838:
3195:
2633:
2268:
1158:
2257:
2800:
1397:
7323:
9172:
8777:
7822:
6718:
601:
1804:
2459:
1368:
8801:
6742:
1351:
9160:
3054:
2213:, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 10 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.
2145:
2027:
2509:
3120:
3013:
8813:
2137:
8789:
7834:
6730:
987:
74:
2990:. This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or
2572:
with certain other nitrogenous bases in a complementary strand of nucleic acid. Adenine binds with thymine and uracil, thymine binds only with adenine, and cytosine and guanine can bind only with one another. Adenine, thymine, and uracil contain two hydrogen bonds, while hydrogen bonds formed between
2385:
can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid
2939:
molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any
2934:
are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional
2994:
in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides. The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the
2584:(ATP), the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms. Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA.
3320:
that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied
2236:
is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the
1777:. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety forms a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose.
2871:(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: oxidized form) to NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: reduced form). This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to
860:
At its most comprehensive definition, biochemistry can be seen as a study of the components and composition of living things and how they come together to become life. In this sense, the history of biochemistry may therefore go back as far as the
4597:
Edwards, Karen J.; Brown, David G.; Spink, Neil; Skelly, Jane V.; Neidle, Stephen (1992). "Molecular structure of the B-DNA dodecamer d(CGCAAATTTGCG)2 an examination of propeller twist and minor-groove water structure at 2·2Åresolution".
1030:. However, the Wöhler synthesis has sparked controversy as some reject the death of vitalism at his hands. Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as
2289:
can be used to form all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can synthesize only half of them. They cannot synthesize
3494:
Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits. Glucose and sucrose are also found in varying quantities in various fruits, and sometimes exceed the fructose present. For example, 32% of the edible portion of a
869:
began sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier, depending on which aspect of biochemistry is being focused on. Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first
3254:. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are applications of biochemistry. Biochemistry studies life at the atomic and molecular level.
2544:
and the sugar of each nucleotide bond with each other to form the backbone of the nucleic acid, while the sequence of nitrogenous bases stores the information. The most common nitrogenous bases are
3532:
2922:
as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an
2401:
ion (NH4+) in blood, is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different tactics have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs.
2172:
ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be
2180:
are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. Antibodies are composed of heavy and light chains. Two heavy chains would be linked to two light chains through
1988:(PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, the final degradation products of fats and lipids. Lipids, especially
8851:
2416:
In order to determine whether two proteins are related, or in other words to decide whether they are homologous or not, scientists use sequence-comparison methods. Methods like
2191:(ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the
7807:
5457:
4335:
1428:
is a carbohydrate, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and
944:
The term "biochemistry" was first used when
Vinzenz Kletzinsky (1826–1882) had his "Compendium der Biochemie" printed in Vienna in 1858; it derived from a combination of
2940:
oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.
5022:
3429:
3302:, despite being oversimplified, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This concept has been revised in light of emerging novel roles for
4908:
4876:
4844:
4391:
2253:
is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit.
731:. They provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends upon the reactions of small
3209:
Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields of
1646:
during which a molecule of water is released. The reverse reaction in which the glycosidic bond of a disaccharide is broken into two monosaccharides is termed
680:. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all
9009:
9004:
4628:
4780:
8844:
819:
to manipulate living systems in order to produce useful tools for research, industrial processes, and diagnosis and control of disease—the discipline of
2224:
is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study of structure). Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an
2220:
of a protein consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-...".
925:. Many other pioneers in the field who helped to uncover the layers of complexity of biochemistry have been proclaimed founders of modern biochemistry.
8966:
2615:
removes glucose residues from glycogen, a polysaccharide). Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.
684:
are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis which allows
3355:
3294:
is the study of molecular underpinnings of the biological phenomena, focusing on molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms and interactions. The
2632:
1254:
for a complete list). In addition to the six major elements that compose most of the human body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more.
4038:
3524:
7872:
1043:
1781:
does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).
8837:
5406:
632:
1613:
may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called
8996:
6780:
5829:
5777:
7973:
2966:, converting glucose to lactate. The combination of glucose from noncarbohydrates origin, such as fat and proteins. This only happens when
5501:
3884:
3262:
is the study of the effect of genetic differences in organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one
1004:") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life. In 1828,
7978:
5569:
5116:
4812:
4582:
894:
in cell-free extracts in 1897 to be the birth of biochemistry. Some might also point as its beginning to the influential 1842 work by
7246:
2926:
transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (
2285:
and then absorbed. They can then be joined to form new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the
2374:, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.
7312:
972:(Journal of Physiological Chemistry) where he argued for the setting up of institutes dedicated to this field of study. The German
5773:
5418:
2073:. It is this "R" group that makes each amino acid different, and the properties of the side chains greatly influence the overall
968:
7956:
7279:
2512:
Structural elements of common nucleic acid constituents. Because they contain at least one phosphate group, the compounds marked
4319:
837:
9101:
8000:
7488:
6584:
2753:
1000:
It was once generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the "
3194:
2962:(during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to
9024:
9019:
7241:
5563:
5542:
5511:
5479:
5400:
5365:
5344:
5321:
5289:
5257:
5191:
5159:
5110:
5085:
5016:
4966:
4934:
4902:
4870:
4838:
4806:
4774:
4753:
4721:
4638:
4576:
4518:
4497:
4476:
4385:
4273:
2432:. By finding how similar two protein sequences are, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.
2428:
between related molecules. The relevance of finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming an evolutionary pattern of
1138:
849:
17:
5485:
5371:
5295:
5263:
5165:
4940:
4727:
4694:
3954:
8012:
7951:
7045:
6433:
404:
8941:
8896:
7865:
1916:
5673:"Knowledge as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Knowledge"
2069:, and a side chain commonly denoted as "–R". The side chain "R" is different for each amino acid of which there are 20
9126:
9066:
9039:
6573:
4690:
Outlines of Cosmic
Philosophy Based on the Doctrines of Evolution, with Criticisms on the Positive Philosophy, Volume 1
3424:
3295:
2409:
can release ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert ammonia into urea, via the
2101:
of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a
625:
8991:
8951:
8876:
6773:
5822:
5656:
5646:
5636:
5620:
4329:
3181:
3163:
3101:
3040:
2868:
2841:
steps 7 and 10 produce ATP. Since steps 6–10 occur twice per glucose molecule, this leads to a net production of ATP.
2607:
Glucose is an energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers by
2188:
4976:
Kauffman, George B.; Chooljian, Steven H. (2001). "Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), on the
Bicentennial of His Birth".
3145:
3083:
2883:). Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.
2184:
between their amino acids. Antibodies are specific through variation based on differences in the N-terminal domain.
9061:
8979:
8974:
3233:. This is shown in the following schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationships between the fields:
1039:
8817:
7797:
7519:
6388:
5731:
5671:
Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M.; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017).
4644:
359:
815:. In recent decades, biochemical principles and methods have been combined with problem-solving approaches from
8696:
7858:
7838:
7802:
6507:
4764:
3394:
3130:
3079:
2739:
1114:
89:
38:
2393:
A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free
1617:. The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called
9121:
9111:
8936:
8931:
8139:
7893:
7646:
7413:
6734:
3075:
3026:
1706:
1251:
1166:
618:
5788:
5611:
8986:
8946:
6766:
6518:
5815:
5203:"Challenges and Perspectives of Chemical Biology, a Successful Multidisciplinary Field of Natural Sciences"
3414:
2927:
1953:
In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.
9034:
9029:
8926:
8911:
8416:
7903:
7636:
7272:
6540:
6488:
5967:
3360:
2963:
2140:
Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined as a dipeptide
1420:
Two of the main functions of carbohydrates are energy storage and providing structure. One of the common
585:
530:
459:
5750:
1900:(with a cyclic and planar structure) while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.
9202:
9150:
9086:
9056:
8793:
8342:
8313:
8293:
8246:
7493:
6529:
6418:
2676:
2669:
2074:
1985:
389:
3134:. Section defines relationships between disciplines without citing any sources from those disciplines.
2267:
7931:
7307:
6423:
6368:
5387:
3409:
2923:
2746:
2662:
2286:
1433:
934:
394:
339:
3225:
required for biological activity of molecules, molecular biology studies their biological activity,
1058:
simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and
8921:
8891:
8686:
8602:
8241:
7663:
7342:
7302:
6398:
3419:
3064:
2725:
2201:
2070:
800:
369:
1161:
The main elements that compose the human body shown from most abundant (by mass) to least abundant
913:, which presented a chemical theory of metabolism, or even earlier to the 18th century studies on
9076:
9051:
8886:
8881:
8624:
8535:
8498:
8382:
8308:
8129:
8112:
8055:
7559:
7337:
6698:
6562:
6463:
5933:
3343:
3141:
3068:
2767:
2760:
2683:
2598:
2377:
If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-
2077:
of a protein. Some amino acids have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance,
963:
832:
496:
434:
99:
94:
6789:
1605:, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the carbon-carbon
9197:
9106:
9091:
8542:
8530:
8421:
8286:
8060:
7926:
7826:
7731:
7716:
7544:
7438:
7418:
7265:
6855:
6597:
6478:
6428:
5972:
5517:
4458:
3389:
2899:, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to
2864:
2831:
2612:
2581:
1993:
1047:
535:
449:
399:
31:
5553:
5311:
5181:
5006:
4487:
2164:
Proteins can have structural and/or functional roles. For instance, movements of the proteins
9192:
8961:
8901:
8691:
8588:
8573:
8503:
8426:
8258:
8208:
8117:
8042:
7941:
6940:
6915:
6895:
6722:
6473:
6325:
6303:
6246:
5977:
5898:
5853:
5625:
Keith
Roberts, Martin Raff, Bruce Alberts, Peter Walter, Julian Lewis and Alexander Johnson,
5589:
5096:
5075:
4892:
4860:
4828:
4796:
4743:
4375:
2930:
in eukaryotes). Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD and
2915:, producing two molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via
2533:
2463:
866:
681:
605:
540:
444:
298:
276:
219:
5131:
Nielsen, Forrest H. (1999). "Ultratrace minerals". In
Maurice E. Shils; et al. (eds.).
4566:
4508:
1942:("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them
1199:) are not used. Most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between
9131:
9116:
9081:
9071:
8916:
8681:
8636:
8411:
8231:
8161:
7918:
7898:
7756:
7619:
7483:
7433:
7160:
6970:
6920:
6551:
6393:
6373:
5962:
5873:
5684:
5183:
Women in
Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century
4464:
4419:
3930:
3860:
3370:
2655:
2421:
2323:
2250:
2090:
1930:
character and are largely nonpolar. In general, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or
1643:
1305:
926:
918:
891:
760:
525:
364:
344:
4742:
Krebs, Jocelyn E.; Goldstein, Elliott S.; Lewin, Benjamin; Kilpatrick, Stephen T. (2012).
711:
Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions, and interactions of biological
30:"Biological chemistry" and "Physiological chemistry" redirect here. For the journals, see
8:
9096:
9046:
8956:
8906:
8704:
8658:
8583:
8556:
8454:
8436:
8389:
8327:
8223:
8203:
8072:
8067:
7968:
7641:
7624:
7604:
7584:
7075:
6945:
6408:
5940:
5883:
5878:
3365:
3330:
3270:" – organisms that lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "
2859:, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of
2732:
2704:
2648:
2482:
2246:
2221:
2126:
1840:
1681:
1543:
1309:
1051:
792:
580:
503:
379:
154:
48:
8829:
5688:
5050:
4468:
4423:
3934:
3864:
3002:
2216:
The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The
1250:—make up almost 99% of the mass of living cells, including those in the human body (see
1015:
1005:
8781:
8747:
8609:
8578:
8459:
8401:
8099:
8082:
8077:
8032:
7995:
7985:
7946:
7651:
7397:
7236:
7190:
7170:
7155:
6980:
6975:
6358:
6061:
6045:
6020:
6015:
5952:
5893:
5707:
5672:
5531:
5449:
5229:
5202:
5062:
4993:
4553:
4445:
4218:
4193:
4032:
3469:
3454:
3449:
2892:
2697:
2690:
2417:
2233:
1074:(citric acid cycle), and led to an understanding of biochemistry on a molecular level.
1055:
953:
669:
515:
3137:
9207:
8800:
8762:
8727:
8710:
8648:
8566:
8561:
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8474:
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8365:
8332:
8303:
8298:
8273:
8263:
8183:
8171:
8050:
7963:
7776:
7771:
7726:
7549:
7423:
7175:
7055:
6910:
6741:
6673:
6453:
6448:
6443:
6378:
6143:
6030:
5918:
5888:
5712:
5652:
5642:
5632:
5616:
5559:
5538:
5507:
5475:
5441:
5396:
5361:
5340:
5317:
5285:
5253:
5234:
5187:
5180:
Rayner-Canham, Marelene F.; Rayner-Canham, Marelene; Rayner-Canham, Geoffrey (2005).
5155:
5106:
5098:
Environmental
Science – Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the Earth's Natural Capital
5081:
5054:
5012:
4962:
4930:
4898:
4866:
4834:
4802:
4770:
4749:
4717:
4675:
4634:
4615:
4611:
4572:
4545:
4514:
4493:
4472:
4437:
4381:
4325:
4223:
4157:
3946:
3876:
3444:
3214:
3203:
3032:
2912:
2852:
2805:
2481:. They are complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecules that can convey
2425:
2281:
Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the
2261:
2217:
2210:
2196:
2181:
2130:
1176:
1090:
1059:
1035:
1027:
1019:
941:
and the dynamic nature of biochemistry, represent two examples of early biochemists.
922:
901:
895:
768:
701:
481:
424:
419:
414:
349:
5453:
4997:
4557:
2982:
usually occur when those suffer from starvation or certain endocrine disorders. The
1923:
in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).
1157:
9176:
8805:
8722:
8377:
8236:
8213:
8166:
8107:
7706:
7673:
7428:
6900:
6746:
6619:
6438:
6413:
5928:
5745:
5702:
5692:
5433:
5333:
5224:
5214:
5201:
Rojas-Ruiz, Fernando A.; Vargas-Méndez, Leonor Y.; Kouznetsov, Vladimir V. (2011).
5136:
5102:
5066:
5046:
4985:
4665:
4607:
4537:
4449:
4427:
4213:
4205:
3938:
3868:
3404:
3311:
2577:
2565:
2537:
2490:
2082:
1934:("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like
1142:
1126:
1101:
and suggesting its relationship with the genetic transfer of information. In 1958,
1023:
980:
752:
693:
653:
491:
409:
384:
4265:
3221:. There is not a defined line between these disciplines. Biochemistry studies the
2867:, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents of converting
1749:
of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain
1550:
form. The open-chain form can be turned into a ring of carbon atoms bridged by an
979:
however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to
8663:
8619:
8614:
8508:
8484:
8318:
8281:
8134:
8124:
8007:
7539:
7534:
7524:
7185:
7150:
6608:
6483:
5697:
5526:
5469:
5437:
5355:
5279:
5247:
5151:
Marks' Basic
Medical Biochemistry (Lieberman, Marks's Basic Medical Biochemistry)
5149:
4956:
4924:
4711:
4688:
2987:
2974:
from pyruvate to glucose and can use many sources like amino acids, glycerol and
2959:
2949:
2781:
2541:
2282:
2058:
1689:
1629:
1547:
1170:
1146:
1118:
1094:
1082:
1001:
697:
454:
126:
5593:
5008:
The Roots of Modern
Biochemistry: Fritz Lippmann's Squiggle and its Consequences
4528:
Sen, Chandan K.; Roy, Sashwati (2007). "MiRNA: Licensed to Kill the
Messenger".
2576:
Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as
1026:; some regarded that as a direct overthrow of vitalism and the establishment of
799:. Nutrition studies how to maintain health and wellness and also the effects of
9164:
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1406:
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as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to
689:
520:
429:
374:
5584:
Ashcroft, Steve. "Professor Sir Philip Randle; Researcher into metabolism: ".
5219:
3848:
3503:
contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) or glucose (1.47%).
3242:
is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in live
2199:
of the reaction. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called
1308:. Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for
9186:
8752:
8641:
8597:
8322:
8156:
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7609:
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5665:
From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical Discipline
3950:
3880:
3872:
3283:
2911:. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the
2470:
2307:
2256:
2107:, and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) are called
2066:
1981:
1946:
molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of
1911:, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three
1762:
1687:
When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an
1618:
1614:
1341:
1297:
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are relatively small macromolecules that are linked together to create large
1102:
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883:
820:
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439:
312:
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236:
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4862:
Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life: An Exploration of Scientific Creativity
2195:. Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the
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2602:
2474:
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2406:
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2122:
2114:
2086:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1961:
1908:
1873:
1869:
1836:
1824:
1816:
1746:
1638:
1386:
1329:
1321:
1285:
1273:
1211:, but land plants and animals do not seem to need any. All animals require
1106:
1077:
Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the
976:
914:
812:
724:
720:
550:
545:
508:
486:
354:
5058:
4989:
4619:
4541:
3298:, where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into
1773:
form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full
1761:). If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free
8865:
8027:
7751:
7741:
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7215:
7210:
7180:
7135:
7080:
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7005:
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supplies in the liver are worn out. The pathway is a crucial reversal of
2872:
2402:
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1947:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1920:
1808:
1606:
1523:
1515:
1429:
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1263:
1110:
1081:, and its role in the transfer of information in the cell. In the 1950s,
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784:
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685:
293:
271:
266:
261:
241:
214:
209:
116:
7850:
7322:
5037:
Knowles, J.R. (1980). "Enzyme-Catalyzed Phosphoryl Transfer Reactions".
1701:, as well as having some other uses. Many monosaccharides joined form a
1183:. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life (exceptions being
8653:
7678:
7631:
7554:
7463:
7200:
7195:
7140:
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7065:
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6995:
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5997:
5769:
The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology
5140:
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residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in
1996:, either as co-solubilizers (e.g. in parenteral infusions) or else as
992:
8715:
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2502:
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Members of a protein family, as represented by the structures of the
2238:
2206:
2103:
2078:
2045:
are very large molecules—macro-biopolymers—made from monomers called
1893:
1881:
1853:
1828:
1803:
1726:
1710:
1673:
1567:
1300:
known as polymers. When monomers are linked together to synthesize a
986:
949:
909:
845:
780:
740:
661:
4192:
Feige, Matthias J.; Hendershot, Linda M.; Buchner, Johannes (2010).
3148:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
3053:
2489:, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic
1152:
692:
and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of
9159:
8737:
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2177:
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2109:
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2001:
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and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or
1832:
1794:
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5863:
3299:
2931:
2876:
2809:
2774:
2641:
2557:
2553:
2545:
2394:
2390:. The amino acids may then be linked together to form a protein.
2355:
2351:
2327:
2295:
2042:
2017:
1915:. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and maybe
1889:
1718:
1677:
1669:
1661:
1653:
1610:
1483:
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1410:
1402:
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1281:
1243:
1220:
1208:
1204:
973:
945:
938:
879:
796:
716:
665:
7257:
5670:
5612:
Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology
5468:
Varki A, Cummings R, Esko J, Jessica F, Hart G, Marth J (1999).
3499:
is glucose, compared with 24% fructose and 8% sucrose. However,
2799:
2508:
2232:; some α-helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above.
2136:
2049:. An amino acid consists of an alpha carbon atom attached to an
2026:
7766:
7358:
6885:
6228:
6138:
5761:
5148:
Peet, Alisa (2012). Marks, Allan; Lieberman Michael A. (eds.).
4489:
The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige
4377:
The Languages of Creativity: Models, Problem-solving, Discourse
3267:
3230:
2991:
2896:
2823:
Each chemical modification is performed by a different enzyme.
2608:
2561:
2494:
2359:
2319:
2299:
2242:
2192:
2169:
2153:
1969:
1965:
1820:
1774:
1758:
1754:
1697:
meaning "few"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and
1575:
1571:
1551:
1456:
1448:
1239:
1227:
1212:
1200:
1188:
871:
811:
with the goal of improving crop cultivation, crop storage, and
201:
121:
5310:
Sherwood, Lauralee; Klandorf, Hillar; Yancey, Paul H. (2012).
4894:
Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry, Volume 70
2405:
organisms release the ammonia into the environment. Likewise,
1705:. They can be joined in one long linear chain, or they may be
1268:
The 4 main classes of molecules in biochemistry (often called
7808:
List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization
7668:
4652:
Fariselli, P.; Rossi, I.; Capriotti, E.; Casadio, R. (2006).
4568:
The University of Iowa and Biochemistry from Their Beginnings
3500:
3229:
studies their heredity, which happens to be carried by their
2983:
2916:
2880:
2165:
2050:
2031:
1935:
1847:
1790:
1738:
1657:
1602:
1598:
1519:
1498:) is one of the most important carbohydrates; others include
1421:
1277:
1216:
748:
744:
728:
5417:
Ulveling, Damien; Francastel, Claire; Hubé, Florent (2011).
5005:
Kleinkauf, Horst; Döhren, Hans von; Jaenicke Lothar (1988).
4654:"The WWWH of remote homolog detection: The state of the art"
4460:
Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences
73:
8732:
7382:
6344:
5791:
by Kevin and Indira, an introductory biochemistry textbook.
3263:
3003:
Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences
2908:
2851:
Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step
2157:
1973:
1180:
1078:
1012:
804:
317:
5783:
5395:(4th ed.). New York: United Nations Children's Fund.
4926:
Vital Forces: The Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Life
2366:, the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize
1215:, but is not an essential element for plants. Plants need
8859:
8742:
7372:
7368:
6168:
6163:
5631:
4th Edition, Routledge, March, 2002, hardcover, 1616 pp.
4710:
Finkel, Richard; Cubeddu, Luigi; Clark, Michelle (2009).
4627:
Eldra P. Solomon; Linda R. Berg; Diana W. Martin (2007).
3430:
International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
3303:
2485:
in all living cells and viruses. The monomers are called
2466:(DNA); the picture shows the monomers being put together.
2449:
2445:
1977:
1957:
1861:
1539:
1223:, but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).
1122:
736:
5506:(3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
1950:, the polar group is a mere –OH (hydroxyl or alcohol).
890:'s first demonstration of a complex biochemical process
775:. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in
5135:. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 283–303.
4798:
Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia
3919:"Wohler's preparation of urea and the fate of vitalism"
1896:
molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are
688:
to give rise to the processes that occur within living
5537:. Vol. 1. London & New York: Academic Press.
5419:"When one is better than two: RNA with dual functions"
4191:
4022:
3250:
focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of
2386:
skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via
1672:
found in milk, consisting of a glucose molecule and a
1609:
of these two molecules). For example, the aldohexose
9148:
5784:
SystemsX.ch – The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology
5776:
Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of
4408:"Molecular Biology or Ultrastructural Biology ?"
3650:
3648:
3282:) can often confound simple interpretations of such "
5077:
Biochemistry: The Chemical Reactions of Living Cells
4958:
Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments
2623:
2473:, so-called because of their prevalence in cellular
1956:
Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most
5154:(4th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
4716:(4th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
4630:
Biology, 8th Edition, International Student Edition
2030:The general structure of an α-amino acid, with the
1668:molecule joined. Another important disaccharide is
1570:group, depending on whether the linear form was an
1459:, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula C
5530:
5332:
5074:Metzler, David Everett; Metzler, Carol M. (2001).
4827:Helvoort, Ton van (2000). Arne Hessenbruch (ed.).
3645:
3356:Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry)
2903:, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product
5278:Slabaugh, Michael R.; Seager, Spencer L. (2013).
3573:
2592:
2424:are powerful tools that help scientists identify
2152:. The red and blue ribbons represent the protein
2065:and –COO under physiologic conditions), a simple
1807:Structures of some common lipids. At the top are
1153:Starting materials: the chemical elements of life
668:, biochemistry may be divided into three fields:
9184:
4148:Ahmed, Saba; Shah, Parini; Ahmed, Owais (2023),
3768:
2986:regenerates the glucose, using a process called
1735:is used as a form of energy storage in animals.
1725:is an important structural component of plant's
5360:(4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
4156:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
2326:. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize
2322:. Because they must be ingested, these are the
27:Study of chemical processes in living organisms
5552:Ziesak, Anne-Katrin; Cram Hans-Robert (1999).
4713:Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology
4324:. Oxford University Press. 17 September 2015.
4147:
3898:
1938:. Another part of their structure is polar or
1121:was the first person convicted of murder with
8845:
7866:
7273:
6774:
5823:
5799:
5533:The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products
5339:(6th ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
4081:
3198:Schematic relationship between biochemistry,
2097:is removed and the peptide bond connects the
1903:Lipids are usually made from one molecule of
1709:. Two of the most common polysaccharides are
1432:, as well as play important roles in cell to
626:
5615:. Yale University Press: New Haven, 1999.
5284:(6th ed.). Pacific Grove: Brooks Cole.
4173:
4037:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2907:, generating another reducing equivalent as
2863:. This also produces a net two molecules of
1581:In these cyclic forms, the ring usually has
1562:group of another. The cyclic molecule has a
957:
5011:. Walter de Gruyter & Co. p. 116.
4069:
3992:
3551:
3549:
3082:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3041:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2580:, as well as forming the base molecule for
2568:of each strand of a nucleic acid will form
2524:are all nucleotides (not phosphate-lacking
2209:the reaction between them. By lowering the
1680:, and deficiency in this enzyme results in
8852:
8838:
7873:
7859:
7280:
7266:
6781:
6767:
5830:
5816:
5313:Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms
4763:Fromm, Herbert J.; Hargrove, Mark (2012).
4693:. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin.
4105:
3980:
2816:via a series of intermediate metabolites.
2779:
2716:
2702:
1860:compounds of biological origin, including
1514:), the sugar commonly associated with the
803:. In agriculture, biochemists investigate
633:
619:
7880:
7247:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
5706:
5696:
5228:
5218:
4669:
4431:
4217:
3849:"Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs"
3182:Learn how and when to remove this message
3164:Learn how and when to remove this message
3102:Learn how and when to remove this message
2709:
2646:
2639:
2618:
2061:group, –COOH (although these exist as –NH
1621:. Cyclic forms with a 7-atom ring called
7313:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
4830:Reader's Guide to the History of Science
4057:
4004:
3546:
3193:
2507:
2457:
2266:
2260:Examples of protein structures from the
2255:
2143:
2135:
2025:
1964:that we use for cooking and eating like
1802:
1447:, which among other properties contains
1156:
985:
836:
6788:
5837:
5555:Walter de Gruyter Publishers, 1749–1999
5474:. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
5331:Stryer L, Berg JM, Tymoczko JL (2007).
3561:
2477:, is the generic name of the family of
1717:, both consisting of repeating glucose
1676:molecule. Lactose may be hydrolysed by
1628:Two monosaccharides can be joined by a
1542:. A monosaccharide can switch between
1443:The simplest type of carbohydrate is a
47:For the textbook by Lubert Stryer, see
14:
9185:
8967:Electrical and electronics engineering
8952:Developmental and reproductive biology
5133:Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease
3916:
3846:
3633:
3597:
2786:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2751:
2744:
2737:
2730:
2723:
2695:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2667:
1892:). Some lipids are linear, open-chain
1835:backbone. At the bottom is the common
966:in the foreword to the first issue of
865:. However, biochemistry as a specific
8833:
7854:
7261:
7242:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
6762:
5811:
5798:
2660:
2653:
2121:. As an example, the important blood
1125:evidence, which led to the growth of
969:Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie
8788:
7833:
6729:
5583:
5249:Principles of Nucleic Acid Structure
4697:from the original on 28 October 2023
4276:from the original on 19 October 2023
4138:(2005), Ch. 12 Lipids and Membranes.
4025:Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry
3609:
3316:seeks to develop new tools based on
3113:
3080:adding citations to reliable sources
3047:
3006:
708:mechanisms of biological phenomena.
8812:
5667:. Cambridge University Press, 1982.
5051:10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.004305
4748:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
4510:Fundamentals of Forensic DNA Typing
4366:
3585:
2117:. Longer stretches merit the title
852:in 1947 for their discovery of the
24:
5602:
5281:Organic and Biochemistry for Today
4859:Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (1987).
3917:Lipman, Timothy O. (August 1964).
3425:Hypothetical types of biochemistry
3296:central dogma of molecular biology
2943:
2532:The most common nucleic acids are
2085:. Amino acids can be joined via a
1907:combined with other molecules. In
1652:. The best-known disaccharide is
1179:are essential to various kinds of
25:
9219:
8997:Genetics and evolutionary biology
7287:
5725:
5095:Miller G; Spoolman Scott (2012).
4865:. University of Wisconsin Press.
4338:from the original on 10 July 2020
3022:This section has multiple issues.
2189:enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
9170:
9158:
8811:
8799:
8787:
8776:
8775:
7832:
7821:
7820:
7321:
6740:
6728:
6717:
6716:
5463:from the original on 2022-10-09.
5412:from the original on 2022-10-09.
5186:. Chemical Heritage Foundation.
4380:. University of Delaware Press.
3118:
3052:
3011:
2798:
2631:
2573:cytosine and guanine are three.
2435:
1395:
1366:
1349:
1315:
1304:, they undergo a process called
1288:. Many biological molecules are
1040:dual polarisation interferometry
600:
599:
72:
9001:Cellular and molecular biology
7798:Index of biotechnology articles
5572:from the original on 2023-10-28
5488:from the original on 2023-10-28
5374:from the original on 2023-10-28
5298:from the original on 2023-10-28
5266:from the original on 2023-10-28
5168:from the original on 2023-10-28
5119:from the original on 2023-04-13
5080:. Vol. 1. Academic Press.
5025:from the original on 2023-10-28
4943:from the original on 2023-10-28
4911:from the original on 2023-10-28
4879:from the original on 2023-10-28
4847:from the original on 2023-10-28
4833:. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishing.
4815:from the original on 2023-10-28
4783:from the original on 2023-10-28
4730:from the original on 2023-10-28
4585:from the original on 2023-10-28
4394:from the original on 2023-10-28
4350:
4312:
4300:
4288:
4258:
4246:
4234:
4185:
4141:
4129:
4117:
4093:
4045:
4023:Cox, Nelson, Lehninger (2008).
4016:
3968:
3957:from the original on 2023-10-28
3910:
3887:from the original on 2023-10-28
3840:
3828:
3816:
3804:
3792:
3780:
3756:
3744:
3732:
3720:
3708:
3696:
3684:
3672:
3660:
3535:from the original on 2019-08-21
3488:
3030:or discuss these issues on the
2156:; the green structures are the
1741:can be characterized by having
1597:, respectively—by analogy with
1257:
1207:. For example, ocean algae use
1113:for work in fungi showing that
929:, who studied the chemistry of
7803:List of biotechnology articles
5558:. Walter de Gruyter & Co.
5004:
4795:Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005).
4651:
4198:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
3810:
3762:
3621:
3517:
3395:Biological Chemistry (journal)
2978:. Large scale protein and fat
2593:Carbohydrates as energy source
2075:three-dimensional conformation
1589:atoms. These forms are called
656:within and relating to living
13:
1:
8140:Interface and colloid science
7894:Glossary of chemical formulae
7647:Genetically modified organism
7414:Biotechnology industrial park
6585:Amino acid metabolism enzymes
5627:Molecular Biology of the Cell
5416:
5309:
5277:
5252:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
5039:Annual Review of Biochemistry
4975:
4826:
4565:Clarence, Peter Berg (1980).
4564:
4063:
3923:Journal of Chemical Education
3904:
3853:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
3654:
3510:
3377:
2879:plus carbon dioxide (e.g. in
2587:
2241:residue at position 6 with a
2176:selective in what they bind.
1252:composition of the human body
1167:Composition of the human body
1097:were instrumental in solving
5751:Resources in other libraries
5698:10.1371/journal.pone.0190046
5651:2nd Edition, Garland, 1989,
5641:3rd Edition, Garland, 1994,
5524:
5438:10.1016/j.biochi.2010.11.004
5245:
5130:
5073:
5036:
4794:
4612:10.1016/0022-2836(92)91059-x
4600:Journal of Molecular Biology
4596:
4527:
4405:
4252:
4179:
4087:
4075:
4051:
4010:
3822:
3726:
3678:
3591:
3415:Dedicated bio-based chemical
2928:inner mitochondrial membrane
1852:comprise a diverse range of
1815:. The middle structure is a
1409:made up of several thousand
1191:), while a few common ones (
1141:for discovering the role of
1115:one gene produces one enzyme
962:in German) as a synonym for
660:. A sub-discipline of both
7:
8417:Bioorganometallic chemistry
7904:List of inorganic compounds
7637:Environmental biotechnology
6489:Volume combustion synthesis
5968:Bioorganometallic chemistry
5551:
5385:
5330:
5179:
5094:
4922:
4891:Horton, Derek, ed. (2013).
4890:
4858:
4709:
4658:Briefings in Bioinformatics
4506:
4485:
4373:
4123:
3998:
3798:
3786:
3750:
3738:
3714:
3690:
3666:
3639:
3627:
3579:
3361:List of biochemistry topics
3337:
3144:the claims made and adding
2011:
1992:, are also used in various
1986:polyunsaturated fatty acids
1145:(RNAi) in the silencing of
791:investigate the causes and
767:from their environment via
531:Bioorganometallic chemistry
460:Volume combustion synthesis
10:
9224:
9102:Probability and statistics
8343:Dynamic covalent chemistry
8314:Enantioselective synthesis
8294:Physical organic chemistry
8247:Organolanthanide chemistry
6419:Enantioselective synthesis
5500:Voet, D; Voet, JG (2005).
5471:Essentials of glycobiology
5467:
5353:
5200:
4923:Hunter, Graeme K. (2000).
4766:Essentials of Biochemistry
4762:
4741:
4686:
4626:
4463:. Springer. p. 2982.
4356:
4309:(2005), Ch. 17 Glycolysis.
4294:
4240:
4210:10.1016/j.tibs.2009.11.005
4111:
3986:
3974:
3834:
3615:
3603:
3341:
2947:
2886:
2596:
2501:), a pentose sugar, and a
2439:
2081:functions as an important
2034:group on the left and the
2015:
1788:
1319:
1261:
1164:
886:, while others considered
830:
826:
763:). The mechanisms used by
682:areas of the life sciences
390:Enantioselective synthesis
46:
29:
8872:
8771:
8674:
8435:
8351:
8272:
8222:
8098:
8041:
7932:Electroanalytical methods
7917:
7889:
7816:
7790:
7697:
7577:
7507:
7456:
7447:
7406:
7351:
7330:
7319:
7308:Timeline of biotechnology
7295:
7229:
6796:
6712:
6631:
6574:Protein primary structure
6497:
6424:Fully automated synthesis
6369:Artificial gene synthesis
6357:
6197:
6186:
6094:
6085:
6054:
6006:
5907:
5846:
5805:
5800:Links to related articles
5789:Full text of Biochemistry
5746:Resources in your library
5499:
5354:Tropp, Burton E. (2012).
5246:Saenger, Wolfram (1984).
5220:10.3390/molecules16032672
5147:
4961:. John Wiley & Sons.
4954:
4457:Ben-Menahem, Ari (2009).
4306:
4135:
4099:
3702:
3567:
3555:
3525:"Biological/Biochemistry"
3410:Computational biomodeling
2958:, vigorously contracting
2924:electron transport system
2287:pentose phosphate pathway
2228:or into a sheet called a
1784:
1544:acyclic (open-chain) form
1008:published a paper on his
395:Fully automated synthesis
340:Artificial gene synthesis
8687:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
8603:Supramolecular chemistry
8242:Organometallic chemistry
7664:Microbial biodegradation
7343:Industrial biotechnology
7303:History of biotechnology
6399:Custom peptide synthesis
4507:Butler, John M. (2009).
4486:Burton, Feldman (2001).
4456:
3873:10.1002/andp.18280880206
3774:
3481:
3348:
3278:. Genetic interactions (
2514:nucleoside monophosphate
1745:or non-reducing ends. A
801:nutritional deficiencies
370:Custom peptide synthesis
8897:Artificial intelligence
8625:Combinatorial chemistry
8536:Food physical chemistry
8499:Environmental chemistry
8383:Bioorthogonal chemistry
8309:Retrosynthetic analysis
8130:Chemical thermodynamics
8113:Spectroelectrochemistry
8056:Computational chemistry
7338:Colors of biotechnology
6699:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
5934:Bioorthogonal chemistry
5529:. In A.C. Hulme (ed.).
4633:. Thomson Brooks/Cole.
4321:A Dictionary of Biology
4270:Encyclopedia Britannica
3344:Outline of biochemistry
2875:(e.g. in humans) or to
2808:of glycolysis converts
2599:Carbohydrate metabolism
2522:nucleoside triphosphate
2397:(NH3), existing as the
1994:pharmaceutical products
1292:: in this terminology,
964:physiological chemistry
904:in its applications to
833:History of biochemistry
765:cells to harness energy
497:Bioorthogonal chemistry
9127:Structural engineering
9067:Mechanical engineering
9040:Western and South Asia
8697:of element discoveries
8543:Agricultural chemistry
8531:Carbohydrate chemistry
8422:Bioinorganic chemistry
8287:Alkane stereochemistry
8232:Coordination chemistry
8061:Mathematical chemistry
7927:Instrumental chemistry
7732:Biomedical engineering
7439:Pharmaceutical company
7419:Biotechnology products
6856:Biological engineering
6479:Solvothermal synthesis
6429:Hydrothermal synthesis
5973:Bioinorganic chemistry
5520:on September 11, 2007.
4571:. University of Iowa.
4406:Astbury, W.T. (1961).
4150:"Biochemistry, Lipids"
3825:(1992), pp. 1161–1173.
3390:Biochemistry (journal)
3206:
2895:cells with sufficient
2830:Steps 1 and 3 consume
2619:Glycolysis (anaerobic)
2613:glycogen phosphorylase
2582:adenosine triphosphate
2529:
2518:nucleoside diphosphate
2467:
2278:
2264:
2161:
2141:
2039:
2000:components (e.g. in a
1926:Most lipids have some
1844:
1660:, which consists of a
1554:atom created from the
1162:
1048:radioisotopic labeling
997:
958:
900:Animal chemistry, or,
892:alcoholic fermentation
857:
536:Bioinorganic chemistry
450:Solvothermal synthesis
400:Hydrothermal synthesis
8992:Environmental science
8877:Aerospace engineering
8692:Timeline of chemistry
8589:Post-mortem chemistry
8574:Clandestine chemistry
8504:Atmospheric chemistry
8427:Biophysical chemistry
8259:Solid-state chemistry
8209:Equilibrium chemistry
8118:Photoelectrochemistry
6941:Developmental biology
6916:Computational biology
6896:Cellular microbiology
6508:Branches of chemistry
6474:Solid-phase synthesis
6326:Amino acid metabolism
6304:Nucleotide metabolism
6247:Fatty-acid metabolism
5978:Biophysical chemistry
5899:Theoretical chemistry
5854:List of life sciences
5774:Biochemistry, 5th ed.
5762:"Biochemical Society"
5525:Whiting, G.C (1970).
4990:10.1007/s00897010444a
4978:The Chemical Educator
4955:Karp, Gerald (2009).
4542:10.1089/dna.2006.0567
4492:. Arcade Publishing.
4374:Amsler, Mark (1986).
4194:"How antibodies fold"
3197:
2873:lactate (lactic acid)
2534:deoxyribonucleic acid
2511:
2464:deoxyribonucleic acid
2461:
2422:structural alignments
2324:essential amino acids
2270:
2259:
2147:
2139:
2029:
1976:etc. are composed of
1868:, fatty-acid derived
1831:chains attached to a
1806:
1306:dehydration synthesis
1160:
989:
867:scientific discipline
840:
586:Glossary of chemistry
541:Biophysical chemistry
445:Solid-phase synthesis
299:Amino acid metabolism
277:Nucleotide metabolism
220:Fatty-acid metabolism
18:Biochemical Processes
8682:History of chemistry
8637:Chemical engineering
8412:Bioorganic chemistry
8162:Structural chemistry
7899:List of biomolecules
7757:Chemical engineering
7620:Reproductive cloning
7484:Hybridoma technology
7434:Human Genome Project
7161:Reproductive biology
7046:Mathematical biology
6971:Evolutionary biology
6921:Conservation biology
6394:Convergent synthesis
6374:Biomimetic synthesis
5963:Bioorganic chemistry
5874:Analytical chemistry
5316:. Cengage Learning.
4687:Fiske, John (1890).
4530:DNA and Cell Biology
4359:(2012), pp. 183–194.
4297:(2012), pp. 163–180.
4102:(2005), pp. 358–359.
4090:, G.C. (1970), p. 5.
4054:(1999), pp. 283–303.
4013:(2007), pp. 193–194.
3907:(2001), pp. 121–133.
3371:List of biomolecules
3076:improve this section
2964:anaerobic metabolism
2251:quaternary structure
1984:are rich in various
1644:dehydration reaction
759:, which are used to
686:biological molecules
650:biological chemistry
526:Bioorganic chemistry
365:Convergent synthesis
345:Biomimetic synthesis
167:Biomolecule families
40:Biological Chemistry
8705:The central science
8659:Ceramic engineering
8584:Forensic toxicology
8557:Chemistry education
8455:Radiation chemistry
8437:Interdisciplinarity
8390:Medicinal chemistry
8328:Fullerene chemistry
8204:Microwave chemistry
8073:Molecular mechanics
8068:Molecular modelling
7642:Genetic engineering
7625:Therapeutic cloning
7605:Bionic architecture
7585:Animal cell culture
7352:Biological concepts
6946:Ecological genetics
6790:Branches of biology
6689:Notable scientists:
6519:Cellular structures
6409:Divergent synthesis
5941:Medicinal chemistry
5884:Medicinal chemistry
5879:Inorganic chemistry
5689:2017PLoSO..1290046M
5609:Fruton, Joseph S.
4469:2009henm.book.....B
4424:1961Natur.190.1124A
3935:1964JChEd..41..452L
3865:1828AnP....88..253W
3847:Wöhler, F. (1828).
3837:(1890), pp. 419–20.
3642:(2010), pp. 61, 75.
3618:(2012), Chapter 14.
3366:List of biochemists
2483:genetic information
2418:sequence alignments
2247:sickle-cell disease
2222:Secondary structure
2131:amino acid residues
1841:phosphatidylcholine
1682:lactose intolerance
1558:of one end and the
1430:genetic information
1310:biological activity
1052:electron microscopy
761:synthesize proteins
704:, the study of the
581:Glossary of biology
504:Medicinal chemistry
474:Biochemistry fields
380:Divergent synthesis
155:List of biochemists
144:List of biochemists
60:Part of a series on
8748:Chemical substance
8610:Chemical synthesis
8579:Forensic chemistry
8460:Actinide chemistry
8402:Clinical chemistry
8083:Molecular geometry
8078:Molecular dynamics
8033:Elemental analysis
7986:Separation process
7698:Interdisciplinary
7652:Molecular genetics
7398:Selective breeding
7237:History of biology
7171:Structural biology
7156:Relational biology
6981:Generative biology
6976:Freshwater biology
6541:Chemical synthesis
6062:Structural biology
6046:Reaction mechanism
6021:Chemical synthesis
6016:Chemical reactions
5953:Clinical chemistry
5894:Physical chemistry
4929:. Academic Press.
4897:. Academic Press.
4671:10.1093/bib/bbl032
4513:. Academic Press.
4357:Fromm and Hargrove
4295:Fromm and Hargrove
4243:(2012), pp. 35–51.
4241:Fromm and Hargrove
3977:(2012), pp. 19–20.
3693:(2000), pp. 96–98.
3470:Structural biology
3455:Plant biochemistry
3450:Molecular medicine
3207:
3129:possibly contains
2530:
2468:
2279:
2265:
2234:Tertiary structure
2182:disulfide linkages
2162:
2142:
2040:
2038:group on the right
1845:
1538:), a component of
1302:biological polymer
1226:Just six elements—
1163:
1060:metabolic pathways
1056:molecular dynamics
998:
954:Felix Hoppe-Seyler
935:F. Gowland Hopkins
858:
769:chemical reactions
755:(for example, the
670:structural biology
654:chemical processes
516:Clinical chemistry
332:Chemical synthesis
9203:Molecular biology
9146:
9145:
9140:
9139:
9122:Scientific naming
9112:Quantum computing
8942:Computer hardware
8937:Clinical research
8932:Civil engineering
8827:
8826:
8763:Quantum mechanics
8728:Chemical compound
8711:Chemical reaction
8649:Materials science
8567:General chemistry
8562:Amateur chemistry
8490:Photogeochemistry
8475:Stellar chemistry
8445:Nuclear chemistry
8366:Molecular biology
8333:Polymer chemistry
8304:Organic synthesis
8299:Organic reactions
8264:Ceramic chemistry
8254:Cluster chemistry
8184:Chemical kinetics
8172:Molecular physics
8051:Quantum chemistry
7964:Mass spectrometry
7848:
7847:
7777:Nanobiotechnology
7772:Molecular biology
7573:
7572:
7424:Biotechnology law
7255:
7254:
7176:Synthetic biology
7056:Molecular biology
6911:Cognitive biology
6756:
6755:
6674:Scientific method
6530:Organic reactions
6454:Peptide synthesis
6449:Organic synthesis
6444:One-pot synthesis
6379:Bioretrosynthesis
6353:
6352:
6182:
6181:
6144:Metabolic pathway
6031:Organic reactions
5919:Molecular biology
5889:Organic chemistry
5869:Chemistry fields:
5732:Library resources
5663:Kohler, Robert.
5565:978-3-11-016741-2
5544:978-0-12-361201-4
5513:978-0-471-19350-0
5481:978-0-87969-560-6
5402:978-92-806-4466-1
5367:978-1-4496-0091-4
5357:Molecular Biology
5346:978-0-7167-8724-2
5323:978-0-8400-6865-1
5291:978-1-133-60514-0
5259:978-0-387-90762-8
5193:978-0-941901-27-7
5161:978-1-60831-572-7
5112:978-1-133-70787-5
5087:978-0-12-492540-3
5018:978-3-11-085245-5
4968:978-0-470-48337-4
4936:978-0-12-361811-5
4904:978-0-12-408112-3
4872:978-0-299-09984-8
4840:978-1-884964-29-9
4808:978-1-85109-665-7
4776:978-3-642-19623-2
4755:978-1-4496-1265-8
4723:978-0-7817-7155-9
4640:978-0-495-31714-2
4578:978-0-87414-014-9
4520:978-0-08-096176-7
4499:978-1-55970-592-9
4478:978-3-540-68831-0
4433:10.1038/1901124a0
4387:978-0-87413-280-9
4078:(1970), pp. 1–31.
3943:10.1021/ed041p452
3445:Molecular biology
3325:that can deliver
3291:Molecular biology
3266:). The study of "
3215:molecular biology
3204:molecular biology
3192:
3191:
3184:
3174:
3173:
3166:
3131:original research
3112:
3111:
3104:
3045:
2913:citric acid cycle
2848:
2847:
2806:metabolic pathway
2578:second messengers
2566:nitrogenous bases
2462:The structure of
2381:. Enzymes called
2262:Protein Data Bank
2218:primary structure
2211:activation energy
2197:activation energy
1434:cell interactions
1177:chemical elements
1175:Around two dozen
1129:. More recently,
1091:Rosalind Franklin
1036:X-ray diffraction
1028:organic chemistry
1020:potassium cyanate
923:Antoine Lavoisier
902:Organic chemistry
896:Justus von Liebig
702:molecular biology
643:
642:
482:Molecular biology
425:Peptide synthesis
420:Organic synthesis
415:One-pot synthesis
350:Bioretrosynthesis
79:Chemistry of life
16:(Redirected from
9215:
9175:
9174:
9173:
9163:
9162:
9154:
8947:Computer science
8854:
8847:
8840:
8831:
8830:
8815:
8814:
8803:
8791:
8790:
8779:
8778:
8723:Chemical element
8378:Chemical biology
8237:Magnetochemistry
8214:Mechanochemistry
8167:Chemical physics
8108:Electrochemistry
8013:Characterization
7875:
7868:
7861:
7852:
7851:
7836:
7835:
7824:
7823:
7674:Pharmacogenomics
7454:
7453:
7448:Basic techniques
7429:Green Revolution
7407:General concepts
7325:
7282:
7275:
7268:
7259:
7258:
6901:Chemical biology
6783:
6776:
6769:
6760:
6759:
6744:
6732:
6731:
6720:
6719:
6624:
6618:
6613:
6607:
6602:
6596:
6589:
6583:
6578:
6572:
6567:
6561:
6556:
6550:
6545:
6539:
6534:
6528:
6523:
6517:
6512:
6506:
6439:Mechanosynthesis
6414:Electrosynthesis
6195:
6194:
6092:
6091:
5929:Chemical biology
5832:
5825:
5818:
5809:
5808:
5796:
5795:
5765:
5720:
5710:
5700:
5683:(12): e0190046.
5597:
5580:
5578:
5577:
5548:
5536:
5521:
5516:. Archived from
5496:
5494:
5493:
5464:
5462:
5423:
5413:
5411:
5394:
5382:
5380:
5379:
5350:
5338:
5327:
5306:
5304:
5303:
5274:
5272:
5271:
5242:
5232:
5222:
5213:(3): 2672–2687.
5197:
5176:
5174:
5173:
5144:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5103:Cengage Learning
5091:
5070:
5033:
5031:
5030:
5001:
4972:
4951:
4949:
4948:
4919:
4917:
4916:
4887:
4885:
4884:
4855:
4853:
4852:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4791:
4789:
4788:
4759:
4738:
4736:
4735:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4683:
4673:
4648:
4643:. Archived from
4623:
4606:(4): 1161–1173.
4593:
4591:
4590:
4561:
4524:
4503:
4482:
4453:
4435:
4402:
4400:
4399:
4367:Cited literature
4360:
4354:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4343:
4316:
4310:
4304:
4298:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4262:
4256:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4221:
4189:
4183:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4145:
4139:
4133:
4127:
4121:
4115:
4109:
4103:
4097:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4073:
4067:
4066:(2007), pp. 3–6.
4061:
4055:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4036:
4028:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4002:
3996:
3990:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3826:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3802:
3796:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3777:(2009), p. 2982.
3772:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3705:(1980), pp. 1–2.
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3676:
3670:
3664:
3658:
3652:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3630:(2009), pp. 1–4.
3625:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3594:(1961), p. 1124.
3589:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3559:
3553:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3540:
3521:
3504:
3492:
3405:Chemical ecology
3312:Chemical biology
3187:
3180:
3169:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3149:
3146:inline citations
3122:
3121:
3114:
3107:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3087:
3056:
3048:
3037:
3015:
3014:
3007:
2960:skeletal muscles
2840:
2838:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2802:
2801:
2791:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2749:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2714:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2635:
2624:
2538:ribonucleic acid
2430:protein families
2083:neurotransmitter
1757:) or keto form (
1482:is at least 3).
1399:
1370:
1353:
1143:RNA interference
1139:2006 Nobel Prize
1127:forensic science
1044:NMR spectroscopy
1024:ammonium sulfate
1006:Friedrich Wöhler
995:
981:Franz Hofmeister
961:
848:jointly won the
739:. These can be
652:is the study of
635:
628:
621:
608:
603:
602:
492:Chemical biology
410:Mechanosynthesis
385:Electrosynthesis
76:
57:
56:
21:
9223:
9222:
9218:
9217:
9216:
9214:
9213:
9212:
9183:
9182:
9181:
9171:
9169:
9157:
9149:
9147:
9142:
9141:
9136:
9035:Hebrew toponyms
9030:Arabic toponyms
8868:
8858:
8828:
8823:
8767:
8670:
8664:Polymer science
8620:Click chemistry
8615:Green chemistry
8509:Ocean chemistry
8485:Biogeochemistry
8431:
8347:
8319:Total synthesis
8282:Stereochemistry
8268:
8218:
8135:Surface science
8125:Thermochemistry
8094:
8037:
8008:Crystallography
7913:
7885:
7879:
7849:
7844:
7812:
7786:
7727:Biopharmacology
7699:
7693:
7569:
7540:Electrophoresis
7535:Kidney dialysis
7525:Crystallization
7503:
7449:
7443:
7402:
7347:
7326:
7317:
7291:
7286:
7256:
7251:
7225:
7186:Systems biology
7151:Quantum biology
6792:
6787:
6757:
6752:
6708:
6627:
6622:
6616:
6611:
6605:
6600:
6594:
6587:
6581:
6576:
6570:
6565:
6559:
6554:
6548:
6543:
6537:
6532:
6526:
6521:
6515:
6510:
6504:
6493:
6484:Total synthesis
6360:
6349:
6190:
6178:
6081:
6050:
6008:
6002:
5911:
5903:
5847:Science fields
5842:
5836:
5801:
5760:
5757:
5756:
5755:
5740:
5739:
5735:
5728:
5723:
5605:
5603:Further reading
5600:
5575:
5573:
5566:
5545:
5514:
5491:
5489:
5482:
5460:
5421:
5409:
5403:
5392:
5386:UNICEF (2010).
5377:
5375:
5368:
5347:
5324:
5301:
5299:
5292:
5269:
5267:
5260:
5194:
5171:
5169:
5162:
5122:
5120:
5113:
5088:
5028:
5026:
5019:
4969:
4946:
4944:
4937:
4914:
4912:
4905:
4882:
4880:
4873:
4850:
4848:
4841:
4818:
4816:
4809:
4786:
4784:
4777:
4756:
4745:Essential Genes
4733:
4731:
4724:
4700:
4698:
4641:
4588:
4586:
4579:
4521:
4500:
4479:
4397:
4395:
4388:
4369:
4364:
4363:
4355:
4351:
4341:
4339:
4332:
4318:
4317:
4313:
4305:
4301:
4293:
4289:
4279:
4277:
4264:
4263:
4259:
4251:
4247:
4239:
4235:
4190:
4186:
4178:
4174:
4166:
4164:
4146:
4142:
4134:
4130:
4126:(2007), p. 328.
4122:
4118:
4110:
4106:
4098:
4094:
4086:
4082:
4074:
4070:
4062:
4058:
4050:
4046:
4030:
4029:
4021:
4017:
4009:
4005:
3997:
3993:
3985:
3981:
3973:
3969:
3960:
3958:
3915:
3911:
3903:
3899:
3890:
3888:
3845:
3841:
3833:
3829:
3821:
3817:
3809:
3805:
3797:
3793:
3785:
3781:
3773:
3769:
3765:(1988), p. 116.
3761:
3757:
3753:(1999), p. 169.
3749:
3745:
3741:(2005), p. 136.
3737:
3733:
3729:(2001), p. 206.
3725:
3721:
3713:
3709:
3701:
3697:
3689:
3685:
3677:
3673:
3665:
3661:
3653:
3646:
3638:
3634:
3626:
3622:
3614:
3610:
3602:
3598:
3590:
3586:
3578:
3574:
3566:
3562:
3554:
3547:
3538:
3536:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3507:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3380:
3375:
3351:
3346:
3340:
3318:small molecules
3188:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3135:
3123:
3119:
3108:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3073:
3057:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2988:gluconeogenesis
2952:
2950:Gluconeogenesis
2946:
2944:Gluconeogenesis
2920:
2889:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2803:
2795:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2785:
2780:
2778:
2773:
2771:
2766:
2764:
2759:
2757:
2752:
2750:
2745:
2743:
2738:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2724:
2722:
2717:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2703:
2701:
2696:
2694:
2689:
2687:
2682:
2680:
2675:
2673:
2668:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2654:
2652:
2647:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2621:
2605:
2597:Main articles:
2595:
2590:
2542:phosphate group
2456:
2440:Main articles:
2438:
2283:small intestine
2148:A schematic of
2064:
2059:carboxylic acid
2056:
2024:
2016:Main articles:
2014:
1801:
1789:Main articles:
1787:
1690:oligosaccharide
1664:molecule and a
1537:
1533:
1529:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1477:
1471:
1464:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1400:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1371:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1354:
1345:
1344:
1336:
1320:Main articles:
1318:
1266:
1260:
1181:biological life
1173:
1171:Dietary mineral
1165:Main articles:
1155:
1147:gene expression
1119:Colin Pitchfork
1095:Maurice Wilkins
1083:James D. Watson
1002:vital principle
991:
990:DNA structure (
956:used the term (
835:
829:
787:. In medicine,
639:
598:
591:
590:
576:
568:
567:
566:
565:
475:
467:
466:
465:
464:
455:Total synthesis
333:
325:
324:
323:
322:
168:
160:
159:
145:
137:
136:
127:Gene expression
112:
104:
81:
55:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9221:
9211:
9210:
9205:
9200:
9195:
9180:
9179:
9167:
9144:
9143:
9138:
9137:
9135:
9134:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9099:
9094:
9089:
9087:Nanotechnology
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9059:
9057:Machine vision
9054:
9049:
9044:
9043:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9014:
9013:
9012:
9007:
8999:
8994:
8989:
8984:
8983:
8982:
8977:
8969:
8964:
8959:
8954:
8949:
8944:
8939:
8934:
8929:
8924:
8919:
8914:
8909:
8904:
8899:
8894:
8889:
8884:
8879:
8873:
8870:
8869:
8860:Glossaries of
8857:
8856:
8849:
8842:
8834:
8825:
8824:
8822:
8821:
8809:
8797:
8785:
8772:
8769:
8768:
8766:
8765:
8760:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8740:
8735:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8719:
8718:
8708:
8701:
8700:
8699:
8689:
8684:
8678:
8676:
8672:
8671:
8669:
8668:
8667:
8666:
8661:
8656:
8646:
8645:
8644:
8634:
8633:
8632:
8627:
8622:
8617:
8607:
8606:
8605:
8594:
8593:
8592:
8591:
8586:
8576:
8571:
8570:
8569:
8564:
8553:
8552:
8551:
8550:
8548:Soil chemistry
8540:
8539:
8538:
8533:
8526:Food chemistry
8523:
8521:Carbochemistry
8518:
8516:Clay chemistry
8513:
8512:
8511:
8506:
8495:
8494:
8493:
8492:
8487:
8477:
8471:Astrochemistry
8467:Cosmochemistry
8464:
8463:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8450:Radiochemistry
8441:
8439:
8433:
8432:
8430:
8429:
8424:
8419:
8414:
8409:
8407:Neurochemistry
8404:
8399:
8398:
8397:
8387:
8386:
8385:
8375:
8374:
8373:
8368:
8357:
8355:
8349:
8348:
8346:
8345:
8340:
8338:Petrochemistry
8335:
8330:
8325:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8291:
8290:
8289:
8278:
8276:
8270:
8269:
8267:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8250:
8249:
8239:
8234:
8228:
8226:
8220:
8219:
8217:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8201:
8199:Spin chemistry
8196:
8194:Photochemistry
8191:
8186:
8181:
8179:Femtochemistry
8176:
8175:
8174:
8164:
8159:
8154:
8149:
8148:
8147:
8137:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8121:
8120:
8115:
8104:
8102:
8096:
8095:
8093:
8092:
8091:
8090:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
8064:
8063:
8053:
8047:
8045:
8039:
8038:
8036:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8004:
8003:
7998:
7991:Chromatography
7988:
7983:
7982:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7961:
7960:
7959:
7954:
7949:
7944:
7934:
7929:
7923:
7921:
7915:
7914:
7912:
7911:
7909:Periodic table
7906:
7901:
7896:
7890:
7887:
7886:
7878:
7877:
7870:
7863:
7855:
7846:
7845:
7843:
7842:
7830:
7817:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7794:
7792:
7788:
7787:
7785:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7724:
7719:
7717:Bioengineering
7714:
7712:Bioelectronics
7709:
7703:
7701:
7695:
7694:
7692:
7691:
7689:Tissue culture
7686:
7681:
7676:
7671:
7666:
7661:
7656:
7655:
7654:
7649:
7639:
7634:
7629:
7628:
7627:
7622:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7595:Bioinformatics
7592:
7590:Biofabrication
7587:
7581:
7579:
7575:
7574:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7530:Chromatography
7527:
7522:
7517:
7515:Centrifugation
7511:
7509:
7508:Chemical field
7505:
7504:
7502:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7479:Flow cytometry
7476:
7471:
7466:
7460:
7458:
7451:
7445:
7444:
7442:
7441:
7436:
7431:
7426:
7421:
7416:
7410:
7408:
7404:
7403:
7401:
7400:
7395:
7390:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7366:
7361:
7355:
7353:
7349:
7348:
7346:
7345:
7340:
7334:
7332:
7328:
7327:
7320:
7318:
7316:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7299:
7297:
7293:
7292:
7285:
7284:
7277:
7270:
7262:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7233:
7231:
7227:
7226:
7224:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7041:Marine biology
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6851:Bioinformatics
6848:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6797:
6794:
6793:
6786:
6785:
6778:
6771:
6763:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6750:
6738:
6726:
6713:
6710:
6709:
6707:
6706:
6704:Francesco Redi
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6679:Periodic table
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6659:Microbiologist
6656:
6654:Bacteriologist
6651:
6646:
6641:
6635:
6633:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6625:
6614:
6603:
6591:
6590:
6579:
6568:
6563:Chemical bonds
6557:
6546:
6535:
6524:
6513:
6501:
6499:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6464:Retrosynthesis
6461:
6459:Radiosynthesis
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6404:Direct process
6401:
6396:
6391:
6389:Chemosynthesis
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6365:
6363:
6355:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6348:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6330:
6329:
6328:
6318:
6308:
6307:
6306:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6250:
6249:
6239:
6234:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6198:
6192:
6184:
6183:
6180:
6179:
6177:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6147:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6095:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6080:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6058:
6056:
6052:
6051:
6049:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6023:
6018:
6012:
6010:
6004:
6003:
6001:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5965:
5960:
5958:Neurochemistry
5955:
5950:
5949:
5948:
5938:
5937:
5936:
5926:
5921:
5915:
5913:
5905:
5904:
5902:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5850:
5848:
5844:
5843:
5835:
5834:
5827:
5820:
5812:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5793:
5792:
5786:
5781:
5771:
5766:
5754:
5753:
5748:
5742:
5741:
5730:
5729:
5727:
5726:External links
5724:
5722:
5721:
5668:
5661:
5660:
5659:
5649:
5639:
5623:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5598:
5581:
5564:
5549:
5543:
5522:
5512:
5497:
5480:
5465:
5432:(4): 633–644.
5414:
5401:
5389:Facts for life
5383:
5366:
5351:
5345:
5328:
5322:
5307:
5290:
5275:
5258:
5243:
5198:
5192:
5177:
5160:
5145:
5128:
5111:
5092:
5086:
5071:
5034:
5017:
5002:
4984:(2): 121–133.
4973:
4967:
4952:
4935:
4920:
4903:
4888:
4871:
4856:
4839:
4824:
4807:
4792:
4775:
4760:
4754:
4739:
4722:
4707:
4684:
4649:
4647:on 2016-03-04.
4639:
4624:
4594:
4577:
4562:
4536:(4): 193–194.
4525:
4519:
4504:
4498:
4483:
4477:
4454:
4418:(4781): 1124.
4403:
4386:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4362:
4361:
4349:
4330:
4311:
4299:
4287:
4266:"Disaccharide"
4257:
4255:(1984), p. 84.
4245:
4233:
4204:(4): 189–198.
4184:
4182:(2001), p. 58.
4172:
4140:
4128:
4116:
4114:(1999), p. 17.
4104:
4092:
4080:
4068:
4056:
4044:
4015:
4003:
3991:
3989:(2012), p. 32.
3979:
3967:
3909:
3897:
3859:(2): 253–256.
3839:
3827:
3815:
3813:(1988), p. 43.
3803:
3801:(2013), p. 36.
3791:
3789:(1986), p. 55.
3779:
3767:
3755:
3743:
3731:
3719:
3717:(1987), p. xv.
3707:
3695:
3683:
3681:(2005), p. 26.
3671:
3669:(2000), p. 75.
3659:
3657:(2000), p. 81.
3644:
3632:
3620:
3608:
3606:(2007), p. 45.
3596:
3584:
3582:(2012). p. 62.
3572:
3560:
3545:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3465:Small molecule
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3342:Main article:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3331:drug molecules
3307:
3287:
3255:
3190:
3189:
3172:
3171:
3126:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3109:
3060:
3058:
3051:
3046:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2948:Main article:
2945:
2942:
2918:
2905:carbon dioxide
2888:
2885:
2846:
2845:
2797:
2796:
2638:
2637:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2570:hydrogen bonds
2437:
2434:
2388:transamination
2095:water molecule
2062:
2054:
2013:
2010:
1982:Vegetable oils
1786:
1783:
1703:polysaccharide
1556:carbonyl group
1535:
1531:
1527:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1473:
1466:
1460:
1445:monosaccharide
1438:communications
1407:polysaccharide
1401:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1373:A molecule of
1372:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1358:monosaccharide
1355:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1334:Polysaccharide
1326:Monosaccharide
1317:
1314:
1298:macromolecules
1262:Main article:
1259:
1256:
1154:
1151:
1135:Craig C. Mello
1131:Andrew Z. Fire
1032:chromatography
937:, who studied
888:Eduard Buchner
882:), in 1833 by
863:ancient Greeks
831:Main article:
828:
825:
743:(for example,
713:macromolecules
641:
640:
638:
637:
630:
623:
615:
612:
611:
610:
609:
593:
592:
589:
588:
583:
577:
574:
573:
570:
569:
564:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
528:
523:
521:Neurochemistry
518:
513:
512:
511:
501:
500:
499:
489:
484:
478:
477:
476:
473:
472:
469:
468:
463:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
435:Retrosynthesis
432:
430:Radiosynthesis
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
375:Direct process
372:
367:
362:
360:Chemosynthesis
357:
352:
347:
342:
336:
335:
334:
331:
330:
327:
326:
321:
320:
315:
310:
303:
302:
301:
291:
281:
280:
279:
269:
264:
259:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
223:
222:
212:
207:
197:
192:
187:
182:
171:
170:
169:
166:
165:
162:
161:
158:
157:
152:
146:
143:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
129:
124:
119:
113:
111:Key components
110:
109:
106:
105:
103:
102:
97:
92:
86:
83:
82:
77:
69:
68:
62:
61:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9220:
9209:
9206:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9198:Biotechnology
9196:
9194:
9191:
9190:
9188:
9178:
9168:
9166:
9161:
9156:
9155:
9152:
9133:
9130:
9128:
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9100:
9098:
9095:
9093:
9090:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9063:
9060:
9058:
9055:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9045:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9017:
9015:
9011:
9008:
9006:
9003:
9002:
9000:
8998:
8995:
8993:
8990:
8988:
8985:
8981:
8978:
8976:
8973:
8972:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8948:
8945:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8933:
8930:
8928:
8925:
8923:
8920:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8903:
8900:
8898:
8895:
8893:
8890:
8888:
8885:
8883:
8880:
8878:
8875:
8874:
8871:
8867:
8863:
8855:
8850:
8848:
8843:
8841:
8836:
8835:
8832:
8820:
8819:
8810:
8808:
8807:
8802:
8798:
8796:
8795:
8786:
8784:
8783:
8774:
8773:
8770:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8753:Chemical bond
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8717:
8714:
8713:
8712:
8709:
8706:
8702:
8698:
8695:
8694:
8693:
8690:
8688:
8685:
8683:
8680:
8679:
8677:
8673:
8665:
8662:
8660:
8657:
8655:
8652:
8651:
8650:
8647:
8643:
8642:Stoichiometry
8640:
8639:
8638:
8635:
8631:
8628:
8626:
8623:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8612:
8611:
8608:
8604:
8601:
8600:
8599:
8598:Nanochemistry
8596:
8595:
8590:
8587:
8585:
8582:
8581:
8580:
8577:
8575:
8572:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8559:
8558:
8555:
8554:
8549:
8546:
8545:
8544:
8541:
8537:
8534:
8532:
8529:
8528:
8527:
8524:
8522:
8519:
8517:
8514:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8501:
8500:
8497:
8496:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8482:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8472:
8468:
8465:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8447:
8446:
8443:
8442:
8440:
8438:
8434:
8428:
8425:
8423:
8420:
8418:
8415:
8413:
8410:
8408:
8405:
8403:
8400:
8396:
8393:
8392:
8391:
8388:
8384:
8381:
8380:
8379:
8376:
8372:
8369:
8367:
8364:
8363:
8362:
8359:
8358:
8356:
8354:
8350:
8344:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8323:Semisynthesis
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8288:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8280:
8279:
8277:
8275:
8271:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8248:
8245:
8244:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8229:
8227:
8225:
8221:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8200:
8197:
8195:
8192:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8173:
8170:
8169:
8168:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8157:Sonochemistry
8155:
8153:
8152:Cryochemistry
8150:
8146:
8145:Micromeritics
8143:
8142:
8141:
8138:
8136:
8133:
8131:
8128:
8126:
8123:
8119:
8116:
8114:
8111:
8110:
8109:
8106:
8105:
8103:
8101:
8097:
8089:
8086:
8085:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8062:
8059:
8058:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8049:
8048:
8046:
8044:
8040:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8023:Wet chemistry
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8002:
7999:
7997:
7994:
7993:
7992:
7989:
7987:
7984:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7966:
7965:
7962:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7950:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7939:
7938:
7935:
7933:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7924:
7922:
7920:
7916:
7910:
7907:
7905:
7902:
7900:
7897:
7895:
7892:
7891:
7888:
7884:
7876:
7871:
7869:
7864:
7862:
7857:
7856:
7853:
7841:
7840:
7831:
7829:
7828:
7819:
7818:
7815:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7795:
7793:
7789:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7730:
7728:
7725:
7723:
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7704:
7702:
7696:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7670:
7667:
7665:
7662:
7660:
7657:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7644:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7635:
7633:
7630:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7617:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7610:Cell immunity
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7591:
7588:
7586:
7583:
7582:
7580:
7576:
7566:
7565:Sedimentation
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7512:
7510:
7506:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7474:Cultured meat
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7461:
7459:
7457:Biology field
7455:
7452:
7446:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7430:
7427:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7411:
7409:
7405:
7399:
7396:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7374:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7356:
7354:
7350:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7336:
7335:
7333:
7329:
7324:
7314:
7311:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7301:
7300:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7289:Biotechnology
7283:
7278:
7276:
7271:
7269:
7264:
7263:
7260:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7234:
7232:
7228:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7121:Phylogenetics
7119:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7016:Human biology
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6922:
6919:
6917:
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6906:Chronobiology
6904:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6881:Biotechnology
6879:
6877:
6876:Biostatistics
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6798:
6795:
6791:
6784:
6779:
6777:
6772:
6770:
6765:
6764:
6761:
6749:
6748:
6743:
6739:
6737:
6736:
6727:
6725:
6724:
6715:
6714:
6711:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6640:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6630:
6621:
6615:
6610:
6604:
6599:
6598:Life on Earth
6593:
6592:
6586:
6580:
6575:
6569:
6564:
6558:
6553:
6547:
6542:
6536:
6531:
6525:
6520:
6514:
6509:
6503:
6502:
6500:
6496:
6490:
6487:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6469:Semisynthesis
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6362:
6356:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6340:Tetrapyrroles
6338:
6336:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6324:
6323:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6316:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6302:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6284:
6282:
6281:Nucleic acids
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6264:Sphingolipids
6262:
6260:
6259:Phospholipids
6257:
6255:
6252:
6248:
6245:
6244:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6232:
6230:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6217:Glycoproteins
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6207:
6205:
6204:Carbohydrates
6200:
6199:
6196:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6153:
6149:
6148:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6096:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6084:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6053:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6022:
6019:
6017:
6014:
6013:
6011:
6005:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5947:
5944:
5943:
5942:
5939:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5851:
5849:
5845:
5840:
5833:
5828:
5826:
5821:
5819:
5814:
5813:
5810:
5804:
5797:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5779:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5758:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5718:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5669:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5657:0-8240-3695-6
5654:
5650:
5648:
5647:0-8153-1620-8
5644:
5640:
5638:
5637:0-8153-3218-1
5634:
5630:
5629:
5628:
5624:
5622:
5621:0-300-07608-8
5618:
5614:
5613:
5608:
5607:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5582:
5571:
5567:
5561:
5557:
5556:
5550:
5546:
5540:
5535:
5534:
5528:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5509:
5505:
5504:
5498:
5487:
5483:
5477:
5473:
5472:
5466:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5420:
5415:
5408:
5404:
5398:
5391:
5390:
5384:
5373:
5369:
5363:
5359:
5358:
5352:
5348:
5342:
5337:
5336:
5329:
5325:
5319:
5315:
5314:
5308:
5297:
5293:
5287:
5283:
5282:
5276:
5265:
5261:
5255:
5251:
5250:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5199:
5195:
5189:
5185:
5184:
5178:
5167:
5163:
5157:
5153:
5152:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5129:
5118:
5114:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5099:
5093:
5089:
5083:
5079:
5078:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5035:
5024:
5020:
5014:
5010:
5009:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4974:
4970:
4964:
4960:
4959:
4953:
4942:
4938:
4932:
4928:
4927:
4921:
4910:
4906:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4889:
4878:
4874:
4868:
4864:
4863:
4857:
4846:
4842:
4836:
4832:
4831:
4825:
4814:
4810:
4804:
4800:
4799:
4793:
4782:
4778:
4772:
4768:
4767:
4761:
4757:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4740:
4729:
4725:
4719:
4715:
4714:
4708:
4696:
4692:
4691:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4636:
4632:
4631:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4595:
4584:
4580:
4574:
4570:
4569:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4526:
4522:
4516:
4512:
4511:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4491:
4490:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4461:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4393:
4389:
4383:
4379:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4358:
4353:
4337:
4333:
4331:9780198714378
4327:
4323:
4322:
4315:
4308:
4303:
4296:
4291:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4261:
4254:
4249:
4242:
4237:
4229:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4181:
4176:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4144:
4137:
4132:
4125:
4120:
4113:
4108:
4101:
4096:
4089:
4084:
4077:
4072:
4065:
4060:
4053:
4048:
4040:
4034:
4026:
4019:
4012:
4007:
4001:(2009), p. 5.
4000:
3995:
3988:
3983:
3976:
3971:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3913:
3906:
3901:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3836:
3831:
3824:
3819:
3812:
3807:
3800:
3795:
3788:
3783:
3776:
3771:
3764:
3759:
3752:
3747:
3740:
3739:Rayner-Canham
3735:
3728:
3723:
3716:
3711:
3704:
3699:
3692:
3687:
3680:
3675:
3668:
3663:
3656:
3651:
3649:
3641:
3636:
3629:
3624:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3600:
3593:
3588:
3581:
3576:
3570:(2009), p. 2.
3569:
3564:
3558:(2005), p. 3.
3557:
3552:
3550:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3516:
3502:
3498:
3491:
3487:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3345:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3323:viral capsids
3319:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3186:
3183:
3168:
3165:
3157:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3127:This section
3125:
3116:
3115:
3106:
3103:
3095:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3061:This section
3059:
3055:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3042:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3009:
3008:
3000:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2941:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2833:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2678:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2650:
2643:
2634:
2626:
2625:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2600:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2471:Nucleic acids
2465:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2436:Nucleic acids
2433:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2389:
2384:
2383:transaminases
2380:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2308:phenylalanine
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2132:
2129:contains 585
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2093:synthesis, a
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2071:standard ones
2068:
2067:hydrogen atom
2060:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1990:phospholipids
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:milk products
1959:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1909:triglycerides
1906:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1874:sphingolipids
1871:
1870:phospholipids
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1763:hydroxy group
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1691:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1619:glucopyranose
1616:
1615:glucofuranose
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1501:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1359:
1352:
1343:
1342:Carbohydrates
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1316:Carbohydrates
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1286:nucleic acids
1283:
1279:
1275:
1274:carbohydrates
1271:
1265:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1137:received the
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1109:received the
1108:
1104:
1103:George Beadle
1100:
1099:DNA structure
1096:
1092:
1088:
1087:Francis Crick
1084:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1010:serendipitous
1007:
1003:
994:
988:
984:
982:
978:
975:
971:
970:
965:
960:
955:
951:
947:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
911:
907:
903:
897:
893:
889:
885:
884:Anselme Payen
881:
877:
873:
868:
864:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
834:
824:
822:
821:biotechnology
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
771:are known as
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
725:carbohydrates
722:
721:nucleic acids
718:
714:
709:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
636:
631:
629:
624:
622:
617:
616:
614:
613:
607:
597:
596:
595:
594:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
572:
571:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
510:
507:
506:
505:
502:
498:
495:
494:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
471:
470:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
440:Semisynthesis
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
337:
329:
328:
319:
316:
314:
313:Tetrapyrroles
311:
309:
308:
304:
300:
297:
296:
295:
292:
290:
289:
287:
282:
278:
275:
274:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
257:
255:
254:Nucleic acids
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
237:Sphingolipids
235:
233:
232:Phospholipids
230:
228:
225:
221:
218:
217:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
205:
203:
198:
196:
193:
191:
190:Glycoproteins
188:
186:
183:
181:
180:
178:
177:Carbohydrates
173:
172:
164:
163:
156:
153:
151:
148:
147:
141:
140:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
108:
107:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
87:
85:
84:
80:
75:
71:
70:
67:
64:
63:
59:
58:
53:
51:
43:
41:
36:
34:
19:
9193:Biochemistry
8971:Engineering
8922:Cell biology
8892:Architecture
8816:
8804:
8792:
8780:
8630:Biosynthesis
8480:Geochemistry
8395:Pharmacology
8371:Cell biology
8361:Biochemistry
8360:
8352:
8189:Spectroscopy
8088:VSEPR theory
7937:Spectroscopy
7881:Branches of
7837:
7825:
7762:Microbiology
7747:Biochemicals
7746:
7659:Gene therapy
7600:Biosynthesis
7578:Applications
7499:Spectroscopy
7469:Cell culture
7378:Fermentation
7166:Sociobiology
7146:Protistology
7111:Photobiology
7106:Pharmacology
7096:Parasitology
7091:Paleontology
7071:Neuroscience
7051:Microbiology
6961:Epidemiology
6931:Cytogenetics
6891:Cell biology
6871:Biosemiotics
6861:Biomechanics
6841:Biogeography
6836:Biochemistry
6835:
6831:Bacteriology
6826:Astrobiology
6745:
6733:
6721:
6694:Robert Hooke
6688:
6668:
6638:
6623:}}
6617:{{
6612:}}
6606:{{
6601:}}
6595:{{
6588:}}
6582:{{
6577:}}
6571:{{
6566:}}
6560:{{
6555:}}
6549:{{
6544:}}
6538:{{
6533:}}
6527:{{
6522:}}
6516:{{
6511:}}
6505:{{
6384:Biosynthesis
6333:
6332:
6311:
6310:
6279:
6278:
6227:
6226:
6202:
6201:
6174:Genetic code
6150:
5988:parasitology
5983:Bacteriology
5946:Pharmacology
5924:Cell biology
5909:Biochemistry
5908:
5868:
5839:Biochemistry
5838:
5737:Biochemistry
5736:
5680:
5676:
5664:
5626:
5610:
5585:
5574:. Retrieved
5554:
5532:
5518:the original
5503:Biochemistry
5502:
5490:. Retrieved
5470:
5429:
5425:
5388:
5376:. Retrieved
5356:
5335:Biochemistry
5334:
5312:
5300:. Retrieved
5280:
5268:. Retrieved
5248:
5210:
5206:
5182:
5170:. Retrieved
5150:
5132:
5121:. Retrieved
5097:
5076:
5042:
5038:
5027:. Retrieved
5007:
4981:
4977:
4957:
4945:. Retrieved
4925:
4913:. Retrieved
4893:
4881:. Retrieved
4861:
4849:. Retrieved
4829:
4817:. Retrieved
4801:. ABC-CLIO.
4797:
4785:. Retrieved
4769:. Springer.
4765:
4744:
4732:. Retrieved
4712:
4699:. Retrieved
4689:
4664:(2): 78–87.
4661:
4657:
4645:the original
4629:
4603:
4599:
4587:. Retrieved
4567:
4533:
4529:
4509:
4488:
4459:
4415:
4411:
4396:. Retrieved
4376:
4352:
4340:. Retrieved
4320:
4314:
4302:
4290:
4278:. Retrieved
4269:
4260:
4248:
4236:
4201:
4197:
4187:
4175:
4165:, retrieved
4153:
4143:
4131:
4119:
4107:
4095:
4083:
4071:
4059:
4047:
4027:. Macmillan.
4024:
4018:
4006:
3994:
3982:
3970:
3959:. Retrieved
3926:
3922:
3912:
3900:
3889:. Retrieved
3856:
3852:
3842:
3830:
3818:
3806:
3794:
3782:
3770:
3758:
3746:
3734:
3722:
3710:
3698:
3686:
3674:
3662:
3635:
3623:
3611:
3599:
3587:
3575:
3563:
3537:. Retrieved
3528:
3519:
3490:
3440:Metabolomics
3385:Astrobiology
3327:gene therapy
3310:
3309:
3290:
3289:
3274:" or normal
3258:
3257:
3252:biomolecules
3239:Biochemistry
3238:
3237:
3208:
3178:
3160:
3151:
3128:
3098:
3089:
3074:Please help
3062:
3038:
3031:
3025:
3024:Please help
3021:
2953:
2936:
2890:
2850:
2606:
2603:Carbon cycle
2575:
2531:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2469:
2442:Nucleic acid
2415:
2392:
2376:
2280:
2215:
2205:; they then
2200:
2186:
2173:
2163:
2118:
2115:polypeptides
2108:
2102:
2087:peptide bond
2041:
2006:transfersome
1998:drug carrier
1955:
1952:
1925:
1921:double bonds
1902:
1848:
1846:
1837:phospholipid
1819:composed of
1817:triglyceride
1747:reducing end
1737:
1730:
1722:
1694:
1688:
1686:
1656:or ordinary
1647:
1639:disaccharide
1637:
1627:
1607:double bonds
1586:
1582:
1580:
1479:
1474:
1468:
1461:
1442:
1419:
1387:disaccharide
1330:Disaccharide
1322:Carbohydrate
1270:biomolecules
1267:
1258:Biomolecules
1225:
1174:
1107:Edward Tatum
1076:
999:
977:Carl Neuberg
967:
943:
927:Emil Fischer
915:fermentation
899:
878:(now called
859:
813:pest control
710:
649:
646:Biochemistry
645:
644:
551:parasitology
546:Bacteriology
509:Pharmacology
487:Cell biology
355:Biosynthesis
306:
305:
284:
283:
252:
251:
200:
199:
175:
174:
117:Biomolecules
78:
66:Biochemistry
65:
50:Biochemistry
49:
39:
33:Biochemistry
32:
9092:Ornithology
9077:Meteorology
9062:Mathematics
9052:Ichthyology
8887:Archaeology
8882:Agriculture
8866:engineering
8818:WikiProject
8043:Theoretical
8028:Calorimetry
7752:Biorobotics
7742:Biomimetics
7737:Biomedicine
7216:Xenobiology
7211:Virophysics
7181:Systematics
7136:Primatology
7081:Ornithology
7021:Ichthyology
7006:Herpetology
7001:Gerontology
6966:Epigenetics
6926:Cryobiology
6816:Agrostology
6806:Aerobiology
6801:Abiogenesis
6684:Experiments
6639:Occupations
6552:Amino acids
6321:Amino acids
6299:Nucleotides
6294:Nucleosides
6289:Nucleobases
6269:Cholesterol
6242:Fatty acids
6237:Eicosanoids
6188:Biomolecule
6159:Chromosomes
6119:Amino acids
6099:Cell theory
6077:Biomolecule
5586:Independent
5141:10113/46493
5045:: 877–919.
4701:16 February
3775:Ben-Menahem
3460:Proteolysis
3248:Biochemists
3154:August 2023
3092:August 2023
2976:Krebs Cycle
2956:vertebrates
2540:(RNA). The
2526:nucleosides
2487:nucleotides
2479:biopolymers
2403:Unicellular
2249:. Finally,
2091:dehydration
2047:amino acids
1948:cholesterol
1944:amphiphilic
1940:hydrophilic
1932:hydrophobic
1913:fatty acids
1878:glycolipids
1866:fatty acids
1809:cholesterol
1524:deoxyribose
1516:sweet taste
1356:Glucose, a
1264:Biomolecule
1117:. In 1988,
1111:Nobel Prize
1072:Krebs cycle
952:. In 1877,
919:respiration
850:Nobel Prize
817:engineering
809:fertilizers
789:biochemists
785:agriculture
757:amino acids
294:Amino acids
272:Nucleotides
267:Nucleosides
262:Nucleobases
242:Cholesterol
215:Fatty acids
210:Eicosanoids
9187:Categories
9107:Psychiatry
9016:Geography
8987:Entomology
8654:Metallurgy
8353:Biological
7919:Analytical
7707:Bioeconomy
7679:Stem cells
7632:Embryology
7555:Filtration
7545:Extraction
7464:Bioreactor
7201:Toxicology
7196:Teratology
7141:Proteomics
7126:Physiology
7066:Neontology
7031:Lipidology
7026:Immunology
6996:Geobiology
6956:Embryology
6936:Dendrology
6866:Biophysics
6846:Biogeology
6664:Microscopy
6254:Glycerides
6222:Glycosides
6072:Metabolism
6067:Enzymology
5998:immunology
5576:2015-07-27
5492:2020-06-05
5378:2020-06-05
5302:2020-06-05
5270:2020-06-05
5172:2020-06-05
5123:2016-01-04
5029:2015-07-27
4947:2020-06-05
4915:2015-07-27
4883:2015-07-27
4851:2015-07-27
4819:2015-07-27
4787:2020-06-05
4734:2020-06-05
4589:2015-07-27
4398:2015-07-27
4280:14 October
4167:2023-11-30
4154:StatPearls
3961:2021-05-04
3929:(8): 452.
3891:2021-05-04
3539:2016-01-04
3511:References
3435:Metabolome
3400:Biophysics
3286:" studies.
3219:biophysics
3138:improve it
3027:improve it
2997:Cori cycle
2980:catabolism
2972:glycolysis
2901:acetyl-CoA
2857:glycolysis
2789:Glycolysis
2588:Metabolism
2536:(DNA) and
2499:pyrimidine
2493:(either a
2454:Nucleotide
2426:homologies
2411:urea cycle
2332:asparagine
2316:tryptophan
2304:methionine
2292:isoleucine
2202:substrates
2178:Antibodies
2150:hemoglobin
2089:. In this
2053:group, –NH
2022:Amino acid
1882:terpenoids
1813:oleic acid
1799:Fatty acid
1779:Saccharose
1727:cell walls
1649:hydrolysis
1642:through a
1634:ester bond
1630:glycosidic
1625:are rare.
1564:hemiacetal
1248:phosphorus
1068:glycolysis
1066:, such as
906:physiology
854:Cori cycle
842:Gerty Cori
773:metabolism
678:metabolism
674:enzymology
575:Glossaries
561:immunology
227:Glycerides
195:Glycosides
150:Biochemist
132:Metabolism
9177:Chemistry
8962:Economics
8927:Chemistry
8902:Astronomy
8716:Catalysis
8224:Inorganic
8018:Titration
7883:chemistry
7550:Fed Batch
7450:and tools
7116:Phycology
7101:Pathology
7086:Osteology
7076:Nutrition
7036:Mammalogy
7011:Histology
6669:Concepts:
6644:Biologist
6498:Templates
6361:synthesis
6359:Chemical
6009:chemistry
5859:Chemistry
5594:311080685
5426:Biochimie
5207:Molecules
4033:cite book
3951:0021-9584
3881:0003-3804
3811:Kleinkauf
3763:Kleinkauf
3475:TCA cycle
3420:EC number
3280:epistasis
3276:phenotype
3272:wild type
3244:organisms
3223:chemistry
3142:verifying
3063:does not
3033:talk page
2503:phosphate
2407:bony fish
2379:keto acid
2372:histidine
2348:glutamine
2344:glutamate
2336:aspartate
2312:threonine
2273:isomerase
2239:glutamate
2174:extremely
2104:dipeptide
2079:glutamate
1917:saturated
1894:aliphatic
1886:retinoids
1854:molecules
1829:palmitoyl
1723:Cellulose
1711:cellulose
1674:galactose
1595:pyranoses
1591:furanoses
1568:hemiketal
1424:known as
1016:synthesis
959:biochemie
950:chemistry
910:pathology
846:Carl Cori
781:nutrition
751:ions) or
741:inorganic
733:molecules
706:molecular
662:chemistry
658:organisms
42:(journal)
35:(journal)
9208:Genomics
9132:Virology
9117:Robotics
9082:Mycology
9072:Medicine
8917:Calculus
8782:Category
8738:Molecule
8675:See also
8100:Physical
7827:Category
7782:Virology
7684:Telomere
7331:Branches
7230:See also
7206:Virology
7191:Taxonomy
7131:Pomology
7061:Mycology
6991:Genomics
6986:Genetics
6811:Agronomy
6723:Category
6313:Proteins
6274:Steroids
6212:Alcohols
6191:families
6152:Genetics
6104:Ribosome
6055:Concepts
6036:Catalyst
6026:Molecule
6007:General
5993:virology
5717:29267345
5677:PLOS ONE
5590:ProQuest
5570:Archived
5527:"Sugars"
5486:Archived
5458:Archived
5454:22165949
5446:21111023
5407:Archived
5372:Archived
5296:Archived
5264:Archived
5239:21441869
5166:Archived
5117:Archived
5023:Archived
4998:93425404
4941:Archived
4909:Archived
4877:Archived
4845:Archived
4813:Archived
4781:Archived
4728:Archived
4695:Archived
4680:17003074
4583:Archived
4558:10665411
4550:17465885
4442:13684868
4392:Archived
4342:29 April
4336:Archived
4274:Archived
4228:20022755
4162:30247827
4064:Slabaugh
3955:Archived
3905:Kauffman
3885:Archived
3655:Helvoort
3533:Archived
3378:See also
3338:See also
3284:knockout
3259:Genetics
3227:genetics
3211:genetics
3200:genetics
2968:glycogen
2861:pyruvate
2814:pyruvate
2712:Pyruvate
2550:cytosine
2399:ammonium
2368:arginine
2364:tyrosine
2340:cysteine
2207:catalyze
2125:protein
2119:proteins
2110:peptides
2099:nitrogen
2043:Proteins
2036:carboxyl
2012:Proteins
2002:liposome
1905:glycerol
1898:aromatic
1890:steroids
1858:nonpolar
1833:glycerol
1825:stearoyl
1795:Glycerol
1771:furanose
1767:pyranose
1751:aldehyde
1743:reducing
1732:glycogen
1719:monomers
1715:glycogen
1707:branched
1666:fructose
1623:heptoses
1560:hydroxyl
1500:fructose
1478:, where
1453:hydrogen
1383:fructose
1294:monomers
1290:polymers
1282:proteins
1236:nitrogen
1232:hydrogen
1197:titanium
1193:aluminum
1185:selenium
1070:and the
996:)
931:proteins
876:diastase
856:at RPMI.
797:diseases
777:medicine
717:proteins
715:such as
606:Category
556:virology
286:Proteins
247:Steroids
185:Alcohols
9165:Biology
9151:Portals
9097:Physics
9047:Geology
8957:Ecology
8907:Biology
8862:science
8794:Commons
8758:Alchemy
8274:Organic
7839:Commons
7722:Biology
7615:Cloning
7393:Protein
7388:Plasmid
7296:History
7221:Zoology
6951:Ecology
6821:Anatomy
6735:Commons
6649:Chemist
6632:Related
6620:Zoology
6134:Hormone
6129:Peptide
6124:Protein
6114:Peptide
6109:Nucleus
6041:Reagent
5864:Biology
5708:5739466
5685:Bibcode
5230:6259834
5067:7452392
5059:6250450
4620:1518049
4465:Bibcode
4450:4172248
4420:Bibcode
4253:Saenger
4219:4716677
4180:Metzler
4088:Whiting
4076:Whiting
4052:Nielsen
4011:Chandan
3931:Bibcode
3861:Bibcode
3823:Edwards
3727:Feldman
3679:Hamblin
3592:Astbury
3529:acs.org
3501:peaches
3300:protein
3268:mutants
3136:Please
3084:removed
3069:sources
2932:quinone
2893:aerobic
2887:Aerobic
2877:ethanol
2855:called
2853:pathway
2810:glucose
2642:Glucose
2609:enzymes
2558:thymine
2554:guanine
2546:adenine
2505:group.
2395:ammonia
2356:proline
2352:glycine
2328:alanine
2296:leucine
2276:domains
2230:β-sheet
2226:α-helix
2193:enzymes
2160:groups.
2127:albumin
2018:Protein
1884:(e.g.,
1765:of the
1699:signals
1678:lactase
1670:lactose
1662:glucose
1654:sucrose
1636:into a
1611:glucose
1484:Glucose
1426:glucose
1411:glucose
1403:Amylose
1379:glucose
1375:sucrose
1244:calcium
1221:silicon
1209:bromine
1205:animals
1062:of the
974:chemist
946:biology
939:enzymes
880:amylase
827:History
753:organic
694:tissues
666:biology
122:Enzymes
100:History
95:Outline
8912:Botany
8806:Portal
7952:UV-Vis
7767:Mining
7700:fields
7359:Allele
6886:Botany
6747:Portal
6609:Botany
6334:Other:
6229:Lipids
6139:Enzyme
5912:fields
5841:topics
5734:about
5715:
5705:
5655:
5645:
5635:
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5592:
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4440:
4412:Nature
4384:
4328:
4226:
4216:
4160:
4124:Stryer
3999:Butler
3949:
3879:
3799:Horton
3787:Amsler
3751:Ziesak
3715:Holmes
3691:Hunter
3667:Hunter
3640:UNICEF
3628:Finkel
3580:Miller
3231:genome
3217:, and
3202:, and
2992:starch
2897:oxygen
2839:
2837:
2828:
2826:
2821:
2819:
2684:1,3BPG
2663:F1,6BP
2564:. The
2562:uracil
2560:, and
2495:purine
2475:nuclei
2452:, and
2362:, and
2360:serine
2320:valine
2318:, and
2300:lysine
2243:valine
2170:myosin
2154:globin
1970:cheese
1966:butter
1880:, and
1849:Lipids
1827:, and
1821:oleoyl
1797:, and
1785:Lipids
1775:acetal
1759:ketose
1755:aldose
1695:oligo-
1576:ketose
1572:aldose
1552:oxygen
1548:cyclic
1546:and a
1522:, and
1520:fruits
1457:oxygen
1455:, and
1449:carbon
1422:sugars
1332:, and
1284:, and
1278:lipids
1272:) are
1240:oxygen
1228:carbon
1213:sodium
1201:plants
1189:iodine
933:, and
872:enzyme
729:lipids
727:, and
698:organs
676:, and
604:
307:Other:
202:Lipids
52:(book)
7979:MALDI
7947:Raman
7791:Lists
7669:Omics
6434:LASiS
6087:Cells
5461:(PDF)
5450:S2CID
5422:(PDF)
5410:(PDF)
5393:(PDF)
5063:S2CID
4994:S2CID
4554:S2CID
4446:S2CID
4112:Varki
3987:Krebs
3975:Tropp
3835:Fiske
3616:Marks
3604:Eldra
3482:Notes
3349:Lists
2984:liver
2881:yeast
2754:GAPDH
2497:or a
2166:actin
2123:serum
2051:amino
2032:amino
1936:water
1928:polar
1862:waxes
1791:Lipid
1739:Sugar
1658:sugar
1603:pyran
1599:furan
1574:or a
1413:units
1405:, a
1385:), a
1217:boron
1018:from
793:cures
749:metal
745:water
690:cells
405:LASiS
90:Index
8864:and
8733:Atom
8001:HPLC
7520:CSTR
7489:HPLC
7383:Gene
7364:Cell
6345:Heme
5778:NCBI
5713:PMID
5653:ISBN
5643:ISBN
5633:ISBN
5617:ISBN
5560:ISBN
5539:ISBN
5508:ISBN
5476:ISBN
5442:PMID
5397:ISBN
5362:ISBN
5341:ISBN
5318:ISBN
5286:ISBN
5254:ISBN
5235:PMID
5188:ISBN
5156:ISBN
5107:ISBN
5082:ISBN
5055:PMID
5013:ISBN
4963:ISBN
4931:ISBN
4899:ISBN
4867:ISBN
4835:ISBN
4803:ISBN
4771:ISBN
4750:ISBN
4718:ISBN
4703:2015
4676:PMID
4635:ISBN
4616:PMID
4573:ISBN
4546:PMID
4515:ISBN
4494:ISBN
4473:ISBN
4438:PMID
4382:ISBN
4344:2020
4326:ISBN
4307:Voet
4282:2023
4224:PMID
4158:PMID
4136:Voet
4100:Voet
4039:link
3947:ISSN
3877:ISSN
3703:Berg
3568:Karp
3556:Voet
3497:date
3264:gene
3067:any
3065:cite
2917:FADH
2909:NADH
2834:and
2804:The
2740:ALDO
2677:DHAP
2670:GADP
2601:and
2520:and
2491:base
2420:and
2370:and
2187:The
2168:and
2158:heme
2057:, a
2020:and
1978:fats
1974:ghee
1960:and
1958:oils
1919:(no
1888:and
1811:and
1729:and
1713:and
1601:and
1593:and
1436:and
1246:and
1219:and
1203:and
1195:and
1187:and
1169:and
1133:and
1105:and
1093:and
1079:gene
1064:cell
1054:and
1022:and
1013:urea
993:1D65
948:and
917:and
908:and
844:and
807:and
805:soil
783:and
747:and
737:ions
735:and
696:and
664:and
318:Heme
37:and
9025:N–Z
9020:A–M
9010:M–Z
9005:0–L
8980:M–Z
8975:A–L
8743:Ion
7974:ICP
7957:NMR
7560:PFR
7494:NMR
7373:RNA
7369:DNA
6169:DNA
6164:RNA
5703:PMC
5693:doi
5434:doi
5225:PMC
5215:doi
5137:hdl
5047:doi
4986:doi
4666:doi
4608:doi
4604:226
4538:doi
4428:doi
4416:190
4214:PMC
4206:doi
3939:doi
3869:doi
3329:or
3304:RNA
3140:by
3078:by
2954:In
2891:In
2869:NAD
2865:ATP
2832:ATP
2812:to
2775:ENO
2768:PGM
2761:PGK
2747:TPI
2733:PFK
2726:PGI
2705:PEP
2698:2PG
2691:3PG
2656:F6P
2649:G6P
2450:RNA
2446:DNA
2113:or
2008:).
2004:or
1769:or
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1632:or
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1566:or
1540:DNA
1518:of
1123:DNA
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