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205:, considered Bloom "the first Abstract Expressionist artist in America." Yet Bloom never embraced pure abstraction and, to varying degrees, Bloom, Levine, and Zerbe also painted figuratively, which is why their school of painting, in particular, is sometimes referred to as "Boston figurative expressionism."
479:, were moving in a different direction: not just distorting figures for expressive purposes, but eschewing figuration altogether. Neglected at home and out of step with New York, Boston Expressionism fell out of favor in the 1960s and received little attention from art historians in the succeeding decades.
468:'s Downtown Gallery in New York. In 1945, Adlow wrote, "Until a few years ago, Boston was artistically moribund...In the last dozen years, however, there has been an upsurge in Boston art life. A pronounced superiority in technical skill and a zestful creative buoyancy have attracted widespread interest."
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Chaet (1980), pp. 26, 29. "True, works by Zerbe, Bloom, and Levine were accepted within a very small circle of collectors in Boston...but I knew first hand that the younger artists exhibiting in Boston in the forties who were influenced by many 'modern' sources were accused of distorting traditional
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Art critic Robert Taylor, writing in 1979, suggested that the "Boston attitudes" derived from Bloom's and Levine's religious background. Having received their early art instruction in a religious community center, he reasoned, it was not surprising that their work would evince a certain respect for
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establishment and its emphasis on traditional techniques. Looking back on his days there, Arthur
Polonsky recalled an unspoken agreement among his classmates that there was something missing from the "academic" paintings of the Boston School, on the one hand, and the sterile "geometric purism" of
404:
According to art historian Judith
Bookbinder, "Boston figurative expressionism was both a humanist philosophy—that is, a human-centered and rationalist or classically oriented philosophy—and a formal approach to the handling of paint and space." Pamela Edwards Allara of the Fine Arts
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of Europe as well as anatomy and perspective. There was a strong emphasis on drawing. As their skills developed, many students adopted a figurative approach with the understanding that an artist was not a reporter. "We tormented the subject matter," Polonsky said. Many of their paintings were
212:, treating the paint itself, and not just its color, as a meaningful element. Known for their experimentation with new media, they were also known for their interest in methodology through the ages, thus Zerbe, for example, helped revive the ancient Egyptian medium of
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The rejection for the past ten years of naturalism or realism...has been so complete that gifted artists of a more representational persuasion, such as Ben Shahn, Jack Levine, Hyman Bloom, or Andrew Wyeth, seem like curiosities surviving from an almost forgotten
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tradition and discipline. Conversely, art historian Alfred Werner suggested in 1973 that Jewish immigrants fleeing oppression were freer to embrace modernism than other
Americans because they were "less chained to a genteel tradition".
227:(1938), with its hint of danger and corruption, is an example of Levine's characteristic themes and of the painterly brushwork and distorted yet skillfully rendered figures that were characteristic of Boston Expressionism.
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Taylor (1979). "The 40s and 50s...saw the first indigenous style to emerge here this century—Boston
Expressionism—a style generally dismissed by art historians of the '60s and '70s as backward-looking
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Bloom, Levine, and Zerbe influenced a second generation of painters, many of them first- or second-generation Jewish immigrants, and many of them students of Zerbe's at the museum school. In a 1947 photo taken by
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exhibition at MoMA, where they elicited both praise and indignation. One Boston critic denounced "The Last Supper" as "a footboard for the devil's bed". Aronson went on to direct the Fine Art
Department at
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calls Boston
Expressionism a belief system created in context: "It is the evidence of a consistent set of assumptions about the function of art, which has been molded by the city's cultural climate."
448:
In the forties, thanks in large part to Bloom and Levine and their New York successes, and to Zerbe's influence on his students, the art scene in Boston began to open up. National magazines such as
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In the 1930s, Boston was notoriously conservative when it came to the arts. Even slight abstraction or imaginative use of color was unacceptable to most Boston critics and collectors, including the
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were still seen as cutting-edge. In this atmosphere, modern artists in Boston received little encouragement locally, and had to look to New York for support. A few notable exceptions were the
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More recently, Boston-area exhibitions and the publication of several books and articles have generated some renewed interest. In 2005, Judith
Bookbinder published a book on the subject,
118:. Bloom tended to explore spiritual themes, while Levine was more inclined toward social commentary and dark humor, but both came to prominence in 1942 when they were included in
182:
By the early 1950s, Bloom, Levine, and Zerbe and the artists they influenced had been dubbed the Boston
Expressionists. Confusingly, they were also sometimes referred to as the
1027:
396:, who had ties to Boston, and whose return to representational art in the 1970s was a source of controversy, is often mentioned in connection with Boston Expressionism.
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Each of these three artists had his own style, yet they shared certain tendencies. They did not paint directly from observation, but from memory and imagination; as
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put it, they favored "the conceptual over the perceptual". Like the
Abstract Expressionists, they rejected the photographic naturalism preferred by the Nazis; and,
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some newer artists on the other. Bloom, Levine, and Zerbe helped many of them find an alternative path. Zerbe introduced them not only to German artists such as
166:. Zerbe helped reinvigorate the staid Boston art scene by bringing European ideas, particularly those of the German Expressionists, to Boston. He arranged for
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One of the most successful artists to emerge from this group was David
Aronson. In 1946 his "Trinity" and "The Last Supper" were included in Dorothy Miller's
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Hyman Bloom and Jack Levine, both key figures in the movement, shared similar roots. Both grew up in immigrant communities: Bloom in the slums of Boston's
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Another influential artist at the time was Karl Zerbe, a painter from Germany who had studied in Italy and whose early work had been condemned by the
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The kind of paintings Hitler liked were monumental portraits of German gods rendered with photographic naturalism. Reality was what you saw, not felt
20:
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may have been a factor, given that the Boston Expressionists were predominantly Jewish. At the same time, the New York painters, influenced by the
19:
is an arts movement marked by emotional directness, dark humor, social and spiritual themes, and a tendency toward figuration strong enough that
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concerned with human suffering, rendered without the cool, ironic detachment that later seemed to become obligatory in treating such subjects.
53:, Boston Expressionism is also heavily associated with virtuoso technical skills and the revival of old master technique. The work of sculptor
471:
Despite these developments, many Boston collectors remained suspicious of modern art, and the Museum of Fine Arts remained unsupportive.
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Most commonly associated with emotionality, and the bold color choices and expressive brushwork of painters central to the movement like
223:(1945) is an example of one of his more abstract works, barely suggesting the appearance of the original object by its shape. Levine's
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Back in the 1940s, Boston was a hotbed for modern art...Hyman Bloom and Jack Levine dominated the Boston art scene at the time.
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The three, like the movement as a whole, were known for their technical expertise. Like the Abstract Expressionists, they were
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106:. Both also drew on their Eastern European Jewish heritage, and were strongly influenced by the "starkness and angst" of
288:," taken in 1950, and adds, "But the true 'irascibles' were the Boston artists.") Other artists in this group included
162:". Zerbe emigrated to the United States in 1934, settling in Boston where he headed the Department of Painting at the
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38:, Massachusetts, in the 1930s, continues in a third-wave form today, and flourished most markedly in the 1950s–70s.
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magazine called Bloom "one of the most striking of U.S. Colorists," and Levine won a prize at an exhibit in the
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344:. At the same time they continued to follow a rigorous program of traditional art education, studying the
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art critic Cate McQuaid wrote, "Boston Expressionism has always been luscious, bright, and deeply felt."
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To some extent, many of these young artists were outsiders at the museum school, with its links to the
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518:, maintains a large collection of Boston Expressionist art. Reviewing a 2011 exhibit at the Danforth,
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Chaet, Bernard (1980). "The Boston Expressionist School: A Painter's Recollections of the Forties".
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Tonelli, Edith (1990). "The Avant-Garde in Boston: The Experiment of the WPA Federal Art Project".
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Chaet called Bloom the link between Boston Expressionism and Abstract Expressionism. Bloom's
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Chaet (1980), p. 29. "The Museum of Fine Arts had a hands-off policy toward modern art."
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1471:"Love Made Visible by Jean Gibran: A Complex Book on Her Husband Kahlil Gibran"
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and by the immigrant, and often Jewish, experience, the movement originated in
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art classes as children, both won fine arts scholarships and trained at the
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Goodhue, Laura (2005). "Chapter 5: The German Artists Revitalize Boston".
845:"Portrait of the Artist as His Own Father: Gabriel Polonsky's Documentary"
280:. (In her memoir, Jean Gibran noted the photo's resemblance to the iconic
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in New York. Together, they were referred to as "the bad boys of Boston."
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Creative Expressionism: An Imminent Clash as Experienced by Three Artists
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1182:"Oral history interview with Arthur Polonsky, 1972 Apr. 12–May 21"
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608:"Boston Expressionists: They marched to the beat of a different drummer"
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978:"Waxing Poetic: Encaustic Art in America during the Twentieth Century"
905:. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 3, 5, 13.
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209:
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Capasso, Nicholas (2002). "Expressionism: Boston's Claim to Fame".
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1231:"Against The Grain: The Second Generation of Boston Expressionism"
757:"The Expressive Voice: Selections from the Permanent Collection"
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Boston Modern: Figurative Expressionism as Alternative Modernism
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Boston Modern: Figurative Expressionism as Alternative Modernism
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35:
496:, is currently in production. Jean Gibran, wife of the artist
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is sometimes used as an alternate term to distinguish it from
549:. Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire Press. p. 3.
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Boston Expressionism at the Danforth Museum, Framingham, MA
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Gibran, Jean; French, Katherine; Giuliano, Charles (2014).
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Boston Expressionism: Hyman Bloom, Jack Levine, Karl Zerbe
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Origins of Boston Expressionism: The Artists' Perspective
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opened on Newbury Street, and hosted exchange shows with
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Later artists influenced by Boston Expressionism include
1338:"Despite Gaps, Exhibit Shows Boston's Vigor in the '40s"
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Love Made Visible: Scenes from a Mostly Happy Marriage
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Love Made Visible: Scenes from a Mostly Happy Marriage
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in the 1950s, is sometimes included in this category.
1544:, by Nicholas Capasso. Essay originally published in
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Boston Expressionism at the Childs Gallery, Boston MA
445:, who supported the movement from its earliest days.
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Werner, Alfred (November 1973). "Ghetto Graduates".
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1511:. Lincoln, MA: DeCordova and Dana Museum and Park.
1502:. Boston, MA: Institute of Contemporary Art. 1979.
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369:, and his work is widely exhibited and collected.
216:, a mixture of pigment and hot wax, in the 1940s.
110:and by then contemporary Jewish painters, such as
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1229:University of New Hampshire Art Gallery (2000).
1035:. Danforth Art Museum. p. 7. Archived from
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486:. Angelica Brisk's 2009 documentary on Bloom,
316:, who directed the Department of Fine Arts at
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688:"Art in New York: Trickery Without Gimmickry"
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1419:(1960). "Painting in Contemporary America".
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1061:"Kahlil Gibran / Sculptor WikiPhotos pages"
1009:"Jack Levine: Farewell to a Great Satirist"
787:"The rhetoric changes, yet the art endures"
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1110:. Northampton, MA: Interlink Publishing.
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651:(1). The Smithsonian Institution: 25–30.
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619:from the original on 18 September 2016
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336:, but also to Mexican artists such as
150:"Street Scene #2" by Jack Levine, 1938
65:'s early work exemplifies the latter.
1542:Expressionism: Boston’s Claim to Fame
1452:"Revelations about a reticent artist"
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1198:Bookbinder (2005), pp. 193–195.
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583:"Boston Expressionists get their due"
312:, Lois Tarlow, and Arnold Trachtman.
77:"Christmas Tree" by Hyman Bloom, 1945
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926:Robb, Christina (17 December 1978).
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1469:Giuliano, Charles (July 27, 2014).
1450:Smee, Sebastian (3 November 2010).
1335:McQuaid, Cate (18 September 2002).
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1235:Traditional Fine Arts Organization
982:Traditional Fine Arts Organization
605:Taylor, Robert (14 January 1979).
581:McQuaid, Cate (27 December 2011).
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1029:Arthur Polonsky: A Thief of Light
940:from the original on 30 July 2017
868:. Boston College. pp. 47–48.
248:, Zerbe is pictured with artists
178:The Early "Boston Expressionists"
164:School of the Museum of Fine Arts
1507:Thompson, Dorothy Abbot (1986).
1285:Archives of American Art Journal
645:Archives of American Art Journal
94:. In the 1930s, having attended
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1007:Hicks, Bob (10 November 2010).
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201:, who had seen Bloom's work in
21:Boston Figurative Expressionism
694:: 54 – via Google Books.
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1:
1546:Painting in Boston: 1950-2000
1088:. Smithsonian. Archived from
902:Painting in Boston: 1950-2000
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425:, and impressionists such as
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242:Thirty Massachusetts Painters
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1533:Boston Expressionism at the
1394:Foreword by Charles Giuliano
929:"The Paintings Hitler Hated"
785:Hamill, Pete (6 July 2003).
686:Gruen, John (Feb 10, 1969).
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27:, with which it overlapped.
7:
543:Bookbinder, Judith (2005).
82:Hyman Bloom and Jack Levine
10:
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1297:10.1086/aaa.30.1_4.1557640
1207:Bookbinder (2005), p. 247.
1171:Bookbinder (2005), p. 194.
1026:French, Katherine (2009).
1086:National Portrait Gallery
725:"Jack Levine (1915–2010)"
516:Framingham, Massachusetts
300:, Reed Kay, Jack Kramer,
68:
1186:Archives of American Art
1130:Bookbinder (2005), p. 5.
1082:"Massachusetts Painters"
976:Stavitsky, Gail (1999).
657:10.1086/aaa.20.1.1557495
488:The Beauty of All Things
1577:Jewish-American history
1421:The Burlington Magazine
984:. Montclair Art Museum.
729:The Phillips Collection
707:"Hyman Bloom Paintings"
246:Institute of Modern Art
30:Strongly influenced by
1572:American art movements
1417:Hamilton, George Heard
1144:"Boston Expressionism"
439:Busch-Reisinger Museum
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126:exhibition curated by
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25:abstract expressionism
823:"Unfinished business"
441:, and the art critic
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1582:Boston expressionism
1250:American Art Journal
966:Chaet (1980), p. 28.
808:Chaet (1980), p. 26.
462:Boris Mirski Gallery
264:, Thomas Fransioli,
124:Museum of Modern Art
108:German Expressionism
32:German Expressionism
17:Boston Expressionism
1475:Berkshire Fine Arts
1370:Bookbinder (2005),
994:Bookbinder (2005),
821:(11 October 2009).
761:Danforth Art Museum
713:. St. Botolph Club.
705:Thompson, Dorothy.
493:Release from Reason
423:Museum of Fine Arts
376:, Gerry Bergstein,
318:Brandeis University
284:magazine photo of "
136:Metropolitan Museum
1063:. Kahlilgibran.org
843:Pleshaw, Hartley.
362:Fourteen Americans
358:
304:, Henry Schwartz,
278:Lawrence Kupferman
244:exhibition at the
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130:. Soon afterward,
90:and Levine in the
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1587:Culture of Boston
791:Los Angeles Times
692:New York Magazine
460:took notice. The
427:Edmund C. Tarbell
388:, Jane Smaldone,
367:Boston University
231:Later Generations
195:Willem de Kooning
61:found in some of
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314:Mitchell Siporin
260:, John Northey,
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