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1945:
Bitter street fighting ensued, and
Durruti, the anarchist leader, was killed on the 19th. Three theories attempt to explain the mystery of Durruti's death. The bullet may have come from a nationalist soldier. Others believe that Durruti was killed by the accidental discharge of one of his own men's weapons. A third theory suggests he was betrayed and killed on order of the communists. Despite fierce counterattacks by the XI International Brigade and Spanish Republican units, the Nationalists kept their toehold in the University City and, by the end of the battle, were in possession of three quarters of the complex. However, their attempt to storm Madrid had failed in the face of unexpectedly-stiff Republican resistance. Franco stopped further infantry assaults, as he could not risk losing any more of his best
139:
50:
571:
181:
365:
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335:
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245:
233:
219:
122:
195:
559:
547:
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163:
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2026:. That was achieved by integrating the militias into the structures of the elements of the prewar army that had sided with the Republic. In theory, it reduced the power of political parties relative to the government, but in practice, it increased the influence of the Communist Party, which led the implementation of the policy through the loyal, disciplined and militarized units of its
2030:(MAOC). Also close to the Communist Party were the Soviet arms providers and foreign volunteers and advisers, both groups providing much of the practical military experience on the Republican side. The party, therefore, had a disproportionate influence in the appointment of military commanders and the setting of military policy.
1725:" of right-wing sympathisers in it. The term "fifth column" became a synonym for spies or traitors for Republicans, and paranoia led to massacre of Nationalist prisoners in Madrid during the ensuing battle. The government, including Caballero, expected Madrid to fall and so made a preplanned move from Madrid on 6 November to
2060:, where the Republicans had moved their government. The results were inconclusive. Franco's troops managed to get onto the east bank of the Jarama but failed to sever communications between Madrid and Valencia. Casualties on both sides were heavy, estimates of losses ranging from 6,000 to 20,000 on each side.
2167:
was all that he would accept. On 26 March, Franco ordered a general advance into Madrid, and on the 27th, the
Republican front collapsed, many of whose troops surrendered or simply threw away their weapons and started for home. On 28 March, Madrid finally fell to Franco's forces. In spite of Casado's
2067:
was fought about 60 km north-east of Madrid when
Republican troops routed an attempt by Italian troops to cross the Jarama and encircle Madrid's defences to launch an assault on the city. Italian and Nationalist losses were significantly higher than that of the Republicans. Around a third of the
1812:
Prison, the target of the offensive, but the attack stalled at the western fringe of the city. The
Republican General Miaja himself reputedly raced to the ruined buildings to which the Republican troops were starting to flee and, pistol in hand, called upon the retreating troops to rally and die with
2126:
In 1938, the siege of Madrid tightened and its population suffered increasingly from a lack of food, warm clothes and arms and ammunition. However, Franco had by now given up on the idea of another frontal assault on the city but was happy to constrict the siege gradually and to continue to bomb the
1803:
The
Republicans had deployed 12,000 troops in Carabanchel and 30,000 more to meet the main assault at the Casa de Campo. Despite their superiority in numbers, they were badly equipped since they had mostly only small arms, with reputedly only ten rounds for each rifle. In addition, most of them had
1824:
in the city centre. Although few and with their training unfinished, since they had been hurried to the front as a relief force, their arrival was a major morale boost for the defenders of Madrid. The foreign troops, while actually a mixture of volunteers from
Germany, France, Britain and various
1738:
However, the
Nationalists' attempt to capture Madrid had some serious tactical drawbacks. Their troops were outnumbered by over two to one by the defenders although the Nationalists were far better trained and equipped. Another disadvantage was their inability to surround Madrid and to cut it off
1944:
On the 19th, the
Nationalists made their final frontal assault. Under cover of a heavy artillery bombardment, Moroccan and Foreign Legion troops fought their way into the University City quarter of Madrid. While their advance was checked, they established a bridgehead over the Manzanares River.
1849:
On 10 November, the
Nationalists switched the focus of their offensive to the Carabanchel suburb, but the heavily urban area proved to be a very difficult obstacle. The colonial Moroccan troops were pinned down in house-to-house fighting (in which they had little previous experience since their
1857:
launched an assault of the XI International
Brigade on the Nationalist positions in the Casa de Campo, which lasted for the whole night and part of the next morning. At the end of the fight, the Nationalist troops had been forced to retreat and abandoned all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid
2156:, but the communist troops settled around Madrid rejected the authority of the Council and entered Madrid on the 7th. There were some days of fighting in the streets between communist and non-communist troops, which ended with the defeat of the communists and the execution of their leader,
2079:
again developed into a bloody stalemate. The initial Republican attack took Brunete and pushed back the Nationalist front some 12 km, but determined Nationalist counterattacks retook this territory by the end of the battle. Republican losses were significantly higher than those of the
1973:, which was assumed to contain many Nationalist supporters, with the intention of terrifying the civilian population into surrender. Franco is quoted as saying, "I will destroy Madrid rather than leave it to the Marxists". German bombers pounded the rest of the city from 19 to 23 November.
1997:
over the River Manzanares, in the University City, through the Casa de Campo park, and through the streets of the Carabanchel area Madrid was subjected to a sporadic artillery and aerial bombardment, and food became short as the winter went on. The UGT transferred some vital industries to
1452:
in Madrid, was preparing to launch the military rebellion in the city. However, when he tried to march out of the barracks, his 2,500 troops were forced back inside the compound by hostile crowds and armed trade unionists. On the 20th, the barracks was stormed by a mixture of workers and
1684:
commanded their armoured forces. About 90% of the Republican defenders of Madrid were militias raised by left-wing political parties or trade unions, which elected their own leaders. The Republican command had relatively little control over the units in the early phase of the Civil War.
1482:
For the remainder of the war, Madrid was held by the Republicans. However, its population contained a significant number of Nationalist sympathisers, over 20,000 of which sought refuge in foreign embassies in the city. The weeks that followed the July uprising saw a number of so-called
1478:
sergeant sympathetic to the Republicans. The sergeant was killed by one of his officers, but his action allowed the Republicans to breach the walls. Many soldiers were massacred by the crowd, which had been enraged by the apparent false surrenders, after the fall of the barracks.
1858:
through the Casa de Campo, while the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its men. Meanwhile, Republican troops counterattacked all along the front in Madrid, on 9, 10 and 17 November, driving the Nationalists back at some places, but taking heavy casualties in the process.
1467:" of about 10,000 fighters. The fighting was chaotic, and on several occasions, some soldiers in the barracks indicated their willingness to surrender, only for other troops to keep firing at the attackers, which killed those who had broken cover to take them prisoner.
1976:
Arguably, that tactic by Franco was counter-productive, as the Republican population in Madrid was not cowed into surrender, and the aerial bombardment of civilians, one of the first in the history of warfare, was heavily criticised by foreign journalists such as
1769:, to the south-west of the city centre. However, on 7 November, the Republicans had captured plans of the attack on the body of an Italian officer found in a destroyed tank and so could concentrate their troops in the Casa de Campo to meet the main attack.
2083:
In late 1937, the Nationalists took much of northern Spain, the country's industrial heartland, with its many arms factories, which had sustained the Republican war effort. At the very end of the year, the Republican commander of the IV Corps at the time,
1720:
fell to the Nationalists, leaving their troops at the western suburb of Madrid. Mola famously remarked to an English journalist that he would take Madrid with his four columns of regular and Moroccan troops from southwest in Spain outside the city and his
2013:
The casualties inflicted in the Battle of Madrid were never accurately counted, but the British historian Hugh Thomas estimated that they were a total about 10,000 for both sides and the civilian population.They were not ready to fight in the war.
2176:
The Siege of Madrid became a mythic subject in the popular imagination during the Spanish Civil War. The besieged capital of Spain, with the enemy so close, yet unable to take the city for years on end, became the subject of songs, such as
2130:
By the spring of 1939, after the collapse of the Republican forces on other fronts, the Republican cause in Madrid was clearly doomed, which created a bitter division within Republican ranks. On one side was the socialist Prime Minister
2139:
and others, who wanted to negotiate the surrender of Madrid to spare Republican supporters the worst of the Nationalist retribution. On 5 March, Casado's men arrested communist officers in Madrid, stripped them of their powers,
1985:, the death toll was about 2000. From early 1937 onward, fighter resistance and Republican pilots' experience had also grown too strong for further bombing to occur during daylight, which further limited its effectiveness.
2075:, tried to break out of Madrid in an armoured assault but were beaten back. A far more ambitious northern offensive was launched by the Republicans in July with the intention of encircling the Nationalists. However, the
2835:
1431:. Giral agreed to arm the trade unionists to defend the Republic and had 60,000 rifles delivered to the CNT and UGT headquarters although only 5,000 were in working order. In a radio broadcast on the 18th, the
1760:
park on a front of only 1 km (0.62 mi) wide to try to avoid street fighting, as the park was open country and lay just across the river from the city centre. Mola's initial intention was to take the
1351:), established by the Republican government to reward courage, were named after the capital of Spain because the city symbolised valour and Republican resistance during the long siege throughout the war.
2350:
2168:
efforts at negotiation, many of the Republican defenders of Madrid were among the almost 200,000 people who were executed or died during imprisonment by Franco's regime between 1939 and 1943.
2333:
1813:
him, rather than flee as cowards. Throughout the day, the city radio called upon the citizens to mobilise and support the front, with the rallying cry "¡No pasarán!" ('They shall not pass!')
1756:
separated the Nationalists from the city centre and was a formidable physical obstacle. Mola planned his assault on Madrid for 8 November 1936. He planned to attack through the
1981:. The casualties from the aerial bombardment seems to have been relatively low, however. There is no definitive figure for the civilian casualties it caused, but according to
2839:
1133:
1111:
2956:
1090:
2959:
1607:
militia, raised troops in the north. Together, they planned a "Drive on Madrid" with Franco advancing from Badajoz, which he took in August and Mola advancing from
1395:, the Republican government was unsure what to do. It wanted to put down the coup but was unsure if it could trust the armed forces, and it did not want to arm the
1625:, routed the Republican militias in their path. Yague argued for a rapid advance on Madrid, but Franco overruled him to relieve the Nationalist troops besieged in
3060:
1445:("They shall not pass") to urge resistance against the coup. The slogan was to become synonymous with the defense of Madrid and the Republican cause in general.
646:
1320:
in November 1936 saw the most intense fighting in and around the city when the Nationalists made their most determined attempt to take the Republican capital.
2068:
city of Madrid heavily damaged, but morale remained still strong in the population, and Madrilenes prided themselves of doing "business as usual" under fire.
1765:, just north of the city centre, to establish a bridgehead across the Manzanares. He also launched a diversionary attack towards the working-class suburb of
972:
1804:
never been trained in the use of weapons, let alone experienced combat before. Nevertheless, they held off the Nationalist onslaught at Casa de Campo. Some
2583:
838:
1700:, were commanded independently of Franco's officers. The Nationalists reached Madrid in early November 1936 by approaching it from the north along the
3026:
2022:
After the Battle of Madrid, the Republican government tried to reorganise its armed forces from a collection of militias into a regular army, the
1930:. The attack collapsed because of language and communication problems and insufficient artillery support, but the road to Valencia remained open.
1884:
Valley by the Republican 5th regiment as potential "Fifth Columnists". It has been alleged that the killings were ordered by the communist leader
3038:(Article on life in Madrid during the siege, by the students of the Faculty of Geography and History of the Universidad Complutense of Madrid)
2767:
2732:
3049:
1969:
Having failed to take Madrid by assault, Franco ordered the aerial bombardment of the city's residential areas except for the upper-class
1850:
greatest strength was in open-country warfare) and took heavy casualties at the hands of militiamen who knew the urban terrain very well.
745:
639:
2041:(July). In addition, two other battles were fought further afield as part of the Nationalist campaign to take the capital: in March, at
3035:
2135:, some other government ministers and the Communist Party, who wanted to fight to the end. They were opposed by the Republican Colonel
2112:
3099:
2141:
1271:
710:
678:
2970:
2027:
1460:
1305:
168:
1993:
The battle petered out in December, with both sides exhausted. A frontline stabilised in the city, running from the Nationalist
1587:
and his allies instead had to conquer the country by military force if they wanted to seize power. Franco himself had landed in
1231:
1104:
704:
698:
632:
127:
2122:
or 'Valley of the fallen', a colossal memorial built by Franco near Madrid after the war, to commemorate dead from both sides.
1907:
Colonel Romero had disagreements with anarchists, asked for the dismissal of Ricardo Sanz and proposed the dissolution of the
2994:
2936:
2902:
2709:
2684:
2538:
2447:
934:
833:
1780:
commanded Republican forces there and effectively repelled attempts to cross it and to gain access to Madrid's city centre.
1396:
1224:
3104:
1633:
671:
1629:. That diversion held up the attack on Madrid by up to a month, which gave the Republicans time to prepare its defence.
2639:
1660:. The communists were a minority in the government, but they gained in influence through their access to arms from the
2562:
2007:
1994:
1649:
1564:
1487:
or fascist sympathisers being killed in Madrid by Republicans. For example, on 23 August, seventy prisoners from the
1415:
to put down the rebellion there. However, on reaching the city, the guardias defected to the insurgents. On 19 July,
910:
1546:
2145:
1773:
1538:
1459:("assault guards", an urban police force) loyal to the government, as well as five battalions of the communist-led
924:
877:
17:
1922:
with German, Scandinavian, French, Belgian and Italian troops, launched an attack on Nationalist positions on the
1777:
1400:
1360:
716:
3109:
3044:
2002:
tunnels under the city that were not in use. Franco's final action of 1936 was to attempt to cut off the road to
1641:
843:
2338:
2590:
2417:
1939:
1800:. The German Condor Legion also provided air support, which took a heavy toll on the buildings of the quarter.
1657:
1542:
870:
804:
539:
1689:
917:
853:
738:
3139:
3129:
2163:
That left Casado free to try to negotiate terms with Franco. However, the Nationalist leader insisted that
1577:
The initial strategy of the military plot had been to assume power all over the country in the manner of a
1324:
731:
3023:
551:
1195:
1121:
1034:
2152:) to negotiate a peace deal with Franco. The next day, the communist leaders and Negrín fled Spain from
1316:(1936–1939). The city, besieged from October 1936, fell to the Nationalist armies on 28 March 1939. The
2096:
launched a pre-emptive offensive of his own, with over 100,000 men on 15 December and took the town of
1731:
1404:
690:
490:
1148:
929:
2953:
2945:
1915:
1762:
1637:
1370:
1085:
1075:
948:
686:
527:
1175:
1041:
3134:
3119:
2057:
1817:
1797:
1726:
1653:
1527:
1496:
1416:
1328:
1260:
1153:
1080:
794:
381:
351:
2702:
Ashes and granite : Destruction and Reconstruction in the Spanish Civil War and Its Aftermath
297:
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49:
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2006:, north-west of Madrid, as the first step towards surrounding the Spanish capital. The resulting
1681:
1531:
1381:
1293:
1207:
1190:
848:
369:
2986:
2975:
2860:
2396:
1056:
762:
3124:
2185:
1665:
1596:
1592:
1583:(military coup) of the 19th century. However, resistance to the coup by Republicans meant that
828:
779:
563:
155:
2928:
477:
2064:
1645:
1420:
1377:
1255:
1245:
1185:
954:
774:
2386:
2072:
1893:
784:
2982:
2442:(Modern Library paperback ed.). New York: Random House Publishing Group. p. 219.
1982:
1877:
1866:
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personnel were perhaps more important. General Goriev was their overall commander, General
1138:
960:
882:
815:
768:
751:
425:
1821:
1250:
809:
8:
2894:
2118:
1880:; 1,029 Nationalist prisoners held in the Modelo Prison were taken out and killed in the
1492:
1441:
1239:
1212:
1180:
1158:
1013:
1001:
989:
2665:
Historia del Ejército Popular de la Republica, op.cit. Editora Nacional, p. 784, note 5.
1449:
858:
789:
2836:"Si me quieres escribir – Ya sabes mi paradero – El Frente de Gandesa – Los emboscados"
2093:
2042:
1970:
1753:
1455:
1340:
1265:
1201:
1170:
1116:
1069:
1007:
984:
757:
249:
1808:
eventually broke through and made an initial crossing over the Manzanares towards the
1474:
brought up a 75 mm field gun to bombard the complex and its gate was opened by a
1022:
339:
2990:
2932:
2917:
2898:
2715:
2705:
2680:
2635:
2558:
2534:
2453:
2443:
2413:
2392:
2313:
2136:
2076:
2038:
1901:
1885:
1826:
1692:
supplied Franco with air cover and armoured units for his assault on Madrid, and the
1677:
1632:
Meanwhile, in Madrid, the Republican government had reformed under the leadership of
1366:
1313:
1164:
1062:
1046:
896:
799:
656:
309:
41:
3018:
1709:
821:
721:
261:
2317:
2101:
2034:
1978:
1584:
1436:
1344:
1332:
1309:
1219:
1127:
1096:
1051:
994:
966:
942:
903:
887:
452:
429:
385:
2088:
intercepted Nationalist plans for a fresh assault on Madrid from the direction of
1708:. On 29 October, a Republican counterattack by the 5th (communist) regiment under
3030:
2963:
2888:
2772:
2737:
1897:
1673:
1579:
1143:
978:
726:
503:
401:
2157:
1506:
321:
224:
2344:
2190:
2179:
2100:. Rojo's offensive put paid to Franco's proposed assault on Madrid, but led to
2033:
In 1937, there were two major battles in the immediate area around Madrid, the
1908:
1830:
1668:. The Republican military commander in Madrid was nominally a Spanish general,
1464:
2495:
Comín Colomer, Eduardo (1973); El 5º Regimiento de Milicias Populares. Madrid.
2132:
1927:
1705:
1701:
3093:
3075:
3062:
2924:
2912:
2884:
2719:
2457:
2355:
2085:
1999:
1889:
1854:
1757:
1697:
1626:
1408:
413:
356:
326:
200:
1735:(Committee for the Defence of Madrid) to organise the republican defenders.
1618:
1428:
515:
237:
1722:
1661:
1622:
1427:
by telephone, but Mola refused the offer and Martinez Barrio was ousted by
1385:
575:
570:
273:
186:
144:
2629:
1957:
1766:
1424:
465:
2003:
1448:
General Joaquín Fanjul, the commander of the military garrison based in
2351:
List of Spanish Nationalist military equipment of the Spanish Civil War
1962:
1919:
1669:
2334:
List of Spanish Republican military equipment of the Spanish Civil War
1752:
The Republicans had a geographical advantage in defending Madrid: the
2471:
1900:. The atrocity was condemned by the anarchist director of prisoners,
1862:
1693:
1613:
1604:
1588:
1432:
1354:
2388:
Legislacíón sobre la Placa Laureada de Madrid y Distintivo de Madrid
1870:
1516:
624:
2531:
Battles That Changed History: Epic Conflicts Explored and Explained
2089:
1793:
1484:
1028:
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1820:, numbering 1,900 men, arrived at the front, marching through the
1729:. General Miaja and the political leaders who remained formed the
2052:
The first battle in early 1937 had Franco try to cross the River
1717:
1680:
controlled the air forces sent from the Soviet Union and General
1600:
1500:
1412:
1788:
Mola attacked on 8 November with 20,000 troops, mostly Moroccan
2097:
2053:
2046:
1881:
1640:, whose government included six socialist party ministers, two
1608:
1475:
1392:
1301:
83:
2071:
In May, Republican forces under the Polish communist officer
1713:
1297:
1289:
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3053:; poem in honour of the Defence of Madrid by Rafael Alberti
2153:
1926:
hill, south of the city, to prevent the cutting off of the
1772:
Its strategic location over the Manzanares River made the
1423:, who tried to arrange a truce with the insurgent General
1403:(UGT) trade unions and potentially accelerate the ongoing
1595:. Mola, who commanded the colonial troops as well as the
2649:
2647:
2613:
2611:
1961:
Nationalist aircraft bomb Madrid in late November 1936.
1873:
front as reinforcements for the defence of the capital.
2919:
The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939
2825:. Princeton University Press. 1967. Princeton. p. 539
2803:
2791:
2779:
2644:
2608:
1911:
and the distribution of their men among other units.
1491:
Prison in the city were massacred in revenge for the
2634:
by Esmond Romilly, The Clapton Press, London. 2018.
2498:
2368:
1742:
1591:, in southern Spain, with Moroccan troops from the
1507:
Nationalist "Drive on Madrid" (August–October 1936)
2974:
2916:
1841:since they had been mistaken for Soviet infantry.
1355:Uprising: Madrid held for the Republic (July 1936)
2861:Romance de la defensa de Madrid – Poesía española
2823:The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931–1939
2704:. Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press. p. 20.
2510:
1965:, flown by Italian pilots, provide fighter cover.
1878:infamous massacre occurred on the Republican side
1463:(MAOC). One of the battalions became the famous "
619:Casualties refer to the November 1936 battle only
54:Nationalist soldiers raiding a suburb, March 1937
3091:
1419:resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by
2758:Alcobendas, Editorial LIBSA, 2006, pp. 189–221.
2756:Historia Ilustrada de la Guerra Civil Española.
2726:
2108:Infighting and fall of Madrid (1938–March 1939)
2017:
1888:, but that has never been proved. According to
1792:, supported by Italian light armour and German
1407:. On 18 July, the government sent units of the
2428:Second Spanish Republic 23 January 1938 Decree
2104:, with over 100,000 casualties on both sides.
1892:, the order for the massacre came from either
1844:
2761:
2555:Historia del Ejército Popular de la República
1493:Nationalist killing of over 1,500 Republicans
640:
3045:Madrid Under Fire 1936–1939. A set on Flickr
2489:
1933:
1896:, Carrillo's deputy, or the Soviet advisor,
611:~5,000 dead or wounded (including civilians)
2699:
2679:. Oakland, CA: AK Press. pp. 593–674.
2189:, and poems like this one by renowned poet
1545:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3019:Spartacus Educational article on the siege
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
647:
633:
2472:"Women in World History: Primary Sources"
1988:
1565:Learn how and when to remove this message
177:
3005:Madrid 1938: diario de un niño en guerra
2111:
1956:
839:Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza
2828:
2568:
2102:one of the bloodiest battles of the war
2056:to cut off the road between Madrid and
2028:Antifascist Worker and Peasant Militias
1611:. Franco's veteran colonial troops, or
1470:Eventually, the barracks fell when the
1461:Antifascist Worker and Peasant Militias
191:
103:City surrenders to Nationalists in 1939
14:
3092:
2969:
2911:
2883:
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2516:
2504:
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2312:The Siege of Madrid, particularly the
2750:De Miguel, Jesús y Sánchez, Antonio:
2744:
2408:Luis Grávalos & José Luis Calvo,
1952:
654:
628:
74:8 November 1936 – early December 1936
2557:. Editora Nacional, Madrid (España)
1688:On the other side, both Germany and
1543:adding citations to reliable sources
1510:
2674:
2581:
2410:Condecoraciones Militares Españolas
2302:Are throwing at you looks of death.
2290:And dawn will not come to meet her.
1621:, along with air cover supplied by
24:
2528:
2275:If yesterday her blood was boiling
2272:Throbbing with the beats of fever.
1397:Confederación Nacional del Trabajo
100:Republicans win the battle in 1936
25:
3151:
3012:
2677:Durruti in the Spanish Revolution
1783:
1743:Battle for Madrid (November 1936)
3100:Battles of the Spanish Civil War
2878:Battles of the Twentieth Century
2287:She will wish to wake up one day
2281:She will never be able to sleep,
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471:
459:
445:
419:
407:
395:
375:
363:
355:
345:
333:
325:
315:
303:
291:
279:
267:
255:
243:
231:
217:
193:
179:
161:
149:
137:
120:
48:
2869:
2854:
2815:
2693:
2668:
2659:
2623:
2547:
2522:
2399:, Nº Extra 2, 2011, pp. 299-316
2391:, Revista de Historia Militar,
2284:Because if Madrid falls asleep,
1914:On the 12th, the newly arrived
1747:
69:8 November 1936 – 28 March 1939
2464:
2431:
2422:
2412:, Editorial San Martin, 1988,
2402:
2380:
2293:Don't forget, Madrid, the war;
2278:Today it boils with more heat.
2246:No olvides, Madrid, la guerra;
2045:and at the end of December at
2037:(January to February) and the
2010:also resulted in a stalemate.
1940:Battle of Ciudad Universitaria
1853:In the evening of 9 November,
1837:("long live the Russians") by
1664:and foreign volunteers in the
13:
1:
2584:"The International Bridgades"
2361:
2049:, both north east of Madrid.
1833:, were greeted with cries of
1401:Unión General de Trabajadores
1361:Siege of the Montaña Barracks
1327:of the Spanish Republic, the
27:Part of the Spanish Civil War
2876:Chris Bishop, Ian C. Drury.
2700:Muñoz-Rojas, Olivia (2011).
2339:Gómez Ulla Military Hospital
2241:y el alba no vendrá a verle.
2221:hoy con más calor le hierve.
2216:Si ayer la sangre le hervía,
2018:Battles around Madrid (1937)
7:
3024:Short summary of the battle
2327:
2261:te echan miradas de muerte.
2231:porque si Madrid se duerme,
2150:Consejo Nacional de Defensa
1845:Stalling and counterattacks
1796:tanks under German officer
10:
3156:
3105:Military history of Madrid
2296:Never forget that in front
2251:jamás olvides que enfrente
2211:late con pulsos de fiebre.
2206:Madrid, corazón de España,
2008:Battle of the Corunna Road
1937:
1732:Junta de Defensa de Madrid
1388:officers on 18 July 1936.
1358:
1288:was a two-and-a-half-year
2952:, Victor Gollancz, 1937 (
2553:Salas Larrazábal, Ramón,
2236:querrá despertarse un día
2195:Madrid, corazón de España
1934:Final Nationalist assault
1916:XII International Brigade
1825:other nations, including
1638:Francisco Largo Caballero
1439:coined the famous slogan
666:
618:
605:
584:
207:
113:
58:
47:
39:
34:
3051:Madrid corazón de España
2533:. Penguin. p. 246.
2226:Ya nunca podrá dormirse,
2146:National Defence Council
2024:People's Republican Army
1949:and legionnaire troops.
1818:XI International Brigade
1816:Late on 8 November, the
1654:Basque Nationalist Party
1417:Santiago Casares Quiroga
1337:Placa Laureada de Madrid
1329:Laureate Plate of Madrid
3029:4 February 2012 at the
2962:21 October 2008 at the
2776:, Monday, 19 April 1937
2322:For Whom The Bell Tolls
2269:Madrid, heart of Spain,
2165:unconditional surrender
1861:On the 15th, 4,000 CNT
1776:of crucial importance.
3110:Sieges involving Spain
3036:Madrid siglos XIX y XX
2741:, Monday, 5 April 1937
2186:Si me quieres escribir
2123:
1989:Stabilisation of front
1966:
1666:International Brigades
1597:Spanish Foreign Legion
1593:Spanish Army of Africa
1348:
1336:
1225:Sant Vicenç de Calders
614:~5,000 dead or wounded
208:Commanders and leaders
156:International Brigades
2983:Harper & Brothers
2977:The Spanish Civil War
2890:The Spanish Civil War
2440:The Spanish Civil War
2438:Thomas, Hugh (2013).
2299:The eyes of the enemy
2197:, which begins thus:
2115:
2065:Battle of Guadalajara
1960:
1421:Diego Martinez Barrio
775:Convoy de la Victoria
717:Cuartel de la Montaña
606:Casualties and losses
491:José Moscardó Ituarte
3076:40.41889°N 3.69194°W
2768:Business & Blood
2256:los ojos del enemigo
2144:and established the
1924:Cerro de los Ángeles
1867:Buenaventura Durruti
1865:, militiamen led by
1774:Bridge of the French
1704:and the west by the
1696:units in Spain, the
1652:party, one from the
1648:party, one from the
1539:improve this section
1349:Distintivo de Madrid
871:Ciudad Universitaria
564:Francisco A. Delgado
528:Carlos A. Cabanillas
96:Nationalist victory
72:Nationalist assault:
3140:20th-century sieges
3130:Mass murder in 1936
3072: /
3003:José Luis Barceló,
2582:Colodny, Robert G.
2316:, is referenced in
2119:Valle de los Caidos
1920:Mate "Lukacs" Zalka
1876:On 11 November, an
1869:, arrived from the
1739:from outside help.
746:German intervention
478:José Enrique Varela
3081:40.41889; -3.69194
2842:on 7 December 2017
2821:Jackson, Gabriel.
2752:Batalla de Madrid,
2675:Paz, Abel (2007).
2318:Ernest Hemingway's
2124:
2073:Karol Świerczewski
1971:Salamanca district
1967:
1953:Aerial bombardment
1894:José Cazorla Maure
1712:was beaten off at
1472:Guardias de Asalto
1456:Guardias de Asalto
1405:Spanish Revolution
1380:Government of the
1341:Madrid Distinction
1306:Nationalist armies
687:July 1936 uprising
250:Vicente Rojo Lluch
2996:978-0-375-75515-6
2950:Defence of Madrid
2938:978-0-14-303765-1
2904:978-0-304-35281-4
2711:978-1-84519-436-9
2686:978-1-904859-50-5
2565:, pp. 1524, 1579.
2540:978-1-4654-9494-8
2449:978-0-8041-5216-7
2314:Battle of Brunete
2310:
2309:
2137:Segismundo Casado
2077:Battle of Brunete
2039:Battle of Brunete
1902:Melchor Rodriguez
1886:Santiago Carrillo
1827:Winston Churchill
1798:Wilhelm Von Thoma
1716:. On 2 November,
1678:Yakov Smushkevich
1656:and one from the
1575:
1574:
1567:
1367:Spanish Civil War
1314:Spanish Civil War
1281:
1280:
732:Cuartel de Loyola
658:Spanish Civil War
623:
622:
310:Segismundo Casado
169:Nationalist Spain
109:
108:
42:Spanish Civil War
16:(Redirected from
3147:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3065:
3041:
3000:
2980:
2942:
2922:
2908:
2863:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2838:. Archived from
2832:
2826:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2765:
2759:
2748:
2742:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2672:
2666:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2642:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2595:
2589:. Archived from
2588:
2579:
2566:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2420:
2406:
2400:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2324:multiple times.
2200:
2199:
2035:Battle of Jarama
1979:Ernest Hemingway
1918:, under General
1754:River Manzanares
1706:Extremadura road
1658:Republican Union
1617:, under General
1585:Francisco Franco
1570:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1550:
1519:
1511:
1450:Montaña barracks
1437:Dolores Ibarruri
1382:Spanish Republic
1318:Battle of Madrid
1310:Francisco Franco
1308:, under General
1300:capital city of
967:War in the North
925:3rd Corunna Road
911:2nd Corunna Road
878:1st Corunna Road
805:Sierra Guadalupe
661:
659:
649:
642:
635:
626:
625:
574:
573:
562:
561:
552:Antonio Castejón
550:
549:
540:Rolando de Tella
538:
537:
526:
525:
514:
513:
502:
501:
493:
489:
488:
476:
475:
464:
463:
453:Francisco Franco
450:
449:
434:
424:
423:
422:
412:
411:
410:
400:
399:
398:
390:
380:
379:
378:
368:
367:
359:
350:
349:
338:
337:
329:
320:
319:
308:
307:
298:José María Galán
296:
295:
284:
283:
272:
271:
260:
259:
248:
247:
236:
235:
222:
221:
203:
199:
197:
196:
189:
185:
183:
182:
166:
165:
154:
153:
152:
143:
141:
140:
128:Spanish Republic
125:
124:
60:
59:
52:
32:
31:
21:
18:Battle of Madrid
3155:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3135:1930s in Madrid
3120:1930s conflicts
3090:
3089:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3039:
3031:Wayback Machine
3015:
3010:
2997:
2964:Wayback Machine
2939:
2905:
2897:. p. 320.
2872:
2867:
2866:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2796:
2792:
2784:
2780:
2766:
2762:
2749:
2745:
2731:
2727:
2712:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2652:
2645:
2628:
2624:
2616:
2609:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2580:
2569:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2478:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2450:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2407:
2403:
2385:
2381:
2373:
2369:
2364:
2330:
2183:– a version of
2174:
2110:
2020:
1991:
1955:
1942:
1936:
1898:Mikhail Koltsov
1847:
1835:vivan los rusos
1786:
1763:University City
1750:
1745:
1674:Soviet military
1646:Republican Left
1644:, two from the
1580:pronunciamiento
1571:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1536:
1520:
1509:
1363:
1357:
1325:military awards
1286:Siege of Madrid
1282:
1277:
1272:Final offensive
949:Cape Machichaco
679:List of battles
662:
657:
655:
653:
600:
598:
593:
591:
580:
568:
556:
544:
532:
520:
508:
504:Mohamed Meziane
496:
483:
482:
470:
458:
444:
438:
430:
426:José B. Durruti
420:
418:
408:
406:
396:
394:
386:
376:
374:
370:Antonio Escobar
362:
344:
340:Francisco Galán
332:
314:
302:
290:
278:
266:
254:
242:
230:
216:
194:
192:
190:
180:
178:
176:
172:
160:
150:
148:
147:
138:
136:
135:
131:
119:
87:
70:
53:
35:Siege of Madrid
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3153:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3115:1930s in Spain
3112:
3107:
3102:
3056:
3055:
3047:
3042:
3033:
3021:
3014:
3013:External links
3011:
3009:
3008:
3001:
2995:
2967:
2954:reprinted 2006
2943:
2937:
2913:Beevor, Antony
2909:
2903:
2885:Beevor, Antony
2881:
2880:, Hamlyn 1989.
2873:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2853:
2827:
2814:
2812:, p. 884.
2802:
2800:, p. 883.
2790:
2788:, p. 882.
2778:
2760:
2743:
2725:
2710:
2692:
2685:
2667:
2658:
2656:, p. 133.
2643:
2640:978-1999654306
2622:
2620:, p. 137.
2607:
2596:on 27 May 2008
2567:
2546:
2539:
2521:
2509:
2507:, p. 404.
2497:
2488:
2463:
2448:
2430:
2421:
2401:
2379:
2377:, p. 515.
2366:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2345:Los Emboscados
2341:
2336:
2329:
2326:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
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2279:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2191:Rafael Alberti
2180:Los Emboscados
2173:
2170:
2142:deposed Negrín
2109:
2106:
2080:Nationalists.
2063:In March, the
2019:
2016:
1990:
1987:
1954:
1951:
1938:Main article:
1935:
1932:
1909:Durruti Column
1855:General Kléber
1846:
1843:
1831:Esmond Romilly
1785:
1784:Initial attack
1782:
1778:Colonel Romero
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1710:Enrique Líster
1573:
1572:
1523:
1521:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1465:Fifth Regiment
1356:
1353:
1279:
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1108:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1081:Cape Cherchell
1078:
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1049:
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1020:
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987:
975:
973:Cantabrian Sea
963:
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927:
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734:
729:
724:
719:
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702:
694:
693:
683:
682:
675:
667:
664:
663:
652:
651:
644:
637:
629:
621:
620:
616:
615:
612:
608:
607:
603:
602:
595:
587:
586:
582:
581:
579:
578:
566:
554:
542:
530:
518:
506:
494:
480:
468:
456:
441:
439:
437:
436:
416:
404:
392:
372:
360:
352:Antonio Ortega
342:
330:
312:
300:
288:
276:
264:
262:Enrique Líster
252:
240:
228:
213:
210:
209:
205:
204:
158:
116:
115:
111:
110:
107:
106:
105:
104:
101:
93:
89:
88:
82:
80:
76:
75:
64:
56:
55:
45:
44:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3152:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3125:Urban warfare
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3088:
3085:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3007:, Sepha 2012.
3006:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2925:Penguin Books
2921:
2920:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2862:
2857:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2824:
2818:
2811:
2806:
2799:
2794:
2787:
2782:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2688:
2682:
2678:
2671:
2662:
2655:
2650:
2648:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2632:
2626:
2619:
2614:
2612:
2592:
2585:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2564:
2563:84-276-1107-2
2560:
2556:
2550:
2542:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2518:
2513:
2506:
2501:
2492:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2445:
2441:
2434:
2425:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2383:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2356:Condor Legion
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2306:
2301:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
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2277:
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2266:
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2259:
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2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2181:
2172:In literature
2169:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2121:
2120:
2114:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2086:Cipriano Mera
2081:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2015:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1964:
1959:
1950:
1948:
1941:
1931:
1929:
1928:Valencia road
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1890:Antony Beevor
1887:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1856:
1851:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1758:Casa de Campo
1755:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1698:Condor Legion
1695:
1691:
1690:Fascist Italy
1686:
1683:
1682:Dmitry Pavlov
1679:
1675:
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1581:
1569:
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1558:
1555:November 2017
1548:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1524:This section
1522:
1518:
1513:
1512:
1504:
1502:
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1477:
1473:
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1410:
1409:Guardia Civil
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1378:Popular Front
1375:
1374:
1369:began with a
1368:
1362:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1312:, during the
1311:
1307:
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1140:
1139:3rd Barcelona
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1033:
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1030:
1029:2nd Barcelona
1026:
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947:
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936:
935:Road massacre
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866:
862:
860:
857:
855:
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849:Cerro Muriano
847:
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832:
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740:
737:
736:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
712:
711:1st Barcelona
708:
706:
703:
701:
700:
696:
695:
692:
688:
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673:
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427:
417:
415:
414:Cipriano Mera
405:
403:
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389:
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373:
371:
366:
361:
358:
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348:
343:
341:
336:
331:
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318:
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306:
301:
299:
294:
289:
287:
286:Carlos Romero
282:
277:
275:
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265:
263:
258:
253:
251:
246:
241:
239:
234:
229:
227:
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220:
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214:
212:
211:
206:
202:
188:
175:
174:Supported by:
171:
170:
164:
159:
157:
146:
134:
133:Supported by:
130:
129:
123:
118:
117:
112:
102:
99:
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81:
78:
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68:
65:
62:
61:
57:
51:
46:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
3057:
3050:
3040:(in Spanish)
3004:
2981:. New York:
2976:
2971:Thomas, Hugh
2949:
2946:Geoffrey Cox
2918:
2889:
2877:
2870:Bibliography
2856:
2844:. Retrieved
2840:the original
2830:
2822:
2817:
2805:
2793:
2781:
2771:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2736:
2728:
2701:
2695:
2676:
2670:
2661:
2630:
2625:
2598:. Retrieved
2591:the original
2554:
2549:
2530:
2524:
2512:
2500:
2491:
2479:. Retrieved
2476:chnm.gmu.edu
2475:
2466:
2439:
2433:
2424:
2409:
2404:
2387:
2382:
2370:
2343:
2311:
2260:
2255:
2250:
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2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2194:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2162:
2158:Luis Barceló
2149:
2129:
2125:
2117:
2094:Vicente Rojo
2082:
2070:
2062:
2051:
2032:
2021:
2012:
1992:
1975:
1968:
1946:
1943:
1923:
1913:
1906:
1875:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1834:
1815:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1789:
1787:
1771:
1751:
1748:Preparations
1737:
1730:
1723:Fifth column
1702:Corunna Road
1687:
1662:Soviet Union
1650:Catalan Left
1631:
1623:Nazi Germany
1612:
1578:
1576:
1561:
1552:
1537:Please help
1525:
1488:
1481:
1471:
1469:
1454:
1447:
1442:¡No pasarán!
1440:
1390:
1386:Spanish Army
1376:against the
1372:
1364:
1323:The highest
1322:
1317:
1296:-controlled
1285:
1283:
1270:
1238:
1213:
1200:
1176:Los Blázquez
1163:
1134:2nd Belchite
1126:
1095:
1076:1st Belchite
1068:
1061:
1035:
1027:
1006:
977:
965:
953:
941:
895:
894:
888:
864:
863:
854:Cape Spartel
829:Monte Pelado
814:
780:Almendralejo
767:
750:
709:
697:
677:
670:
601:120 aircraft
576:Hugo Sperrle
451:
431:
402:Pavol Lukács
387:
382:Hans Beimler
322:Luis Barceló
274:Adolfo Prada
225:Manuel Azaña
223:
173:
167:
145:Soviet Union
132:
126:
114:Belligerents
95:
71:
66:
40:Part of the
29:
3079: /
2985:. pp.
2927:. pp.
2810:Thomas 1961
2798:Thomas 1961
2786:Thomas 1961
2733:"Chewed Up"
2654:Beevor 1999
2618:Beevor 1999
2529:DK (2018).
2517:Beevor 2006
2505:Thomas 1961
2375:Thomas 1961
2320:1940 novel
2133:Juan Negrín
2043:Guadalajara
1983:Hugh Thomas
1963:Fiat CR 32s
1829:'s nephew,
1767:Carabanchel
1425:Emilio Mola
1373:coup d'état
1339:), and the
1246:Valsequillo
1208:2nd Gandesa
1154:1st Gandesa
1036:Deutschland
955:Guadalajara
769:Extremadura
466:Emilio Mola
3094:Categories
3064:40°25′08″N
2923:. London:
2846:27 January
2600:5 December
2418:8471402661
2362:References
2092:. General
1839:madrileños
1670:Jose Miaja
1642:communists
1619:Juan Yagüe
1495:after the
1429:José Giral
1399:(CNT) and
1359:See also:
1294:Republican
1256:La Garriga
1196:2nd Mérida
1186:Granollers
1149:2nd Lérida
1122:Cape Palos
1112:Valladolid
1091:1st Lérida
1086:Sabiñánigo
1057:Albarracín
961:Pozoblanco
883:Villarreal
790:1st Mérida
752:Guadarrama
691:Revolution
672:Background
516:Juan Yagüe
238:José Miaja
3067:3°41′31″W
2720:650217517
2458:861614943
2397:0482-5748
1947:regulares
1863:anarchist
1806:regulares
1790:regulares
1694:Luftwaffe
1634:socialist
1614:regulares
1605:Falangist
1589:Algeciras
1526:does not
1433:communist
1266:Cartagena
1240:Catalonia
1214:Cantabria
1014:El Mazuco
1002:Santander
758:Andalusia
3027:Archived
2973:(1961).
2960:Archived
2915:(2006).
2887:(1999).
2631:Boadilla
2328:See also
2090:Zaragoza
2058:Valencia
1822:Gran Via
1794:Panzer I
1727:Valencia
1497:storming
1485:fascists
1181:Alicante
1171:Balaguer
1117:Alfambra
1070:Zaragoza
1008:Asturias
990:Guernica
897:Aceituna
834:Talavera
816:Gipuzkoa
785:Sigüenza
599:30 tanks
592:50 tanks
585:Strength
79:Location
2895:Cassell
2754:in his
2004:Corunna
1995:salient
1718:Brunete
1636:leader
1601:Carlist
1547:removed
1532:sources
1501:Badajoz
1435:leader
1413:Seville
1371:failed
1345:Spanish
1333:Spanish
1304:by the
1298:Spanish
1292:of the
1261:Minorca
1165:Levante
1063:Brunete
1047:Segovia
1042:Almería
985:Durango
810:Córdoba
800:Majorca
795:Badajoz
763:Alcázar
705:Seville
699:Melilla
594:70 guns
432:†
388:†
187:Germany
86:, Spain
2993:
2957:review
2935:
2901:
2718:
2708:
2683:
2638:
2561:
2537:
2481:1 July
2456:
2446:
2416:
2395:
2127:city.
2098:Teruel
2054:Jarama
2047:Teruel
1882:Jarama
1871:Aragón
1810:Modelo
1672:, but
1627:Toledo
1609:Burgos
1489:Modelo
1476:sapper
1393:Madrid
1302:Madrid
1251:Xàtiva
1191:Bielsa
1128:Aragon
1097:Teruel
1052:Huesca
995:Bilbao
979:Biscay
943:Jarama
930:Málaga
904:Lopera
889:Ursula
865:Madrid
859:Seseña
844:Guinea
727:Oviedo
597:20,000
590:42,000
428:
384:
354:
324:
198:
184:
142:
92:Result
84:Madrid
67:Siege:
2594:(PDF)
2587:(PDF)
2000:metro
1714:Parla
1290:siege
1220:Cabra
1159:Segre
1144:Caspe
722:Gijón
201:Italy
2991:ISBN
2987:1096
2933:ISBN
2899:ISBN
2848:2016
2773:Time
2738:Time
2716:OCLC
2706:ISBN
2681:ISBN
2636:ISBN
2602:2008
2559:ISBN
2535:ISBN
2483:2020
2454:OCLC
2444:ISBN
2414:ISBN
2393:ISSN
2154:Elda
2116:The
1603:and
1599:and
1530:any
1528:cite
1365:The
1284:The
1232:1939
1202:Ebro
1105:1938
1023:Jaén
918:1937
822:Irún
739:1936
63:Date
2929:526
1541:by
1499:of
1411:to
1391:In
1384:by
3096::
2989:.
2948:,
2931:.
2893:.
2770:–
2735:–
2714:.
2646:^
2610:^
2570:^
2474:.
2452:.
2193:,
2160:.
1904:.
1503:.
1347::
1335::
689:/
2999:.
2966:)
2941:.
2907:.
2850:.
2722:.
2689:.
2604:.
2543:.
2519:.
2485:.
2460:.
2148:(
1721:"
1568:)
1562:(
1557:)
1553:(
1549:.
1535:.
1343:(
1331:(
648:e
641:t
634:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
