Mexican legal immigration between 1963 and 1972, as many Mexican men who had already lived in the United States chose to return, bringing along
1826:
The Bracero Program was an attractive opportunity for men who wished to either begin a family with a head start with to American wages, or to men who were already settled and who wished to expand their earnings or their businesses in Mexico. As such, women were often those to whom both Mexican and US
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John Willard Carrigan, who was an authority on this subject after visiting multiple camps in California and Colorado in 1943 and 1944, commented, "Food preparation has not been adapted to the workers' habits sufficiently to eliminate vigorous criticisms. The men seem to agree on the following points:
1925:
in Salinas, California made headlines illustrating just how harsh braceros situations were in California. In the accident 31 braceros lost their lives in a collision with a train and a bracero transportation truck. This particular accident led activist groups from agriculture and the cities to come
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Bracero men's prospective in-laws were often wary of men who had a history of abandoning wives and girlfriends in Mexico and not coming back from the U.S. or not reaching out when they were back in the country. The women's families were not persuaded then by confessions and promises of love and good
1783:
Another difference is the proximity, or not, to the Mexican border. In the Southwest, employers could easily threaten braceros with deportation knowing the ease with which new braceros could replace them. However, in the Northwest due to the much farther distance and cost associated with travel made
817:
The Bracero Program operated as a joint program under the State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) in the Department of Justice. Under this pact, the laborers were promised decent living conditions in labor camps, such as adequate shelter, food
1804:
The role of women in the bracero movement was often that of the homemaker, the dutiful wife who patiently waited for their men; cultural aspects also demonstrate women as a deciding factor for if men answered to the bracero program and took part in it. Women and families left behind were also often
1779:
One key difference between the Northwest and braceros in the Southwest or other parts of the United States involved the lack of Mexican government labor inspectors. According to Galarza, "In 1943, ten Mexican labor inspectors were assigned to ensure contract compliance throughout the United States;
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The number of strikes in the Pacific Northwest is much longer than this list. Two strikes, in particular, should be highlighted for their character and scope: the Japanese-Mexican strike of 1943 in Dayton, Washington and the June 1946 strike of 1000 plus braceros that refused to harvest lettuce and
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The workers who participated in the bracero program have generated significant local and international struggles challenging the U.S. government and Mexican government to identify and return 10 percent mandatory deductions taken from their pay, from 1942 to 1948, for savings accounts that they were
956:
in the 1950s. In 1955, the AFL and CIO spokesman testified before a Congressional committee against the program, citing lack of enforcement of pay standards by the Labor Department. The Department of Labor eventually acted upon these criticisms and began closing numerous bracero camps in 1957–1958,
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President Truman signed Public Law 78 (which did not include employer sanctions) in July 1951. Soon after it was signed, United States negotiators met with Mexican officials to prepare a new bilateral agreement. This agreement made it so that the U.S. government were the guarantors of the contract,
1835:
As men stayed in the U.S., wives, girlfriends, and children were left behind often for decades. Bracero men searched for ways to send for their families and saved their earnings for when their families were able to join them. In the U.S., they made connections and learned the culture, the system,
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The workers' response came in the form of a strike against this perceived injustice. Some 170 Mexicans and 230 Japanese struck. After multiple meetings including some combination of government officials, Cannery officials, the county sheriff, the Mayor of Dayton and representatives of the workers,
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During a 1963 debate over extension, the House of Representatives rejected an extension of the program. However, the Senate approved an extension that required U.S. workers to receive the same non-wage benefits as braceros. The House responded with a final one-year extension of the program without
960:
The Department of Labor continued to try to get more pro-worker regulations passed, however the only one that was written into law was the one guaranteeing U.S. workers the same benefits as the braceros, which was signed in 1961 by President Kennedy as an extension of Public Law 78. After signing,
925:
The outcome of this meeting was that the United States ultimately got to decide how the workers would enter the country by way of reception centers set up in various Mexican states and at the United States border. At these reception centers, potential braceros had to pass a series of examinations.
842:
Moreover, Truman's Commission on Migratory Labor in 1951 disclosed that the presence of Mexican workers depressed the income of American farmers, even as the U.S. Department of State urged a new bracero program to counter the popularity of communism in Mexico. Furthermore, it was seen as a way for
1993:
However, the unionization efforts of the United Farm Workers, as popular as they were, were increasingly challenged by farm owners in the 1970s. Employers would pit unions against one another as they increasingly hired workers from the Teamster union, for example, that challenged the earlier work
1885:
Labor unions that tried to organize agricultural workers after World War II targeted the Bracero Program as a key impediment to improving the wages of domestic farm workers. These unions included the National Farm Laborers Union (NFLU), later called the National Agricultural Workers Union (NAWU),
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Braceros met the challenges of discrimination and exploitation by finding various ways in which they could resist and attempt to improve their living conditions and wages in the Pacific Northwest work camps. Over two dozen strikes were held in the first two years of the program. One common method
1770:
In a newspaper article titled "U.S. Investigates Bracero Program", published by The New York Times on January 21, 1963, claims the U.S. Department of Labor was checking false-record keeping. In this short article the writer explains, "It was understood that five or six prominent growers have been
947:
in June 1954, as a way to repatriate illegal laborers back to Mexico. The illegal workers who came over to the states at the initial start of the program were not the only ones affected by this operation, there were also massive groups of workers who felt the need to extend their stay in the U.S.
874:
American growers longed for a system that would admit Mexican workers and guarantee them an opportunity to grow and harvest their crops, and place them on the American market. Thus, during negotiations in 1948 over a new bracero program, Mexico sought to have the United States impose sanctions on
1817:
Due to gender roles and expectations, bracero wives and girlfriends left behind had the obligation to keep writing love letters, to stay in touch, and to stay in love while bracero men in the U.S. did not always respond or acknowledge them. Married women and young girls in relationships were not
1795:
Braceros were also discriminated and segregated in the labor camps. Some growers went to the extent of building three labor camps, one for whites, one for blacks, and the one for Mexicans. The living conditions were horrible, unsanitary, and poor. For example, in 1943 in Grants Pass, Oregon, 500
1787:
Knowing this difficulty, the Mexican consulate in Salt Lake City, and later the one in Portland, Oregon, encouraged workers to protest their conditions and advocated on their behalf much more than the Mexican consulates did for braceros in the Southwest. Combine all these reasons together and it
1757:
Not only was the pay extremely low, but braceros often weren't paid on a timely basis. A letter from Howard A. Preston describes payroll issues that many braceros faced, "The difficulty lay chiefly in the customary method of computing earnings on a piecework basis after a job was completed. This
1680:
Males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction or parentage are restricted to that area of Main Street of Dayton, lying between Front Street and the easterly end of Main Street. The aforesaid males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction are expressly forbidden to enter at any time any portion of the
1668:
during World War II, to leave the camps in order to work on farms in the Northwest. The strike at Blue Mountain Cannery erupted in late July. After "a white female came forward stating that she had been assaulted and described her assailant as 'looking Mexican' ... the prosecutor's and sheriff's
865:
was having a hard time keeping full-time rail crews on hand. The dilemma of short handed crews prompted the railway company to ask the government permission to have workers come in from Mexico. The railroad version of the Bracero Program carried many similarities to agricultural braceros. It was
3153:
College of Washington and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Specialist Record of County Visit, Columbia County, Walter E. Zuger, Assistant State Farm Labor Supervisor, July 21–22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the
3134:
College of Washington and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Specialist Record of County Visit, Columbia County, Walter E. Zuger, Assistant State Farm Labor Supervisor, July 21–22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the
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Despite what the law extended to braceros and what growers agreed upon in their contracts, braceros often faced rigged wages, withheld pay, and inconsistent disbursement of wages. Bracero railroaders were usually paid by the hour, whereas agricultural braceros sometime were paid by the piece of
1749:
First, like braceros in other parts of the U.S., those in the Northwest came to the U.S. looking for employment with the goal of improving their lives. Yet, the power dynamic all braceros encountered offered little space or control by them over their living environment or working conditions. As
851:
Bracero railroad workers were often distinguished from their agricultural counterparts. Railroad workers closely resembled agriculture contract workers between Mexico and the U.S. Being a bracero on the railroad meant lots of demanding manual labor, including tasks such as expanding rail yards,
1968:
Recent scholarship illustrates that the program generated controversy in Mexico from the outset. Mexican employers and local officials feared labor shortages, especially in the states of west-central Mexico that traditionally sent the majority of migrants north (Jalisco, Guanajuato, Michoacan,
793:
In studies published in 2018 and 2023, it was found that the Bracero Program did not have an adverse effect on the wages or employment for American-born farm workers, and that termination of the program had adverse impact on American-born farmers and resulted in increased farm mechanization.
838:
From 1942 to 1947, only a relatively small number of braceros were admitted, accounting for less than 10 percent of U.S. hired workers. Yet both U.S. and Mexican employers became heavily dependent on braceros for willing workers; bribery was a common way to get a contract during this time.
1980:
The aftermath of the Bracero Program's effect on labor conditions for agricultural workers continues to be debated. On one hand, the end of the program allowed workers to unionize and facilitated victories made by labor organizations and other individuals. A key victory for these former
951:
In the first year, over a million Mexicans were sent back to Mexico; 3.8 million were repatriated when the operation was finished. The criticisms of unions and churches made their way to the U.S. Department of Labor, as they lamented that the braceros were negatively affecting the U.S.
1814:
wages to help start a family and care for it. As a result, bracero men who wished to marry had to repress their longings and desires as did women to demonstrate to the women's family that they were able to show strength in emotional aspects, and therefore worthy of their future wife.
1997:
Some consider the H-2A visa program to be a repeat of the abuses of the Bracero Program where workers report dangerous conditions. For example, a blueberry farm worker in Washington died in August 2017 for reported 12-hour shifts under hot conditions to meet production quotas.
1818:
supposed to voice their concerns or fears about the strength of their relationship with bracero men, and women were frowned upon if they were to speak on their sexual and emotional longings for their men as it was deemed socially, religiously, and culturally inappropriate.
1869:
was opposed to the Bracero Program, objecting to the separation of husbands and wives and the resulting disruption of family life; to the supposed exposure of migrants to vices such as prostitution, alcohol, and gambling in the United States; and to migrants' exposure to
961:
Kennedy said, "I am aware ... of the serious impact in Mexico if many thousands of workers employed in this country were summarily deprived of this much-needed employment." Thereupon, bracero employment plummeted; going from 437,000 workers in 1959 to 186,000 in 1963.
2117:
opened a bilingual exhibition titled, "Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program, 1942–1964." Through photographs and audio excerpts from oral histories, this exhibition examined the experiences of bracero workers and their families while providing insight into the
879:
not U.S. employers. The braceros could not be used as replacement workers for U.S. workers on strike; however, the braceros were not allowed to go on strike or renegotiate wages. The agreement set forth that all negotiations would be between the two governments.
2005:
found that the Bracero program did not have any adverse impact on the labor market outcomes of American-born farm workers. The study found that ending the Bracero program did not raise wages or employment for American-born farm workers. A 2023 study in the
1771:
under scrutiny by both regional and national officials of the department." This article came out of Los Angeles particular to agriculture braceros. However, just like many other subjections of the bracero, this article can easily be applied to railroaders.
834:
pleaded on several occasions to the Mexican government that the ban be lifted to no avail. The program lasted 22 years and offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states—becoming the largest foreign worker program in U.S. history.
825:
in August 1942, was intended to fill the labor shortage in agriculture because of World War II. In Texas, the program was banned by Mexico for several years during the mid-1940s due to the discrimination and maltreatment of Mexicans, which included
1604:
1943: In Medford, Oregon, one of the first notable strikes was by a group of braceros that staged a work stoppage to protest their pay based on per box versus per hour. The growers agreed to pay them 75 cents an hour versus the 8 or 10 cents per
1663:
workers. The wartime labor shortage not only led to tens of thousands of Mexican braceros being used on Northwest farms, it also saw the U.S. government allow some ten thousand Japanese Americans, who were placed against their will in
860:
In 1942 when the Bracero Program came to be, it was not only agriculture work that was contracted, but also railroad work. Just like braceros working in the fields, Mexican contract workers were recruited to work on the railroads. The
695:
1845:
1994:
done by the UFW to achieve favorable contracts. Furthermore, union participation has decreased among many farmworkers, reaching a 90% decline from 1975 to 2000, consequently lowering the bargaining power of these organizations.
1989:
spurred by the efforts of American lawyer Maurice Jordan. Jordan was successfully able to win a case against California growers, claiming that the tool did not increase crop yield and caused several health issues for workers.
922:, which overheard complaints about Public Law 78 and how it did not adequately provide them with a reliable supply of workers. Simultaneously, unions complained that the braceros' presence was harmful to U.S. workers.
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Mexico to be involved in the Allied armed forces. The first braceros were admitted on September 27, 1942, for the sugar-beet harvest season. From 1948 to 1964, the U.S. allowed in on average 200,000 braceros per year.
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referring to Mexican labor, which included the lines "Should Americans pick crops? George says "No" / 'Cause no-one but a Mexican would stoop so low / And after all, even in Egypt, the pharaohs / Had to import Hebrew
1977:
their families. The dissolution of the Bracero program also saw a rise in undocumented immigration, despite the efforts of Operation Wetback, and American growers hired increasing numbers of undocumented migrants.
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laying track at port facilities, and replacing worn rails. Railroad work contracts helped the war effort by replacing conscripted farmworkers, staying in effect until 1945 and employing about 100,000 men."
732:, meaning "manual laborer" or "one who works using his arms") was a U.S. Government-sponsored program that imported Mexican farm and railroad workers into the United States between the years 1942 and 1964.
5265:
1852:
for teenagers. More than 18,000 17-year-old high school students were recruited to work on farms in Texas and California. Only 3,300 ever worked in the fields, and many of them quickly quit or staged
926:
The first step in this process required that the workers pass a local level selection before moving onto a regional migratory station where the laborers had to pass a number of physical examinations.
5280:
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3144:"Cannery Shut Down By Work Halt." Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, July 22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 113.
602:
1669:
office imposed a mandatory 'restriction order' on both the Mexican and Japanese camps." No investigation took place nor were any Japanese or Mexican workers asked their opinions on what happened.
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legally guaranteed to receive upon their return to Mexico at the conclusion of their contracts. Many field working braceros never received their savings, but most railroad working braceros did.
957:
they also imposed new minimum wage standards and in 1959 they demanded that American workers recruited through the Employment Service be entitled to the same wages and benefits as the braceros.
702:
1620:
June 1945: Braceros from Caldwell-Boise sugar beet farms struck when hourly wages were 20 cents less than the established rate set by the County Extension Service. They won a wage increase.
839:
Consequently, several years of the short-term agreement led to an increase in undocumented immigration and a growing preference for operating outside of the parameters set by the program.
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and sanitation, as well as a minimum wage pay of 30 cents an hour. The agreement also stated that braceros would not be subject to discrimination such as exclusion from "white" areas.
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3012:
Narrative, October 1944, Sugar City, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho; Narrative, October 1944, Lincoln, Idaho; all in GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.
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January–February (exact dates aren't noted) 1943: In Burlington, Washington, braceros strike because farmers were paying higher wages to Anglos than to the braceros doing similar work
48:
3003:
Narrative, July 1944, Rupert, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho; Narrative, October 1944, Lincoln, Idaho; all in GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", pp. 81–82.
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4760:
3621:
735:
The program, which was designed to fill agriculture shortages during World War II, offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states. It was the largest
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914:. However the Texas Proviso stated that employing unauthorized workers would not constitute as "harboring or concealing" them. This also led to the establishment of the
3783:
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5555:
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1617:
May–June 1945: Bracero asparagus cutters in Walla Walla, Washington, struck for twelve days complaining they grossed only between $ 4.16 and $ 8.33 in that time period
2728:
6780:
5744:
5183:
7103:
4831:
3081:
Annual Report of State Supervisor of Emergency Farm Labor Program 1945, Extension Service, p. 56, OSU. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.
6820:
6815:
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4567:
3703:"A Town Full of Dead Mexicans: The Salinas Valley Bracero Tragedy of 1963, the End of the Bracero Program, and the Evolution of California's Chicano Movement"
2088:
describes the history of the bracero program. It includes interviews with several former braceros and family members, and with labor historian Henry Anderson.
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688:
649:
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July 1945: In Idaho Falls, 170 braceros organized a sit-down strike that lasted nine days after fifty cherry pickers refused to work at the prevailing rate.
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5776:
5500:
539:
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6858:
6790:
5771:
903:
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1965:
made $ 1.50. In order to avoid increased wages, farmers who formerly employed braceros would later turn to the mechanization of labor-intensive tasks.
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4918:
4356:
7143:
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6878:
5244:
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63:
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for two days which resulted in them effectively receiving a 50 cent raise which put them 20 cents over the prevailing wage of the contracted labor
4426:
3338:
Idaho Falls Post Register, September 12, 1938; Yakima Daily Republic, August 25, 1933. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 76.
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6873:
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November 1946: In Wenatchee, Washington, 100 braceros refused to be transported to Idaho to harvest beets and demanded a train back to Mexico.
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4950:
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4714:
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Visitation Reports, Walter E. Zuger, Walla Walla County, June 12, 1945, EFLR, WSUA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.
638:
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5813:
5285:
5275:
1857:
because of the poor working conditions, including oppressive heat and decrepit housing. The program was cancelled after the first summer.
7133:
7093:
5739:
5653:
5480:
5141:
631:
1636:
October 1945: In Klamath Falls, Oregon, braceros and transient workers from California refuse to pick potatoes due to insufficient wages
5727:
5515:
5270:
5173:
4913:
4745:
2913:
average calculated from total of 401,845 braceros under the period of negotiated administrative agreements, cited in Navarro, Armando,
476:
1788:
created a climate where braceros in the Northwest felt they had no other choice, but to strike in order for their voices to be heard.
943:
To address the overwhelming amount of undocumented migrants in the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service launched
6868:
5622:
4456:
1954:
4351:
2870:(U.S. Statutes at Large, Volume 56 (1942), 77th Congress, Session II). United States Library of Congress: 1759–1769. August 4, 1942.
2693:
2010:
found that the termination of the program had adverse economic effects on American farmers and prompted greater farm mechanization.
7148:
6775:
6748:
6662:
5495:
5213:
4955:
4507:
458:
431:
6785:
6743:
5734:
5705:
4985:
4723:
4719:
2994:
Narrative, June 1944, Preston, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho, GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 81.
883:
862:
654:
221:
3895:"The Abolition of El Cortito, the Short-Handled Hoe: A Case Study in Social Conflict and State Policy in California Agriculture"
3665:
7098:
5845:
5830:
5803:
5188:
5156:
4980:
4816:
895:
624:
464:
918:
program, which enabled laborers to enter the U.S. for temporary work. There were a number of hearings about the United States–
7128:
6901:
5902:
5363:
4197:. Foreign Agricultural Economic Report, No. 34. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
3585:
3542:
2603:
2478:
2473:, How Migrant Workers Fought for Racial, Sexual, and Political Freedom, University of North Carolina Press, pp. 97–136,
2449:
644:
1614:
October 1944: Braceros in Sugar City and Lincoln, Idaho refused to harvest beets after earning higher wages picking potatoes
316:
7031:
5870:
5865:
5840:
5715:
5666:
5358:
5193:
3320:
Ernesto Galarza, "Personal and Confidential Memorandum". pp. 8–9. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 75.
2718:
366:
3125:
Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 104.
2564:
2373:
We find that bracero exclusion failed to raise wages or substantially raise employment for domestic workers in the sector.
1718:
1710:
7113:
6753:
6117:
5885:
5880:
5860:
5855:
5029:
4856:
4796:
4693:
4434:
2751:"Borders, Laborers, and Racialized Medicalization Mexican Immigration and US Public Health Practices in the 20th Century"
2114:
2023:
937:
546:
371:
7158:
7088:
6954:
5678:
4970:
4310:
4156:
2094:(2014) urges viewers not to let their governments repeat "the follies" of the Braceros program, during the end credits.
436:
321:
3296:
7123:
6725:
5131:
4231:. Agricultural Economic Report, No. 77. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
3492:
2229:
1736:
81:
3297:"U.S. INVESTIGATES BRACERO PROGRAM; Labor Department Checking False-Record Report Rigging Is Denied Wage Rates Vary"
6921:
6495:
5710:
5645:
5328:
5218:
4851:
4628:
4479:
4340:
1665:
574:
191:
4120:"Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942–1964 / Cosecha Amarga Cosecha Dulce: El Programa Bracero 1942–1964"
1805:
seen as threats by the US government because of the possible motives for the full migration of the entire family.
7163:
6959:
6939:
5808:
5338:
5239:
5234:
5037:
4881:
4557:
3702:
929:
Lastly, at the U.S. reception centers, workers were inspected by health departments, stripped & sprayed with
553:
498:
5099:
1848:, program of 1965 was meant to simultaneously deal with the resulting shortage of farmworkers and a shortage of
742:
The program was the result of a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the
5490:
5053:
4995:
4442:
2880:
average for '43, 45–46 calculated from total of 220,000 braceros contracted '42-47, cited in Navarro, Armando,
1973:
1891:
6416:
6267:
5818:
5540:
5424:
5290:
5146:
5013:
3204:[Memorandum transmitted to Brig. Gen. Philip G. Burton by John Willard Carigan, September 23, 1944].
2508:
891:
381:
4013:
3988:"Labor Relations in California Agriculture: 1975-2000 -- Philip Martin - Changing Face | Migration Dialogue"
3735:
3104:
Jerry Garcia; Gilberto Garcia. "Chapter 3: Japanese and Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest, 1900–1945".
6075:
5977:
5890:
5875:
5766:
5688:
5673:
4990:
4923:
4801:
4245:
They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle Over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California.
2119:
114:
59:
2900:
average for '47–48 calculated from total of 74,600 braceros contracted '47–49, cited in Navarro, Armando,
2662:"Veto of Bill To Revise the Laws Relating to Immigration, Naturalization, and Nationality - June 25, 1952"
2390:"Labor Supply and Directed Technical Change: Evidence from the Termination of the Bracero Program in 1964"
391:
6473:
6107:
6102:
6080:
5693:
4871:
1874:
missionary activity while in the United States. Starting in 1953, Catholic priests were assigned to some
887:
346:
171:
7005:
6840:
6830:
6485:
6033:
5850:
5560:
5550:
5535:
5429:
5414:
5310:
4866:
4623:
4572:
4552:
4536:
4532:
4528:
2643:"Special Message to the Congress on the Employment of Agricultural Workers from Mexico - July 13, 1951"
1673:
1555:
1501:
1475:
1435:
1381:
1355:
1329:
1289:
1250:
1199:
1173:
1147:
1121:
1095:
1069:
1043:
1017:
936:
They were then sent to contractors that were looking for workers. Operations were primarily run by the
797:
Since abolition of the Bracero Program, temporary agricultural workers have been admitted with H-2 and
770:
231:
4448:
2565:"World War II Homefront Era: 1940s: Bracero Program Establishes New Migration Patterns | Picture This"
6810:
6247:
6090:
5989:
5895:
5823:
5300:
4893:
4668:
2327:"Immigration Restrictions as Active Labor Market Policy: Evidence from the Mexican Bracero Exclusion"
2163:
1866:
1624:
216:
4293:
Michael Snodgrass, "Patronage and Progress: The bracero program from the Perspective of Mexico," in
2977:
351:
6627:
6622:
6505:
5749:
5602:
5530:
5353:
4903:
4876:
4811:
4663:
4562:
4303:
Grounds for dreaming: Mexican Americans, Mexican immigrants, and the California farmworker movement
3235:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. p. 232.
3208:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. p. 230.
3181:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. p. 229.
3063:
Idaho Daily Statesman, July 11, 14, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.
2661:
2642:
1903:
783:
341:
251:
151:
2030:
being repatriated to Mexico in January 1948. The song has been recorded by dozens of folk artists.
396:
296:
7153:
6805:
6795:
6490:
6379:
6227:
6185:
6038:
6016:
5348:
4755:
4750:
4673:
4658:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4618:
4597:
4582:
4430:
4392:. Bracero Program - USCIS History Library. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. January 7, 2020.
2151:
206:
166:
17:
3329:
Northwest Farm News, January 13, 1938. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 76.
3054:
Idaho Daily Statesman, June 29, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.
2967:
Northwest Farm News, February 3, 1944. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 80.
2441:
1890:, and the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), AFL-CIO. During his tenure with the
7055:
6835:
6600:
6399:
6367:
6151:
6065:
5999:
5925:
5596:
5021:
3259:"Proof of a Life Lived: The Plight of the Braceros and What It Says About How We Treat Records"
3231:[Letter, Howard A. Preston to Chief of Operations, Chicago, Illinois, Sept. 24, 1945].
3228:
3201:
3174:
2679:
2627:
2183:
787:
470:
326:
4211:
3030:
Idaho Daily Statesman, June 8, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.
1639:
A majority of Oregon's Mexican labor camps were affected by labor unrest and stoppages in 1945
336:
6906:
6672:
6097:
6004:
5994:
5942:
5937:
5083:
4826:
4821:
4587:
4373:
4183:
Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States and Mexico
2798:
2123:
2070:
588:
525:
441:
226:
161:
5788:
2488:
2466:
1906:'s administration of the program. In January 1961, in an effort to publicize the effects of
7067:
6575:
6384:
6302:
6262:
6232:
6210:
6139:
6124:
6053:
6026:
5475:
5445:
5419:
5409:
5404:
5394:
5151:
5126:
3072:
Daily Statesman, October 5, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.
2467:"UNIONIZING THE IMPOSSIBLE: Alianza de Braceros Nacionales de México en los Estados Unidos"
2188:
822:
790:, which set the official parameters for the Bracero Program until its termination in 1964.
736:
676:
581:
487:
356:
311:
256:
236:
4364:
An online exhibition from the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution
4225:"Termination of the Bracero Program: Some Effects on Farm Labor and Migrant Housing Needs"
2389:
1941:(UFW) and the subsequent transformation of American migrant labor under the leadership of
567:
8:
6949:
6560:
6520:
6421:
6317:
6163:
5967:
5384:
5091:
4861:
4698:
4648:
4512:
4290:, Mark Overmyer-Velásquez, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 79–102.
2595:
Bracero Railroaders: The Forgotten World War II Story of Mexican Workers in the U.S. West
2042:
1958:
1938:
1927:
1926:
together and strongly oppose the Bracero Program. According to Manuel Garcia y Griego, a
911:
411:
361:
55:
3526:
Los extranjeros en México y los mexicanos en el extranjero, 1821-1970: Tomo 3, 1910-1970
2271:
7019:
6615:
6466:
6357:
6342:
6252:
5947:
5683:
5389:
5178:
4960:
4275:
4075:
4067:
3969:
3922:
3875:
3836:
3692:
Los Angeles Times, January 23, 1961 "Lettuce Farm Strike Part of Deliberate Union Plan"
3599:
3591:
3548:
3498:
3437:
Erasmo Gamboa (1981). "Mexican Migration into Washington State: A History, 1940–1950".
3278:
2841:
2775:
2750:
2609:
2484:
2434:
2359:
2326:
1899:
1878:
communities, and the Catholic Church engaged in other efforts specifically targeted at
1656:
532:
331:
306:
201:
146:
5198:
4361:
4224:
1910:
labor on labor standards, the AWOC led a strike of lettuce workers at 18 farms in the
6825:
6700:
6530:
6510:
6478:
6431:
6215:
5545:
5520:
5399:
5379:
5203:
5046:
4908:
4411:
4316:
4306:
4232:
4198:
4170:
4162:
4152:
4151:. Austin, Texas: Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas at Austin.
4119:
4079:
4059:
3961:
3914:
3840:
3828:
3603:
3581:
3538:
3488:
3270:
3236:
3209:
3182:
3106:
Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest
2943:
2780:
2599:
2474:
2445:
2409:
2364:
2346:
2225:
2178:
1942:
1937:
The end of the Bracero Program in 1964 was followed by the rise to prominence of the
1922:
1914:, an agricultural region on the California-Mexico border and a major destination for
1895:
1660:
944:
919:
595:
286:
246:
241:
4386:"Bracero Program: Photographs of the Mexican Agricultural Labor Program ~ 1951-1964"
3502:
3482:
2077:
2037:'s song "Bracero" focuses on the exploitation of the Mexican workers in the program.
6883:
6652:
6404:
6292:
6043:
5614:
5510:
5485:
5161:
4592:
4577:
4438:
4267:
4051:
3957:
3953:
3906:
3867:
3820:
3718:
3714:
3622:"When The U.S. Government Tried To Replace Migrant Farmworkers With High Schoolers"
3573:
3530:
2833:
2770:
2762:
2539:
2401:
2354:
2338:
2193:
1821:
1564:
1510:
1484:
1444:
1390:
1364:
1338:
1259:
1208:
1182:
1104:
1078:
1052:
907:
728:
720:
492:
406:
3987:
1611:
July and September 1944: Braceros near Rupert and Wilder, Idaho, strike over wages
1298:
1156:
1130:
1026:
779:
6934:
6605:
6409:
6372:
6009:
5722:
5525:
5450:
4146:
2168:
2054:
1946:
1911:
1887:
452:
261:
211:
196:
5296:
Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013
6911:
6632:
6540:
6282:
6200:
5575:
5565:
5333:
5061:
4688:
3177:[Letter, War Food Administrator to Secretary of State, June 15, 1943].
2824:
Scruggs, Otey M. (August 1, 1963). "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947".
1950:
831:
141:
4415:
3396:
Mexican Labor & World War II: Braceros in the Pacific Northwest, 1942–1947
7077:
7043:
6580:
6451:
6389:
6332:
6307:
6272:
6237:
6190:
6144:
6058:
6021:
5982:
5907:
5455:
5076:
4320:
4174:
4122:. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. April 4, 2012
4063:
3965:
3918:
3832:
3274:
2944:"Braceros: History, Compensation – Rural Migration News | Migration Dialogue"
2766:
2413:
2350:
2073:
2019:
1902:, which culminated in a protest of domestic U.S. agricultural workers of the
1871:
1854:
743:
560:
4297:, Leon Fink, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 245–266.
4236:
4094:
3240:
3213:
3186:
2668:. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 441–447.
2649:. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 389–393.
6642:
6565:
6322:
6156:
6070:
5962:
5930:
5580:
5343:
4766:
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) (1996)
4683:
4403:
4367:
4346:
4202:
4190:
3595:
3552:
2784:
2613:
2593:
2368:
1932:
The Importation of Mexican Contract Laborers to the United States 1942–1964
763:
482:
291:
4399:
Oregon State University, Special Collections and Archives Research Center.
4396:
3577:
3567:
3534:
3524:
6710:
6461:
6347:
6178:
6112:
5952:
4806:
4740:
2405:
2342:
2173:
2111:
1953:. Newly formed labor unions (sponsored by Chávez and Huerta), namely the
1623:
June 1945: In Twin Falls, Idaho, 285 braceros went on strike against the
446:
99:
4071:
4039:
3973:
3941:
3856:"Using and Abusing Mexican Farmworkers: The Bracero Program and the INS"
3282:
3258:
898:
immigration and nationality legislation on June 25, 1952. The H.R. 5678
809:
6990:
6715:
6677:
6220:
6129:
5759:
5570:
4478:
4279:
3879:
3855:
3824:
2845:
2131:
2066:
1849:
1630:
June 1945: Three weeks later braceros at Emmett struck for higher wages
1584:
968:
965:
the non-wage benefits, and the Bracero Program saw its demise in 1964.
953:
899:
755:
751:
401:
301:
156:
4252:
Abrazando el Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border.
4055:
3926:
6975:
6944:
6720:
6705:
6550:
6441:
6168:
5754:
5556:
National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC)
5305:
5260:
4776:
American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act (ACWIA) (1998)
4771:
Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act (NACARA) (1997)
4653:
4602:
4258:
Scruggs, Otey M. (1963). "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947".
3808:
3484:
Abrazando El Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border
2859:
2325:
Clemens, Michael A.; Lewis, Ethan G.; Postel, Hannah M. (June 2018).
2034:
1957:, were responsible for series of public demonstrations including the
915:
798:
769:
The agreement was extended with the Migrant Labor Agreement of 1951 (
4352:
Los Braceros: Strong Arms to Aid the USA – Public Television Program
4295:
Workers Across the Americas: The Transnational Turn in Labor History
4271:
3871:
2837:
2436:
Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America
281:
5166:
4898:
4888:
4095:"George Murphy (incl. The George Murphy Campaign Song and addenda)"
3910:
3666:
Uncovering the Emigration Policies of the Catholic Church in Mexico
2513:
North From Mexico: The Spanish Speaking People of the United States
2222:
Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the I. N. S
2139:
827:
4761:
Immigration and Nationality Technical Corrections Act (INTCA) 1994
3682:
The Fight in the Fields: Cesar Chavez and the Farmworkers Movement
2245:
1844:
After the 1964 termination of the Bracero Program, the A-TEAM, or
3894:
3768:
Snodgrass, "Patronage and Progress," pp.252-61; Michael Belshaw,
2540:"The Bracero Program – Rural Migration News | Migration Dialogue"
2127:
2026:", set to music by Martin Hoffman, commemorates the deaths of 28
1580:
813:
Mexican workers await legal employment in the United States, 1954
94:
4166:
1822:
Women as deciding factors for men in bracero program integration
1659:, is unique in the unity it showed between Mexican braceros and
6985:
4964:
4832:
Ending Discriminatory Bans on Entry to The United States (2021)
4335:
3418:
Robert Bauman (2005). "Jim Crow in the Tri-Cities, 1943–1950".
3229:"A History of the Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, 1943-47"
3202:"A History of the Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, 1943-47"
3175:"A History of the Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, 1943-47"
2143:
747:
504:
7050:
4792:
American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act (AC21) (2000)
4191:"Termination of the Bracero Program: Foreign Economic Aspects"
4148:
The Tracks North: The Railroad Bracero Program of World War II
3781:
6980:
4422:
3381:
Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest
3350:
Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest
3042:
Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest
2860:"Mexico - Migration of Agricultural Workers - August 4, 1942"
2147:
2135:
1830:
376:
3121:
Prisoners Without Trials: Japanese Americans in World War II
3854:
Zatz, Marjorie S.; Calavita, Kitty; Gamboa, Erasmo (1993).
759:
386:
124:
4185:
Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
2682:. P.L. 82-414 ~ 66 Stat. 163. Congress.gov. June 27, 1952.
6781:
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954
5745:
Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States
3788:, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 41
3408:
Mario Jimenez Sifuentez. Of Forests and Fields. pp. 28–29
3369:
Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 77.
2723:
2630:. P.L. 82-78 ~ 65 Stat. 119. Congress.gov. July 12, 1951.
1846:
Athletes in Temporary Employment as Agricultural Manpower
930:
4288:
Beyond the Border: The History of Mexican-U.S. Migration
4286:
Michael Snodgrass, "The Bracero Program, 1942–1964," in
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2522:
3650:
The Bracero Program: Interest Groups and Foreign Policy
3378:
3347:
3103:
2984:. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. p. 46.
2058:
explores two federal agents' efforts to end an illegal
1799:
1774:
1681:
residential district of said city under penalty of law.
1608:
May 1944: Braceros in Preston, Idaho, struck over wages
6821:
Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996
6816:
Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990
3736:"Mexican Braceros and US Farm Workers | Wilson Center"
3383:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 25.
3352:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 28.
3044:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 26.
2440:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp.
7003:
5701:
Early history of food regulation in the United States
4797:
Legal Immigration Family Equity Act (LIFE Act) (2000)
3676:
3674:
3252:
3250:
2887:
2680:"H.R. 5678 - Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952"
2519:
2297:"SmallerLarger Bracero Program Begins, April 4, 1942"
1921:
Prior to the end of the Bracero Program in 1964, The
754:, the agreement guaranteed decent living conditions (
5644:
5501:
Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles
4040:"Noir Citizenship: Anthony Mann's "Border Incident""
3163:
Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", pp. 74–75.
2719:"The Bath Riots: Indignity Along the Mexican Border"
969:
Emergency Farm Labor Program and federal public laws
906:
for knowingly concealing, harboring, or shielding a
6791:
California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975
4254:
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2014.
2628:"S. 984 - Agricultural Act, 1949 Amendment of 1951"
869:
4362:Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942–1964
3853:
3671:
3569:Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897–1931
3247:
2433:
2324:
1556:
1502:
1476:
1436:
1382:
1356:
1330:
1290:
1251:
1200:
1174:
1148:
1122:
1096:
1070:
1044:
1018:
948:well after their labor contracts were terminated.
771:
4410:. Wilding-Butler Division of Wilding, Inc. 1959.
4229:National Agricultural Library Digital Collections
3039:
7075:
5245:United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints
4368:University of Texas El Paso Oral History Archive
3785:Temporary Worker Programs: Background and Issues
3615:
3613:
3398:. Seattle: University of Washington. p. 85.
2926:Data 1951–67 cited in Gutiérrez, David Gregory,
2915:Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán
2902:Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán
2882:Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán
7104:History of labor relations in the United States
4435:Smithsonian National Museum of American History
4427:Roy Rosenzwieg Center for History and New Media
3362:
2982:Mexicanos in Oregon: Their Stories, Their Lives
2862:[56 Stat. 1759, E.A.S. 278 - No. 312].
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
5506:Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform
5184:List of people deported from the United States
4247:Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2012.
3770:A Village Economy: Land and People of Huecorio
3476:
3474:
3472:
2976:
2587:
2585:
2320:
2318:
2105:
1898:received a grant from the AWOC to organize in
5630:
4931:Trump administration family separation policy
4464:
3660:
3658:
3610:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3436:
3417:
3393:
3365:Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story
3118:
3094:. Wenatchee, Wash: The Wenatchee World, 2008.
2938:
2936:
2122:and historical context to today's debates on
975:1942-1947 Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program
746:signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with
696:
7139:United States home front during World War II
4981:Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)
3680:Ferris, Susan and Sandoval, Ricardo (1997).
3668:, Migration Police Institute (May 21, 2009).
3523:Navarro, Moisés González (January 1, 1994).
2394:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics
2206:
875:American employers of undocumented workers.
855:
7109:History of immigration to the United States
5740:Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains
5481:California Coalition for Immigration Reform
4441:, and The Institute of Oral History at the
4397:"Braceros in Oregon Photograph Collection."
4112:
3772:(New York: Columbia University Press, 1967)
2805:. Texas Observer. March 28, 1955. p. 7
2582:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2315:
2040:A minor character in the 1948 Mexican film
1985:was the abolition of the short-handed hoe,
1860:
5728:List of food plants native to the Americas
5637:
5623:
5516:Federation for American Immigration Reform
4471:
4457:
3759:Snodgrass, "The Bracero Program," pp.83-88
3655:
3449:
2933:
2799:"Labor Groups Oppose Bracero Law Features"
1831:US government censorship of family contact
703:
689:
6801:Children's Act for Responsible Employment
5291:Uniting American Families Act (2000–2013)
5286:Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2007
5276:Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2006
5219:Unaccompanied minors from Central America
4976:U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
4746:Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986)
4390:U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
3226:
3199:
3172:
2774:
2358:
1955:Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee
1808:
1737:Learn how and when to remove this message
1689:
1541:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V
1527:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V
1461:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V
1421:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V
1407:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V
1315:Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V
82:Learn how and when to remove this message
6749:National Agricultural Statistics Service
5496:Center for Migration Studies of New York
4639:Immigration Act 1917 (Asian Barred Zone)
4508:Nationality law in the American Colonies
4357:Braceros in Oregon Photograph Collection
4209:
4144:
4037:
3644:
3642:
3619:
2420:
2219:
808:
93:
7144:Government agencies established in 1942
7084:Agricultural labor in the United States
6786:Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000
6744:United States Department of Agriculture
5706:Indentured servitude in British America
5430:"Faithful Patriot" (2018–present)
4986:Executive Office for Immigration Review
4257:
4222:
4210:Koestler, Fred L. (February 22, 2010).
3942:"The California Farm Workers' Struggle"
3782:Congressional Research Service (1980),
3565:
3522:
2823:
884:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
109:This article is part of a series on the
14:
7076:
5446:California DREAM Act (2006–2010)
4300:
4188:
3939:
3892:
3806:
3256:
3123:. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 74.
2748:
2659:
2640:
2591:
2507:
2224:. New York: Quid Pro, LLC. p. 1.
7119:Economic history of the United States
5618:
4694:Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act (1946)
4452:
4218:. Texas State Historical Association.
4092:
4011:
3730:
3728:
3639:
3620:Arellano, Gustavo (August 23, 2018).
3480:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2694:"H-2A Temporary Agricultural Workers"
2069:wrote the song "George Murphy" about
2013:
1761:
1676:reported the restriction order read:
1003:56 Stat. 1759, E.A.S. 278 - No. 312
727:
5415:"Return to Sender" (2006–2007)
4720:Immigration and Nationality Act 1952
4380:. United States Library of Congress.
4305:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
3566:Cardoso, Lawrence A. (May 1, 2019).
3529:(1 ed.). El Colegio de México.
2464:
2431:
2383:
2381:
2269:
1800:Role of women and impact on families
1775:Reasons for strikes in the Northwest
1693:
1276:Period of administrative agreements
49:research paper or scientific journal
31:
6754:United States Census of Agriculture
5101:Department of State v. Muñoz (2024)
5071:DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.
4956:Immigration and Customs Enforcement
4558:Act to Encourage Immigration (1864)
3893:Murray, Douglas L. (October 1982).
3807:Portes, Alejandro (March 1, 1974).
2387:
2115:National Museum of American History
2024:Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)
1222:1948-1964 Farm Labor Supply Program
938:United States Public Health Service
846:
603:DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.
547:Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co.
24:
7094:Labor history of the United States
6955:United Food and Commercial Workers
6859:Agricultural workers mental health
5189:Mexico–United States border crisis
4971:U.S. Customs and Border Protection
3725:
3652:(University of Texas Press, 1971).
3487:. University of California Press.
2735:
2731:from the original on July 8, 2023.
2660:Truman, Harry S. (June 25, 1952).
2641:Truman, Harry S. (July 13, 1951).
2598:. University of Washington Press.
1709:tone or style may not reflect the
1595:
1590:
1561:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1507:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1481:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1441:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1387:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1361:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1335:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1295:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1256:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1205:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1179:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1153:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1127:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1101:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1075:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1049:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1023:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
782:), enacted as an amendment to the
776:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
25:
7175:
6726:Pacific Northwest oyster industry
5410:"Streamline" (2005–present)
5132:Central American migrant caravans
4679:Bracero Program (1942–1964)
4328:
3040:Jimenez Sifuentez, Mario (2016).
2755:American Journal of Public Health
2378:
2246:"Bracero History Archive | About"
830:along the border. Texas Governor
821:This program, which commenced in
7061:
7049:
7037:
7025:
7013:
5787:
5646:Agriculture in the United States
5194:Mexico–United States border wall
4669:Filipino Repatriation Act (1935)
4480:Immigration to the United States
4334:
4223:McElroy, Robert C. (June 1965).
3707:The Western Historical Quarterly
3379:Mario Jimenez Sifuentez (2016).
3348:Mario Jimenez Sifuentez (2016).
2097:In 1953, Pedro Infante recorded
1719:guide to writing better articles
1698:
870:1951 negotiations to termination
670:
123:
36:
27:1942–1964 migrant worker program
7149:1942 in international relations
6940:Farm Labor Organizing Committee
4951:Department of Homeland Security
4138:
4086:
4031:
4005:
3980:
3933:
3886:
3847:
3800:
3775:
3762:
3753:
3695:
3686:
3572:. University of Arizona Press.
3559:
3516:
3439:The Pacific Northwest Quarterly
3430:
3420:The Pacific Northwest Quarterly
3411:
3402:
3387:
3372:
3356:
3341:
3332:
3323:
3314:
3289:
3220:
3193:
3166:
3157:
3147:
3138:
3128:
3112:
3097:
3084:
3075:
3066:
3057:
3048:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2988:
2970:
2961:
2920:
2907:
2874:
2864:United States Statutes at Large
2852:
2817:
2791:
2711:
2686:
2672:
2653:
2634:
2620:
2557:
1583:presented in federal courts in
804:
540:San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez
222:California agricultural strikes
7134:Mexico–United States relations
5491:Center for Immigration Studies
5420:"Jump Start" (2006–2008)
5405:"Front Line" (2004–2005)
5055:Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting
4996:Office of Refugee Resettlement
4751:American Homecoming Act (1989)
4443:University of Texas at El Paso
3958:10.1080/00064246.1976.11413833
3719:10.2307/westhistquar.44.2.0124
2501:
2458:
2289:
2263:
2238:
2154:Traveling Exhibition Service.
2001:A 2018 study published in the
1974:Congressional Research Service
1892:Community Service Organization
1650:
13:
1:
7099:Labor relations in California
7032:Hispanic and Latino Americans
5541:Minuteman Civil Defense Corps
5385:"Peter Pan" (1960–1962)
5147:Eugenics in the United States
4145:Driscoll, Barbara A. (1999).
4012:Bacon, David (June 1, 2018).
3481:Rosas, Ana Elizabeth (2014).
382:Occupation of Catalina Island
192:1913 El Paso smelters' strike
7129:History of Mexican Americans
6960:Woman's Land Army of America
5689:Eastern Agricultural Complex
5674:Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture
5209:Illegal immigrant population
4991:Board of Immigration Appeals
4827:Executive Order 13780 (2017)
4822:Executive Order 13769 (2017)
4715:UN Refugee Convention (1951)
4629:Gentlemen's Agreement (1907)
3227:Rasmussen, Wayne D. (1951).
3200:Rasmussen, Wayne D. (1951).
3173:Rasmussen, Wayne D. (1951).
2489:10.5149/9781469629773_loza.7
2301:Student Resources in Context
2199:
2120:history of Mexican Americans
1839:
7:
5735:Native American in Virginia
5425:"Phalanx" (2010–2016)
5400:"Endgame" (2003–2012)
5271:McCain–Kennedy (2005)
5261:DREAM Act (2001–2010)
5240:Canada–United States border
5235:Mexico–United States border
4802:H-1B Visa Reform Act (2004)
4664:Tydings–McDuffie Act (1934)
4038:Auerbach, Jonathan (2008).
4014:"'You Came Here to Suffer'"
2157:
2106:Exhibitions and collections
888:82nd United States Congress
172:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
10:
7180:
7114:Economic history of Mexico
6841:Taylor Grazing Act of 1934
6831:Packers and Stockyards Act
6696:Southwestern United States
5785:
5561:Negative Population Growth
5551:National Immigration Forum
5536:Migration Policy Institute
5311:US Citizenship Act of 2021
4867:Temporary protected status
4649:Emergency Quota Act (1921)
3154:Pacific Northwest, p. 113.
3135:Pacific Northwest, p. 112.
2803:Archives.TexasObserver.org
1674:Walla Walla Union-Bulletin
7159:1942 in the United States
7089:Agriculture in California
6968:
6920:
6894:
6874:Genetically modified food
6849:
6811:Food Security Act of 1985
6766:
6734:
6688:
6659:Northern Mariana Islands
6118:genetically modified food
5916:
5896:Connecticut shade tobacco
5796:
5652:
5589:
5464:
5438:
5372:
5319:
5253:
5227:
5110:
5004:
4939:
4894:Security Advisory Opinion
4844:
4784:
4707:
4611:
4545:
4521:
4500:
4487:
4260:Pacific Historical Review
3713:(2): 124–143. July 2013.
3257:Osorio, Jennifer (2005).
2826:Pacific Historical Review
2164:Bracero Selection Process
2008:American Economic Journal
1867:Catholic Church in Mexico
1625:Amalgamated Sugar Company
863:Southern Pacific railroad
856:Southern Pacific Railroad
392:Plan Espiritual de Aztlán
217:Cantaloupe strike of 1928
7124:History of North America
5603:Missing in Brooks County
5531:Mexicans Without Borders
5031:US v. Bhagat Singh Thind
4904:National Origins Formula
4588:Chinese Exclusion (1882)
4563:Civil Rights Act of 1866
4301:Flores, Lori A. (2016).
4216:Handbook of Texas Online
4189:Hirsch, Hans G. (1967).
3860:Law & Society Review
3363:Ernesto Galarza (1964).
2767:10.2105/AJPH.2010.300056
2749:Molina, Natalia (2011).
2569:picturethis.museumca.org
2331:American Economic Review
2303:. Gale, Cengage Learning
2220:Calavita, Kitty (1992).
2003:American Economic Review
1904:U.S. Department of Labor
1861:Significance and effects
784:Agricultural Act of 1949
758:, adequate shelter, and
677:United States portal
432:1985–1987 cannery strike
64:overly technical phrases
56:help improve the article
4882:Central American Minors
4812:Secure Fence Act (2006)
4674:Nationality Act of 1940
4624:Naturalization Act 1906
4598:Immigration Act of 1891
4583:Immigration Act of 1882
4573:Naturalization Act 1870
4553:Naturalization Law 1802
4529:Naturalization Act 1790
4431:George Mason University
4374:"1942: Bracero Program"
3809:"Return of the wetback"
2978:Gonzales-Berry, Erlinda
2592:Gamboa, Erasmo (2016).
2152:Smithsonian Institution
933:a dangerous pesticide.
575:Flores-Figueroa v. U.S.
7164:1964 disestablishments
6836:Pure Food and Drug Act
5597:Borderland (TV series)
5451:Arizona SB 1070 (2010)
4924:Unaccompanied children
4699:Luce–Celler Act (1946)
4489:Relevant colonial era,
3940:CHAVEZ, CESAR (1976).
3796:– via HathiTrust
3394:Erasmo Gamboa (1990).
3119:Roger Daniels (1993).
2150:under the auspices of
1809:Romantic relationships
1690:Reasons for discontent
1683:
814:
788:United States Congress
554:U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce
471:Great American Boycott
352:Las Adelitas de Aztlán
322:Conferencia de Mujeres
103:
6907:California nut crimes
5919:or territory-specific
5174:Immigration reduction
5085:Niz-Chavez v. Garland
4689:War Brides Act (1945)
4568:14th Amendment (1868)
4250:Ana Elizabeth Rosas,
3992:migration.ucdavis.edu
3578:10.2307/j.ctvss3xzr.9
3535:10.2307/j.ctv3f8ns4.6
3092:Wenatchee's Dark Past
3090:Marshall, Maureen E.
2948:migration.ucdavis.edu
2544:migration.ucdavis.edu
2465:Loza, Mireya (2016),
2124:guest worker programs
2110:In October 2009, the
2101:under Peerlees label.
2086:Harvest of Loneliness
2084:The 2010 documentary
2078:infamous racist gaffe
1678:
812:
589:Mendez v. Westminster
526:Botiller v. Dominguez
442:2019 El Paso shooting
425:Post-Chicano Movement
397:Plan de Santa Bárbara
297:Católicos por La Raza
227:Citrus Strike of 1936
162:San Elizario Salt War
135:Early-American period
117:and Mexican Americans
98:Braceros arriving in
97:
5917:State, commonwealth,
5476:Arizona Border Recon
5456:Alabama HB 56 (2011)
5320:Immigration stations
5254:Proposed legislation
5152:Guest worker program
5127:Brooks County, Texas
5039:US v. Brignoni-Ponce
4756:Immigration Act 1990
4659:Immigration Act 1924
4644:Immigration Act 1918
4634:Immigration Act 1907
4619:Immigration Act 1903
4343:at Wikimedia Commons
3740:www.wilsoncenter.org
3503:10.1525/j.ctt13x1hjj
2406:10.1257/app.20200664
2388:San, Shmuel (2023).
2343:10.1257/aer.20170765
2189:Mexican Repatriation
2184:Chualar Bus Incident
2062:smuggling operation.
1236:Applicable U.S. Law
989:Applicable U.S. Law
823:Stockton, California
737:guest worker program
582:Leal Garcia v. Texas
488:Justice for Janitors
357:Los Siete de la Raza
312:Colegio César Chávez
237:Mexican Repatriation
152:Mexican–American War
6950:United Farm Workers
6796:Capper–Volstead Act
6776:Agricultural policy
5395:"Gatekeeper" (1994)
5322:and points of entry
5214:Reverse immigration
5093:Sanchez v. Mayorkas
5006:Supreme Court cases
4862:Visa Waiver Program
4857:Permanent residence
4684:Magnuson Act (1943)
4513:Plantation Act 1740
4425:- a project of the
4378:LOC Research Guides
4347:The Bracero Project
2043:Nosotros los Pobres
1959:Delano grape strike
1939:United Farm Workers
1928:political scientist
1655:The 1943 strike in
1490:September 14, 1960
1233:Number of Braceros
986:Number of Braceros
729:[bɾaˈse.ɾo]
518:Supreme Court cases
437:1992 Drywall Strike
412:United Farm Workers
362:Los Seis de Boulder
347:Land grant struggle
337:Hijas de Cuauhtémoc
257:Sleepy Lagoon trial
115:History of Chicanos
58:by rewriting it in
5684:Columbian exchange
5179:Immigration reform
5015:US v. Wong Kim Ark
4961:U.S. Border Patrol
4877:Green Card Lottery
4845:Visas and policies
4807:Real ID Act (2005)
4741:Refugee Act (1980)
4493:international laws
4482:and related topics
3825:10.1007/BF02695162
3664:David Fitzgerald,
3648:Richard B. Craig,
3301:The New York Times
3108:. pp. 85–128.
2928:Between two worlds
2432:Ngai, Mae (2004).
2270:Koestler, Fred L.
2250:braceroarchive.org
2092:A Convenient Truth
2076:in response to an
2046:wants to become a
2014:In popular culture
1900:Oxnard, California
1762:Wage discrepancies
1657:Dayton, Washington
1570:December 13, 1963
1239:Date of Enactment
1084:December 28, 1945
1058:February 14, 1944
992:Date of Enactment
886:was passed by the
882:A year later, the
815:
739:in U.S. history.
533:Hernandez v. Texas
332:East L.A. walkouts
307:Chicano Moratorium
202:Bisbee Deportation
147:Las Gorras Blancas
104:
60:encyclopedic style
47:is written like a
7001:
7000:
6826:Grain Futures Act
6701:Black Dirt Region
5612:
5611:
5546:Minuteman Project
5521:Improve The Dream
5439:State legislation
5390:"Babylift" (1975)
5364:Washington Avenue
5359:Sullivan's Island
5281:STRIVE Act (2007)
5204:March for America
5157:Human trafficking
5047:Zadvydas v. Davis
4909:Expedited removal
4840:
4839:
4491:United States and
4339:Media related to
4212:"Bracero Program"
4056:10.1353/cj.0.0021
3946:The Black Scholar
3587:978-0-8165-4029-7
3544:978-607-564-044-0
2605:978-0-295-99832-9
2509:McWilliams, Carey
2480:978-1-4696-2976-6
2451:978-0-691-12429-2
2272:"Bracero Program"
2179:Operation Wetback
2099:Canto del Bracero
1923:Chualar Bus Crash
1747:
1746:
1739:
1713:used on Knowledge
1711:encyclopedic tone
1661:Japanese-American
1574:
1573:
1223:
1218:
1217:
976:
945:Operation Wetback
912:illegal immigrant
713:
712:
650:Dallas–Fort Worth
596:Bernal v. Fainter
568:Medellín v. Texas
287:Black-brown unity
252:Porvenir Massacre
247:Plan de San Diego
242:Operation Wetback
92:
91:
84:
16:(Redirected from
7171:
7066:
7065:
7064:
7054:
7053:
7042:
7041:
7040:
7030:
7029:
7028:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7009:
6902:Adulterated food
6884:Ogallala Aquifer
5791:
5662:African-American
5639:
5632:
5625:
5616:
5615:
5511:Community Change
5486:CASA of Maryland
5466:Non-governmental
5380:"Wetback" (1954)
5306:RAISE Act (2017)
5266:H.R. 4437 (2005)
4654:Cable Act (1922)
4603:Geary Act (1892)
4593:Scott Act (1888)
4498:
4497:
4473:
4466:
4459:
4450:
4449:
4439:Brown University
4419:
4408:Internet Archive
4393:
4381:
4338:
4324:
4283:
4240:
4219:
4206:
4195:Internet Archive
4178:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4099:Tom Lehrer Songs
4090:
4084:
4083:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4024:
4009:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3998:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3851:
3845:
3844:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3779:
3773:
3766:
3760:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3732:
3723:
3722:
3699:
3693:
3690:
3684:
3678:
3669:
3662:
3653:
3646:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3632:
3617:
3608:
3607:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3478:
3447:
3446:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3415:
3409:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3376:
3370:
3368:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3345:
3339:
3336:
3330:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3254:
3245:
3244:
3233:Internet Archive
3224:
3218:
3217:
3206:Internet Archive
3197:
3191:
3190:
3179:Internet Archive
3170:
3164:
3161:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3142:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3124:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3101:
3095:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3064:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3037:
3031:
3028:
3022:
3019:
3013:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2995:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2974:
2968:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2940:
2931:
2924:
2918:
2911:
2905:
2898:
2885:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2761:(6): 1024–1031.
2746:
2733:
2732:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2666:Internet Archive
2657:
2651:
2650:
2647:Internet Archive
2638:
2632:
2631:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2589:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2536:
2517:
2516:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2471:Defiant Braceros
2462:
2456:
2455:
2439:
2429:
2418:
2417:
2385:
2376:
2375:
2362:
2337:(6): 1468–1487.
2322:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2217:
2194:Bracero Monument
1742:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1721:for suggestions.
1717:See Knowledge's
1702:
1701:
1694:
1666:internment camps
1562:
1558:
1516:October 3, 1961
1508:
1504:
1487:| 74 Stat. 1021
1482:
1478:
1450:August 27, 1958
1442:
1438:
1388:
1384:
1362:
1358:
1336:
1332:
1296:
1292:
1262:| 62 Stat. 1238
1257:
1253:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1206:
1202:
1180:
1176:
1154:
1150:
1128:
1124:
1110:August 14, 1946
1107:| 60 Stat. 1062
1102:
1098:
1076:
1072:
1050:
1046:
1024:
1020:
980:
979:
974:
920:Mexico migration
908:foreign national
892:President Truman
847:Railroad workers
777:
773:
731:
705:
698:
691:
675:
674:
673:
493:Murder of Selena
407:Raza Unida Party
275:Chicano Movement
207:Bloody Christmas
127:
106:
105:
87:
80:
76:
73:
67:
40:
39:
32:
21:
7179:
7178:
7174:
7173:
7172:
7170:
7169:
7168:
7074:
7073:
7072:
7062:
7060:
7056:Organized labor
7048:
7038:
7036:
7026:
7024:
7014:
7012:
7004:
7002:
6997:
6964:
6935:Convict leasing
6930:Bracero Program
6916:
6890:
6851:
6845:
6768:
6762:
6736:
6730:
6684:
6587:Virgin Islands
6517:South Carolina
5918:
5912:
5792:
5783:
5772:Native American
5723:New World crops
5667:Black land loss
5648:
5643:
5613:
5608:
5585:
5526:Mexica Movement
5469:
5467:
5460:
5434:
5368:
5321:
5315:
5301:SAFE Act (2015)
5249:
5223:
5162:Human smuggling
5137:Economic impact
5115:
5113:
5106:
5000:
4944:
4942:
4935:
4836:
4780:
4708:1950–1999
4703:
4612:1900–1949
4607:
4578:Page Act (1875)
4541:
4517:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4483:
4477:
4423:Bracero Archive
4404:"Why Braceros?"
4402:
4384:
4372:
4341:Bracero program
4331:
4313:
4272:10.2307/4492180
4181:Deborah Cohen,
4159:
4141:
4136:
4135:
4125:
4123:
4118:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4101:
4091:
4087:
4036:
4032:
4022:
4020:
4018:Progressive.org
4010:
4006:
3996:
3994:
3986:
3985:
3981:
3938:
3934:
3899:Social Problems
3891:
3887:
3872:10.2307/3053955
3852:
3848:
3805:
3801:
3791:
3789:
3780:
3776:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3754:
3744:
3742:
3734:
3733:
3726:
3701:
3700:
3696:
3691:
3687:
3679:
3672:
3663:
3656:
3647:
3640:
3630:
3628:
3618:
3611:
3588:
3564:
3560:
3545:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3505:
3495:
3479:
3450:
3435:
3431:
3416:
3412:
3407:
3403:
3392:
3388:
3377:
3373:
3361:
3357:
3346:
3342:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3305:
3303:
3295:
3294:
3290:
3263:Archival Issues
3255:
3248:
3225:
3221:
3198:
3194:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3139:
3133:
3129:
3117:
3113:
3102:
3098:
3089:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3038:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2952:
2950:
2942:
2941:
2934:
2925:
2921:
2912:
2908:
2899:
2888:
2879:
2875:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2838:10.2307/4492180
2822:
2818:
2808:
2806:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2747:
2736:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2700:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2658:
2654:
2639:
2635:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2606:
2590:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2548:
2546:
2538:
2537:
2520:
2506:
2502:
2493:
2491:
2481:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2430:
2421:
2386:
2379:
2323:
2316:
2306:
2304:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2280:
2278:
2268:
2264:
2254:
2252:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2218:
2207:
2202:
2169:1917 Bath Riots
2160:
2108:
2065:Famed satirist
2055:Border Incident
2033:Protest singer
2016:
1947:Gilbert Padilla
1912:Imperial Valley
1888:Ernesto Galarza
1863:
1842:
1833:
1824:
1811:
1802:
1777:
1764:
1743:
1732:
1726:
1723:
1716:
1707:This section's
1703:
1699:
1692:
1653:
1647:peas in Idaho.
1598:
1596:Notable strikes
1593:
1591:Organized labor
1567:| 77 Stat. 363
1560:
1513:| 75 Stat. 761
1506:
1480:
1447:| 72 Stat. 934
1440:
1396:August 9, 1955
1393:| 69 Stat. 615
1386:
1370:March 16, 1954
1360:
1344:August 8, 1953
1341:| 67 Stat. 500
1334:
1301:| 65 Stat. 119
1294:
1255:
1211:| 61 Stat. 694
1204:
1185:| 61 Stat. 202
1178:
1159:| 61 Stat. 106
1152:
1136:April 28, 1947
1126:
1100:
1081:| 59 Stat. 632
1074:
1048:
1032:April 29, 1943
1022:
1006:August 4, 1942
971:
872:
858:
849:
807:
775:
717:Bracero Program
709:
671:
669:
662:
661:
619:
618:
609:
608:
520:
519:
510:
509:
499:Proposition 187
453:Arizona SB 1070
427:
426:
417:
416:
277:
276:
267:
266:
262:Zoot Suit Riots
212:Bracero program
197:1917 Bath riots
187:
186:
177:
176:
137:
136:
116:
88:
77:
71:
68:
53:
41:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7177:
7167:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7154:1942 in Mexico
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7071:
7070:
7058:
7046:
7034:
7022:
6999:
6998:
6996:
6995:
6994:
6993:
6988:
6978:
6972:
6970:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6937:
6932:
6926:
6924:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6914:
6912:Cattle raiding
6909:
6904:
6898:
6896:
6892:
6891:
6889:
6888:
6887:
6886:
6876:
6871:
6869:Farmer suicide
6866:
6864:Climate change
6861:
6855:
6853:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6772:
6770:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6760:
6759:
6758:
6757:
6756:
6740:
6738:
6732:
6731:
6729:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6692:
6690:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6682:
6681:
6680:
6675:
6667:
6666:
6665:
6657:
6656:
6655:
6647:
6646:
6645:
6637:
6636:
6635:
6630:
6620:
6619:
6618:
6612:West Virginia
6610:
6609:
6608:
6603:
6595:
6594:
6593:
6585:
6584:
6583:
6578:
6570:
6569:
6568:
6563:
6555:
6554:
6553:
6545:
6544:
6543:
6535:
6534:
6533:
6525:
6524:
6523:
6515:
6514:
6513:
6508:
6500:
6499:
6498:
6493:
6483:
6482:
6481:
6471:
6470:
6469:
6464:
6456:
6455:
6454:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6436:
6435:
6434:
6426:
6425:
6424:
6417:North Carolina
6414:
6413:
6412:
6407:
6402:
6394:
6393:
6392:
6387:
6377:
6376:
6375:
6370:
6362:
6361:
6360:
6354:New Hampshire
6352:
6351:
6350:
6345:
6337:
6336:
6335:
6327:
6326:
6325:
6320:
6312:
6311:
6310:
6305:
6297:
6296:
6295:
6287:
6286:
6285:
6277:
6276:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6257:
6256:
6255:
6250:
6244:Massachusetts
6242:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6225:
6224:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6205:
6204:
6203:
6201:Louisiana wine
6195:
6194:
6193:
6183:
6182:
6181:
6173:
6172:
6171:
6161:
6160:
6159:
6149:
6148:
6147:
6142:
6134:
6133:
6132:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6095:
6094:
6093:
6085:
6084:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6063:
6062:
6061:
6056:
6048:
6047:
6046:
6041:
6031:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6014:
6013:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5987:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5972:
5971:
5970:
5965:
5957:
5956:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5935:
5934:
5933:
5922:
5920:
5914:
5913:
5911:
5910:
5905:
5900:
5899:
5898:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5836:Christmas tree
5833:
5828:
5827:
5826:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5800:
5798:
5794:
5793:
5786:
5784:
5782:
5781:
5780:
5779:
5774:
5764:
5763:
5762:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5731:
5730:
5720:
5719:
5718:
5713:
5703:
5698:
5697:
5696:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5670:
5669:
5658:
5656:
5650:
5649:
5642:
5641:
5634:
5627:
5619:
5610:
5609:
5607:
5606:
5599:
5593:
5591:
5587:
5586:
5584:
5583:
5578:
5576:Save Our State
5573:
5568:
5566:No More Deaths
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5472:
5470:
5465:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5442:
5440:
5436:
5435:
5433:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5376:
5374:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5325:
5323:
5317:
5316:
5314:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5257:
5255:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5231:
5229:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5199:Labor shortage
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5170:
5169:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5118:
5116:
5112:Related issues
5111:
5108:
5107:
5105:
5104:
5097:
5089:
5081:
5067:
5063:Barton v. Barr
5059:
5051:
5043:
5035:
5027:
5019:
5010:
5008:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4958:
4953:
4947:
4945:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4933:
4928:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4788:
4786:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4737:
4736:
4734:Section 287(g)
4731:
4729:Section 212(f)
4717:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4615:
4613:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4549:
4547:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4539:
4525:
4523:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4515:
4510:
4504:
4502:
4495:
4488:
4485:
4484:
4476:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4420:
4400:
4394:
4382:
4370:
4365:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4330:
4329:External links
4327:
4326:
4325:
4312:978-0300196962
4311:
4298:
4291:
4284:
4266:(3): 251–264.
4255:
4248:
4243:Don Mitchell,
4241:
4220:
4207:
4186:
4179:
4158:978-0292715929
4157:
4140:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4111:
4085:
4050:(4): 102–120.
4044:Cinema Journal
4030:
4004:
3979:
3932:
3911:10.2307/800182
3885:
3846:
3799:
3774:
3761:
3752:
3724:
3694:
3685:
3670:
3654:
3638:
3609:
3586:
3558:
3543:
3515:
3493:
3448:
3429:
3410:
3401:
3386:
3371:
3355:
3340:
3331:
3322:
3313:
3288:
3246:
3219:
3192:
3165:
3156:
3146:
3137:
3127:
3111:
3096:
3083:
3074:
3065:
3056:
3047:
3032:
3023:
3014:
3005:
2996:
2987:
2969:
2960:
2932:
2919:
2906:
2886:
2873:
2851:
2816:
2790:
2734:
2710:
2685:
2671:
2652:
2633:
2619:
2604:
2581:
2556:
2518:
2500:
2479:
2457:
2450:
2419:
2400:(1): 136–163.
2377:
2314:
2288:
2276:tshaonline.org
2262:
2237:
2230:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2159:
2156:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2095:
2089:
2082:
2063:
2052:The 1949 film
2050:
2038:
2031:
2015:
2012:
1963:grape contract
1951:Dolores Huerta
1930:and author of
1862:
1859:
1841:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1810:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1776:
1773:
1763:
1760:
1745:
1744:
1706:
1704:
1697:
1691:
1688:
1652:
1649:
1644:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1545:
1544:July 12, 1951
1542:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1530:July 12, 1951
1528:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1464:July 12, 1951
1462:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1424:July 12, 1951
1422:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1410:July 12, 1951
1408:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1379:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1367:| 68 Stat. 28
1353:
1350:
1346:
1345:
1342:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1318:July 12, 1951
1316:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1304:July 12, 1951
1302:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1266:
1263:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1216:
1215:
1214:July 31, 1947
1212:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1188:June 30, 1947
1186:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1133:| 61 Stat. 55
1119:
1116:
1112:
1111:
1108:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1055:| 58 Stat. 11
1041:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1029:| 57 Stat. 70
1015:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
994:
993:
990:
987:
984:
970:
967:
904:federal felony
871:
868:
857:
854:
848:
845:
832:Coke Stevenson
806:
803:
711:
710:
708:
707:
700:
693:
685:
682:
681:
680:
679:
664:
663:
660:
659:
658:
657:
652:
642:
635:
628:
620:
616:
615:
614:
611:
610:
607:
606:
599:
592:
585:
578:
571:
564:
557:
550:
543:
536:
529:
521:
517:
516:
515:
512:
511:
508:
507:
502:
495:
490:
485:
480:
473:
468:
461:
456:
449:
444:
439:
434:
428:
424:
423:
422:
419:
418:
415:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
342:Huelga schools
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
278:
274:
273:
272:
269:
268:
265:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
188:
184:
183:
182:
179:
178:
175:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
142:Josefa Segovia
138:
134:
133:
132:
129:
128:
120:
119:
111:
110:
90:
89:
44:
42:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7176:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7081:
7079:
7069:
7068:United States
7059:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7045:
7035:
7033:
7023:
7021:
7011:
7010:
7007:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6983:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6973:
6971:
6967:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6928:
6927:
6925:
6923:
6919:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6893:
6885:
6882:
6881:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6856:
6854:
6848:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6773:
6771:
6765:
6755:
6752:
6751:
6750:
6747:
6746:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6739:
6737:organizations
6733:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6687:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6670:
6668:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6654:
6651:
6650:
6648:
6644:
6641:
6640:
6638:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6625:
6624:
6621:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6611:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6596:
6592:
6589:
6588:
6586:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6573:
6571:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6558:
6556:
6552:
6549:
6548:
6546:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6532:
6529:
6528:
6527:South Dakota
6526:
6522:
6519:
6518:
6516:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6503:
6502:Rhode Island
6501:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6488:
6487:
6484:
6480:
6477:
6476:
6475:
6472:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6459:
6457:
6453:
6450:
6449:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6439:
6437:
6433:
6430:
6429:
6428:North Dakota
6427:
6423:
6420:
6419:
6418:
6415:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6382:
6381:
6378:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6365:
6363:
6359:
6356:
6355:
6353:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6340:
6338:
6334:
6331:
6330:
6328:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6315:
6313:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6300:
6298:
6294:
6291:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6281:
6280:
6278:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6251:
6249:
6246:
6245:
6243:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6229:
6226:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6208:
6206:
6202:
6199:
6198:
6196:
6192:
6189:
6188:
6187:
6184:
6180:
6177:
6176:
6174:
6170:
6167:
6166:
6165:
6162:
6158:
6155:
6154:
6153:
6150:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6128:
6127:
6126:
6123:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6100:
6099:
6096:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6068:
6067:
6064:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6051:
6049:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6032:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6019:
6018:
6015:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5991:
5988:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5973:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5960:
5958:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5939:
5936:
5932:
5929:
5928:
5927:
5924:
5923:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5897:
5894:
5893:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5825:
5822:
5821:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5795:
5790:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5765:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5729:
5726:
5725:
5724:
5721:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5695:
5694:Three Sisters
5692:
5691:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5679:Cattle drives
5677:
5675:
5672:
5668:
5665:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5659:
5657:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5640:
5635:
5633:
5628:
5626:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5605:
5604:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5590:Documentaries
5588:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5468:organizations
5463:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5443:
5441:
5437:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5377:
5375:
5371:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5334:Castle Garden
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5318:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5252:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5232:
5230:
5226:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5168:
5165:
5164:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5122:2006 protests
5120:
5119:
5117:
5109:
5103:
5102:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5088:
5086:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5077:Wolf v. Vidal
5073:
5072:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5052:
5049:
5048:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5036:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5026:
5024:
5020:
5018:
5016:
5012:
5011:
5009:
5007:
5003:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4943:organizations
4938:
4932:
4929:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4783:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4610:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4544:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4520:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4499:
4496:
4486:
4481:
4474:
4469:
4467:
4462:
4460:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4342:
4337:
4333:
4332:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4304:
4299:
4296:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4256:
4253:
4249:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4121:
4115:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4019:
4015:
4008:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3889:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3850:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3803:
3787:
3786:
3778:
3771:
3765:
3756:
3741:
3737:
3731:
3729:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3698:
3689:
3683:
3677:
3675:
3667:
3661:
3659:
3651:
3645:
3643:
3627:
3623:
3616:
3614:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3570:
3562:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3519:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3494:9780520282667
3490:
3486:
3485:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3405:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3375:
3366:
3359:
3351:
3344:
3335:
3326:
3317:
3302:
3298:
3292:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3269:(2): 95–103.
3268:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3251:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3223:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3169:
3160:
3150:
3141:
3131:
3122:
3115:
3107:
3100:
3093:
3087:
3078:
3069:
3060:
3051:
3043:
3036:
3027:
3018:
3009:
3000:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2973:
2964:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2937:
2929:
2923:
2916:
2910:
2903:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2883:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2855:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2832:(3): 251–64.
2831:
2827:
2820:
2804:
2800:
2794:
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2247:
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2233:
2231:0-9827504-8-X
2227:
2223:
2216:
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2210:
2205:
2195:
2192:
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2187:
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2125:
2121:
2116:
2113:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2074:George Murphy
2072:
2068:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2020:Woody Guthrie
2018:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
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1933:
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1314:
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1308:
1307:
1303:
1300:
1293:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1265:July 3, 1948
1264:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1224:
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1210:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1184:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1162:May 26, 1947
1161:
1158:
1151:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1125:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1099:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1073:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1021:
1016:
1013:
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1002:
999:
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995:
991:
988:
985:
982:
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977:
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909:
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876:
867:
864:
853:
844:
840:
836:
833:
829:
824:
819:
811:
802:
800:
795:
791:
789:
785:
781:
774:
767:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
744:United States
740:
738:
733:
730:
726:
722:
718:
706:
701:
699:
694:
692:
687:
686:
684:
683:
678:
668:
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629:
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621:
613:
612:
605:
604:
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593:
591:
590:
586:
584:
583:
579:
577:
576:
572:
570:
569:
565:
563:
562:
561:Plyler v. Doe
558:
556:
555:
551:
549:
548:
544:
542:
541:
537:
535:
534:
530:
528:
527:
523:
522:
514:
513:
506:
503:
501:
500:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
478:
474:
472:
469:
467:
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462:
460:
457:
455:
454:
450:
448:
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443:
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429:
421:
420:
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403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
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360:
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355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
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338:
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333:
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328:
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320:
318:
315:
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310:
308:
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298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
279:
271:
270:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
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220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
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200:
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195:
193:
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189:
181:
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173:
170:
168:
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158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
139:
131:
130:
126:
122:
121:
118:
113:
112:
108:
107:
101:
96:
86:
83:
75:
65:
62:and simplify
61:
57:
51:
50:
45:This article
43:
34:
33:
30:
19:
6929:
6879:Water supply
6474:Pennsylvania
6289:Mississippi
5814:Blackcurrant
5716:Pennsylvania
5601:
5581:Utah Compact
5344:Ellis Island
5329:Angel Island
5100:
5092:
5084:
5075:
5074: /
5070:
5062:
5054:
5045:
5038:
5030:
5022:
5014:
4785:21st century
4722: /
4678:
4546:19th century
4535: /
4531: /
4522:18th century
4501:Colonial era
4407:
4389:
4377:
4302:
4294:
4287:
4263:
4259:
4251:
4244:
4228:
4215:
4194:
4182:
4147:
4139:Bibliography
4124:. Retrieved
4114:
4104:September 7,
4102:. Retrieved
4098:
4088:
4047:
4043:
4033:
4021:. Retrieved
4017:
4007:
3995:. Retrieved
3991:
3982:
3952:(9): 16–19.
3949:
3945:
3935:
3905:(1): 26–39.
3902:
3898:
3888:
3863:
3859:
3849:
3819:(3): 40–46.
3816:
3812:
3802:
3790:, retrieved
3784:
3777:
3769:
3764:
3755:
3743:. Retrieved
3739:
3710:
3706:
3697:
3688:
3681:
3649:
3629:. Retrieved
3625:
3568:
3561:
3525:
3518:
3506:. Retrieved
3483:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3423:
3419:
3413:
3404:
3395:
3389:
3380:
3374:
3364:
3358:
3349:
3343:
3334:
3325:
3316:
3306:November 14,
3304:. Retrieved
3300:
3291:
3266:
3262:
3232:
3222:
3205:
3195:
3178:
3168:
3159:
3149:
3140:
3130:
3120:
3114:
3105:
3099:
3091:
3086:
3077:
3068:
3059:
3050:
3041:
3035:
3026:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2990:
2981:
2972:
2963:
2953:February 23,
2951:. Retrieved
2947:
2927:
2922:
2914:
2909:
2901:
2881:
2876:
2867:
2863:
2854:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2807:. Retrieved
2802:
2793:
2758:
2754:
2722:
2713:
2703:February 23,
2701:. Retrieved
2697:
2688:
2674:
2665:
2655:
2646:
2636:
2622:
2594:
2574:November 14,
2572:. Retrieved
2568:
2559:
2547:. Retrieved
2543:
2512:
2503:
2492:, retrieved
2470:
2460:
2435:
2397:
2393:
2372:
2334:
2330:
2305:. Retrieved
2300:
2291:
2279:. Retrieved
2275:
2265:
2253:. Retrieved
2249:
2240:
2221:
2109:
2098:
2091:
2085:
2059:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2027:
2007:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1943:César Chávez
1936:
1931:
1920:
1915:
1907:
1896:César Chávez
1884:
1879:
1875:
1864:
1843:
1834:
1825:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1769:
1765:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1733:
1724:
1708:
1684:
1679:
1671:
1654:
1645:
1579:
1575:
1273:(79,000/yr)
1220:
1219:
973:
972:
963:
959:
950:
942:
935:
928:
924:
881:
877:
873:
859:
850:
841:
837:
820:
816:
805:Introduction
796:
792:
768:
764:World War II
750:. For these
741:
734:
724:
716:
714:
630:California (
601:
594:
587:
580:
573:
566:
559:
552:
545:
538:
531:
524:
497:
483:Farah strike
475:
463:
451:
292:Brown Berets
78:
72:January 2022
69:
46:
29:
7020:Agriculture
6852:environment
6735:Government
6711:Cotton Belt
6597:Washington
6486:Puerto Rico
6396:New Mexico
6364:New Jersey
6211:aquaculture
6034:Connecticut
5943:aquaculture
5339:East Boston
5023:Ozawa v. US
4852:Visa policy
4817:DACA (2012)
4093:tomlehrer.
3596:j.ctvss3xzr
3553:j.ctv3f8ns4
3508:December 5,
2614:j.ctvcwn55d
2549:December 9,
2281:December 2,
2255:October 11,
2174:Maquiladora
2112:Smithsonian
1987:el cortito,
1850:summer jobs
1727:August 2017
1651:1943 strike
954:farmworkers
902:conceded a
894:vetoed the
752:farmworkers
632:Los Angeles
459:Castro 2020
447:Abolish ICE
100:Los Angeles
7078:Categories
6991:Dude ranch
6850:Health and
6716:Fruit Belt
6537:Tennessee
6279:Minnesota
6197:Louisiana
5990:California
5797:Industries
5760:Sheep wars
5571:NumbersUSA
5373:Operations
5354:San Ysidro
5114:and events
4941:Government
4416:1232500309
3866:(4): 851.
3631:August 24,
2494:August 27,
2132:California
2081:braceros".
2067:Tom Lehrer
1886:headed by
1872:Protestant
1585:California
896:U.S. House
799:H-2A visas
756:sanitation
719:(from the
637:Michigan (
402:Quinto Sol
302:Chicanismo
232:La Matanza
167:Sonoratown
157:Mutualista
6976:Corn maze
6945:H-2A visa
6806:Farm bill
6721:Rice Belt
6706:Corn Belt
6689:By region
6623:Wisconsin
6572:Virginia
6448:Oklahoma
6329:Nebraska
6299:Missouri
6259:Michigan
6136:Illinois
6050:Delaware
5974:Arkansas
5755:Range war
5349:Otay Mesa
5228:Geography
4914:Detention
4321:906878123
4175:241413991
4126:April 26,
4080:144835225
4064:0009-7101
4023:March 16,
3997:March 16,
3966:0006-4246
3919:0037-7791
3841:143986760
3833:1936-4725
3745:March 30,
3604:241262377
3445:(3): 125.
3426:(3): 126.
3275:1067-4993
2414:1945-7782
2351:0002-8282
2307:March 17,
2200:Footnotes
2035:Phil Ochs
2022:'s poem "
1840:Aftermath
1247:(30,000)
1196:(30,000)
1170:(30,000)
1144:(30,000)
1118:(30,000)
1092:(44,600)
1066:(44,600)
1014:(44,600)
916:H-2A visa
828:lynchings
623:Arizona (
617:by region
185:Juan Crow
6769:politics
6663:cannabis
6653:cannabis
6639:Wyoming
6601:cannabis
6591:Cannabis
6576:cannabis
6561:cannabis
6557:Vermont
6506:cannabis
6491:Cannabis
6467:cannabis
6400:cannabis
6385:cannabis
6380:New York
6368:cannabis
6343:cannabis
6318:cannabis
6314:Montana
6303:cannabis
6268:cherries
6263:cannabis
6248:cannabis
6233:cannabis
6228:Maryland
6216:cannabis
6186:Kentucky
6140:cannabis
6087:Georgia
6054:cannabis
6039:cannabis
6027:cannabis
6017:Colorado
6000:cannabis
5968:cannabis
5959:Arizona
5948:cannabis
5819:Cannabis
5777:Colonial
5711:Virginia
5167:Coyotaje
4899:E-Verify
4889:US-VISIT
4237:14819771
4167:97049865
4072:20484414
3974:41066045
3283:41102104
3241:16762793
3214:16762793
3187:16762793
2980:(2012).
2785:21493932
2729:Archived
2369:30008480
2158:See also
2140:Michigan
2060:bracero-
2048:bracero.
2028:braceros
1983:braceros
1916:braceros
1880:braceros
1581:Lawsuits
1552:179,298
1538:186,000
1524:198,322
1498:296,464
1472:319,412
1458:437,000
1432:432,491
1418:436,049
1404:445,197
1378:398,650
1352:309,033
1326:201,380
1312:197,100
1286:192,000
1270:1948–50
890:whereas
7006:Portals
6767:Law and
6458:Oregon
6339:Nevada
6175:Kansas
6152:Indiana
6066:Florida
6005:walnuts
5995:almonds
5926:Alabama
5891:Tobacco
5876:Spinach
5866:Poultry
5767:Slavery
5654:History
5142:Effects
4280:4492180
4203:2330552
3880:3053955
3813:Society
3792:May 12,
2846:4492180
2809:July 6,
2776:3093266
2360:6040835
2128:Arizona
2071:Senator
1972:A 1980
1908:bracero
1876:bracero
1855:strikes
1557:Pub. L.
1503:Pub. L.
1477:Pub. L.
1437:Pub. L.
1383:Pub. L.
1357:Pub. L.
1331:Pub. L.
1291:Pub. L.
1252:Pub. L.
1201:Pub. L.
1175:Pub. L.
1149:Pub. L.
1123:Pub. L.
1097:Pub. L.
1071:Pub. L.
1045:Pub. L.
1040:62,170
1019:Pub. L.
786:by the
772:Pub. L.
725:bracero
721:Spanish
655:Houston
639:Detroit
102:in 1942
54:Please
18:Bracero
7044:Mexico
6986:Cowboy
6669:Texas
6496:Coffee
6207:Maine
6103:coffee
6098:Hawaii
6076:tomato
5938:Alaska
5846:Cotton
5831:Cherry
5804:Banana
5095:(2021)
5087:(2021)
5080:(2020)
5065:(2020)
5057:(2011)
5050:(2001)
5041:(1975)
5033:(1923)
5025:(1922)
5017:(1898)
4965:BORTAC
4919:Family
4872:Asylum
4433:, the
4414:
4319:
4309:
4278:
4235:
4201:
4173:
4165:
4155:
4078:
4070:
4062:
3972:
3964:
3927:800182
3925:
3917:
3878:
3839:
3831:
3602:
3594:
3584:
3551:
3541:
3501:
3491:
3281:
3273:
3239:
3212:
3185:
2930:(1996)
2917:(2005)
2904:(2005)
2884:(2005)
2844:
2783:
2773:
2612:
2602:
2487:
2477:
2448:
2412:
2367:
2357:
2349:
2228:
2146:, and
2144:Nevada
1949:, and
1565:88–203
1563:
1511:87–345
1509:
1485:86–783
1483:
1445:85–779
1443:
1391:84–319
1389:
1365:83–309
1363:
1339:83–237
1337:
1297:
1260:80–893
1258:
1209:80–298
1207:
1183:80–131
1181:
1155:
1129:
1105:79–731
1103:
1079:79–269
1077:
1053:78–229
1051:
1025:
1000:4,203
778:
748:Mexico
625:Tucson
505:Xicanx
282:Aztlán
6981:Ranch
6969:Other
6922:Labor
6895:Crime
6649:Guam
6628:dairy
6547:Utah
6438:Ohio
6405:chile
6125:Idaho
6108:sugar
6081:mango
5903:Wheat
5881:Sugar
5856:Dairy
5851:Cider
4276:JSTOR
4076:S2CID
4068:JSTOR
3970:JSTOR
3923:JSTOR
3876:JSTOR
3837:S2CID
3600:S2CID
3592:JSTOR
3549:JSTOR
3499:JSTOR
3279:JSTOR
2842:JSTOR
2698:USCIS
2610:JSTOR
2485:JSTOR
2148:Texas
2136:Idaho
1549:1964
1535:1963
1521:1962
1495:1961
1469:1960
1455:1959
1429:1958
1415:1957
1401:1956
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