415:(UN) and WHO, raised the visibility of the barefoot doctors' effectiveness of providing primary healthcare at an affordable cost. Moreover, the success of the barefoot doctor model demonstrates that many diseases in poor countries can be prevented and solved without significant financial resources or technological transformation. Instead, both Zhang and Unschuld (2008) and Cueto (2004) show that the barefoot doctor system exemplifies that adequate political focus on support of rural-based and non-commercial forms of preventive healthcare and primary care treatments can change the health landscape of a nation. According to research by Hu (1975), the barefoot doctor system increased the ratio of doctors to rural residents from 1: 8000 before the Cultural Revolution to 1: 760 between 1969 and mid-1974. Public health improvements attributed to the barefoot doctor system are numerous. Nationwide, Chinese citizens were living longer, with an " of 35 to 68 years" and infants were more likely to survive, with an infant mortality drop "from 200 to 34 deaths per 1000 live births". Through such significant improvements, the state of China's public health was nearing that of more Western countries toward the end of the barefoot doctor era. The main health issues of Chinese citizen became "more
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311:. According to Ots (2015) and Fang (2012), not only did the barefoot doctors introduce scientific medicine to rural areas, but they also helped facilitate a resurgence in interest in Chinese medicine. Ots (2015) explains that Chinese medicine had previously been pushed away in favor of scientific medicine in elite physician circles. Gross (2018) shows that with Mao's June 26 directives, the previously negative attitudes toward Chinese medicine began to shift in favor of appreciating Chinese medicine as a symbol of China's rich culture. An important feature of the barefoot doctor was that they were still involved in farm work. Barefoot doctors often spent as much as 50 percent of their time on farming, which Rosenthal (1982) explains meant that the rural farmers perceived them as peers and created a sense of equality between physician and patient. The barefoot doctors were integrated into a system where they could refer seriously ill people to township and county hospitals.
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local farmer contributions (from 0.5% to 2% of their annual incomes). This program was successful in part because the doctors were selected and paid by their own villages. In fact, perhaps because many of the barefoot doctors previously worked as farmers, they earned their living both with their work as barefoot doctors and with agricultural jobs on the side. As for costs to patients, these were not standardized and varied by village. Some barefoot doctor brigades charged nothing for their services, and others charged nominal fees. By the 1960s, there were Rural Co-operative
Medical Schemes (RCMS) programs in 90% of China's rural villages.
27:
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village RCMS coverage had dropped from 90% to 4.8%. Without the public-service oriented work of barefoot doctors, "health-care crises of peasants substantially increased after the system broke down in the 1980s." With health care privatization, the central government played an increasingly smaller role in the national healthcare. Most importantly, the central government began contributing less funds to healthcare, placing the responsibility on local governments. These individual, local governments had to collect funds through taxation, which led to imbalances between areas with wealthy and poor citizens.
219:" were selected to train become barefoot doctors. Other barefoot doctors originally worked as folk doctors and retrained to become barefoot doctors after the Cultural Revolution. Some trainees were also recent graduates of middle school. Barefoot doctors were often fairly young, which Fang (2012) attributes to the fact that the state wanted them to be able to support rural healthcare for the foreseeable future. Fang (2012) also describes that physically weak or disabled people often trained to become barefoot doctors, as the job was much less hard on the body than agricultural labor.
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during the
Chinese Medical Reformation of 1985, when the term 'barefoot doctor' was removed from the healthcare system and replaced with the term and concept of 'village doctors'. This shift caused a privatization of the medical system, which marginalized barefoot doctors and their focus on preventive medicine and primary healthcare. The barefoot doctors were given the option to take a national exam, if they passed they became village doctors, if not they would become village health aides. Some village doctors later entered
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245:. Training was focused on epidemic disease prevention, curing simple ailments that were common in the specific area. Barefoot doctors were also trained to use scientific medicines and techniques. Because of this, Fang's (2012) research shows that barefoot doctors were often the first to introduce scientific medicine to rural villagers. Through this introduction, scientific medicine existed side by side with
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1993:
206:). Mao pushed for medical school graduates to be sent to work in rural areas, where he felt they could help the rural inhabitants while, as Gross (2018) and Fang (2012) explain, also redistributing talent from urban to rural areas. They would live in an area for half a year to a year and continue the education of the barefoot doctors. According to Fang's (2012) research on
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doctors, became one way of dealing with the lack of sufficient healthcare in rural areas. However, despite the new attention placed on centralized healthcare and public health, Zhang and
Unschuld (2018) note that differences between urban and rural public health were still significant. Mao Zedong himself noted the disparity between the quality of urban and
123:. With the onset of market-oriented reforms after the Cultural Revolution, political support for barefoot doctors dissipated, and "health-care crises of peasants substantially increased after the system broke down in the 1980s." Despite the fact that the official barefoot doctor system came to an end, the legacy of the barefoot doctors inspired the 1978
456:(otherwise known as the Primary Health Care Initiative), which lauded the benefits of primary care, as seen in the barefoot doctor system, was signed unanimously. This was hailed as a revolutionary breakthrough in international health ideology - it called for local communities participating in deciding healthcare priorities, called for an emphasis on
241:, and disease identification were skills taught to barefoot doctors-in-training. Thus, duration and curriculum of the training was adjusted to fit the specific needs a region's barefoot doctor was meant to fill. Through this training system, Hesketh and Wei's (1997) count indicates that about one million barefoot doctors were prepared to serve in the
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medical practitioners filled different roles for rural citizens, who did not have access to the medical elite because those resided mainly in urban centers. In addition, according to Gross (2018), there was conflict between those who were loyal to
Chinese medicine and those who accepted scientific medicine, which was slowly being introduced to China.
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but quality of care was still high because
Chinese medicine practitioners had to receive scientific medicine training and scientific medicine practitioners had to receive Chinese medicine training as part of the barefoot doctor program. Literacy inhibited some from becoming barefoot doctors. The training system required students to be
389:. In 2003 the Chinese government proposed a new cooperative medical system, known as the New Rural Cooperative Medical Scheme, that is operated and funded by the government. This program is run more like an insurance program. By 2010, over 90% of rural Chinese residents received healthcare through NRCMS. It pays 10
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In 1989 the
Chinese government tried to restore a cooperative healthcare system in the rural provinces by launching a nationwide primary healthcare program. This effort increased coverage up to 10% by 1993. In 1994 the government established a program to reestablish primary healthcare coverage for
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began to emphasize the importance of barefoot doctors after Mao Zedong's June 26 directive, and, in 1968, the barefoot doctors program became integrated into national policy. These programs were called "rural cooperative medical systems" (RCMS) and worked to include community participation with the
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The resurgence of interest in preventive medicine, primary healthcare, and holistic approaches to social welfare worldwide is leading to positive revisitations of the legacy of barefoot doctors. Political restrictions against discussion of the
Cultural Revolution in China, however, limit the extent
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The barefoot doctor system was abolished in 1981 with the rise of Deng
Xiaoping and the end of the commune system of agricultural cooperatives. The new economic policy in China promoted a shift from collectivism to individual production by the family unit. The barefoot doctor model officially ended
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The income of the barefoot doctors was calculated as if it were agricultural work; they were paid roughly half of what a classically trained doctor made. Barefoot doctors were primarily compensated by the villages in which they worked. This funding came from collective welfare funds as well as from
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Barefoot doctors provided mostly primary healthcare services, and focused on prevention rather than treatment. They provided immunizations, delivery for pregnant women, and improvement of sanitation. Health aides provided help and back-up to the barefoot doctors, although they usually spent most of
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in the rural areas. According to Wang (1975) and Gross (2018), this coexistence created a productive and innovative new system that brought together the positive aspects of each because
Chinese medicine was much cheaper and required less equipment than scientific medicine. Thus costs were kept down
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exist prior to Mao's June 26 Directive, but they became much more common afterward. New and New (1975) state this was because China began to train many more barefoot doctors after the June 26th
Directive and thus it is considered the beginning of the formalized barefoot doctor system. Specifically,
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criticized the urban bias of the medical system of the time, and called for a system with greater focus on the wellbeing of the rural population. Rural healthcare in China was seen as very important because 80% - 90% of China's inhabitants resided in rural areas. This was the reason Mao felt it was
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Rural healthcare began to change in 1949, when the People's Republic of China was established. The government began to focus more on healthcare, especially on preventative medicine and incorporating scientific medicine into Chinese medicine. Union clinics, owned by the state but run by the resident
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system was multifaceted. By Rosenthal's (1982) account, after the Rural Reconstruction Movement in the 1930s, efforts in rural healthcare increased and rural healthcare experiments in 1950s Shanghai began to shape the barefoot doctor policies that were to come. As Gross (2018) describes, different
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in the backyard. Alternatively, practitioners went on herb-collection trips twice a year, which served to replenish the medicinal herb supply in rural areas. Gross (2018) describes that herbs provided an inexpensive, easily accessible method for rural healthcare in contrast to the expensive tools
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The initial pool of barefoot doctors required no education or training as they were sourced from healthcare providers already working in rural areas as well as urban doctors. As Gross (2018) mentions, an important part of Mao's plan was the movement of sending doctors, to serve in the countryside
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Soon after the barefoot doctor system came to an end, in the years between 1977 and 1989, village doctors began charging patients for their services. Because of the new economic incentives, they began to shift their focus to treatment of chronic conditions rather than preventative care. By 1984,
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The barefoot doctors usually graduated from secondary school and then received three to six months of training at a county or community hospital. As Hesketh and Wei (1997) indicate, this training was often provided by medical professionals who had been sent away from their urban homes to work in
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journal and soon revolutionized urban healthcare. As Dong and Phillips (2008) and others describe, the union clinics of years past became commune clinics controlled by the cooperative medical service. Physicians became government employees and their clinics became the property of the government.
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in rural China. They also had an important role for disseminating information about birth control. Barefoot doctors guides generally contained chapters dedicated to family planning with descriptions of birth control techniques, IUDs, oral birth control, and the rhythm method. Such guides varied
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The nature of the barefoot doctor system also allowed women to enter a profession that had previously been dominated by men. Fang (2012) explains that, due to tradition, many females felt uncomfortable being examined by male doctors, and, as a result, silently had a host of diseases, especially
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Prefecture, many of the urban doctors sent to rural areas were quite unhappy about their fate. In fact, being sent to rural areas was often seen as a punishment because of the lower wages and challenges of rural living. Hesketh and Wei (1997), on the other hand, mention that although some were
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to 20 Renminbi (sources disagree) per year for each person covered by the program, and ensures coverage for serious diseases. Households themselves also contribute a fee of 10 Renminbi. This new program relies heavily on lessons learned from the times of the barefoot doctors, but faces many
423:, rather than "infectious diseases" and preventable illnesses, which were instead minimized through the new healthcare structure. How much of this can be attributed to the barefoot doctors themselves is difficult to establish, but, at least in rural areas, they certainly played a role.
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had pioneered village health workers trained in basic health as part of a coordinated system, and there had been provincial experiments after 1949, but after Mao Zedong's healthcare speech in 1965 the concept was developed and institutionalized. China's
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However, more medical practitioners were necessary, and the state turned to both rural residents and urban ones. These barefoot doctors were usually chosen by members of the commune where the barefoot doctor would then serve. Often "young
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ones. However, the barefoot doctor system required that each village have a female doctor. With this push, women's health improved significantly, although Fang (2012) mentions that health disparities were still present.
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The system of barefoot doctors was one of the inspirations for the World Health Organization (WHO) conference, according to the WHO itself (2008) and Lee and Kim (2018). The conference occurred in partnership with
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Carrin G, Ron A, Hui Y, Hong W, Tuohong Z, Licheng Z, et al. (April 1999). "The reform of the rural cooperative medical system in the People's Republic of China: interim experience in 14 pilot counties".
1778:"Revisiting current "barefoot doctors" in border areas of China: system of services, financial issue and clinical practice prior to introducing integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI)"
1884:(John E. Fogarty International Center for Advance Study in the Health Sciences, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, DHEW Publication (NIH) 75-672, 1975), 10.
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Traditional medicine in contemporary China: a partial translation of Revised outline of Chinese medicine (1972) with an introductory study on change in present-day and early medicine
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The work of the barefoot doctors effectively reduced healthcare costs in the People's Republic of China, and provided primary care treatment to the rural farming population. The
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were unable to retrain as barefoot doctors. However, for those that were literate, the barefoot doctor training provided a level of education most rural villagers never attained.
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their time as farmers and only 10% of their time helping out. The village hosting the barefoot doctors and health aides funded the materials required for medical care.
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New and New (1975) describe that Mao's goal was that for every 1000 Chinese citizens, one barefoot doctor would be trained. The concept was introduced as policy by the
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White SD (1998). "From "Barefoot Doctor" to "Village Doctor" in Tiger Springs Village: A Case Study of Rural Health Care Transformations in Socialist China".
119:, which was filled with Western-trained doctors. Still, barefoot doctors continued to introduce scientific medicine to rural areas by merging it with
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used by scientific medicine. As Rosenthal (1982) mentions Mao had called for, they tried to integrate both scientific and Chinese medicine, like
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epidemic exposed the struggles of China's healthcare system and drove the government to reinvent the medical system to prevent any future
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Xu S, Hu D (September 2017). "Barefoot Doctors and the "Health Care Revolution" in Rural China: A Study Centered on Shandong Province".
505:(MAPD) in France. The name of the organization means "barefoot doctors", an homage to the barefoot doctors of China. Volunteers work in
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357:, China's former Minister of Health, who practiced as a barefoot doctor for five years before going on to receive additional training.
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care in what is now known as the June 26th directive, and this prompted the beginning of the barefoot doctor program. In his speech,
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rural areas. Training was not standardized across the nation, as different areas had different needs. In general, preventative care,
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education. Their purpose was to bring healthcare to rural areas where urban-trained doctors would not settle. They promoted basic
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411:(WHO) regarded RCMS as a "successful example of solving shortages of medical services in rural areas". China's entrance into the
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As of 2008, two-thirds of the village doctors practicing in rural China began their training as barefoot doctors. This includes
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Blumenthal, David; Hsiao, William (2005-09-15). "Privatization and Its Discontents â The Evolving Chinese Health Care System".
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Wang VL (July 1975). "Training of the barefoot doctor in the People's Republic of China: from prevention to curative service".
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1089:"The Turning Point of China's Rural Public Health during the Cultural Revolution Period: Barefoot Doctors: A Narrative"
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NEW, PETER KONG-MING; NEW, MARY LOUIE (1975). "The Links Between Health and the Political Structure in New China".
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the rural population, but the efforts remain largely unsuccessful due to the market-oriented nature of healthcare.
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1724:"Old and new Rural Co-operative Medical Scheme in China: the usefulness of a historical comparative perspective"
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A depiction of a Chinese country doctor, analogous to the folk healers who fed into the barefoot doctor system
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Barefoot doctors acted as a primary healthcare provider at the grass-roots level. They were given a set of
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716:"Between Party, People, and Profession: The Many Faces of the 'Doctor' during the Cultural Revolution"
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unhappy, other urban doctors were grateful for the lessons they learned while living as peasants.
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63:) were healthcare providers who underwent basic medical training and worked in rural villages in
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A Barefoot Doctor's Manual: The American Translation of the Official Chinese Paramedical Manual
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Zhang D, Unschuld PU (November 2008). "China's barefoot doctor: past, present, and future".
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1386:"Development of village doctors in China: financial compensation and health system support"
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challenges in providing sufficient, cost-effective care for China's rural populations.
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An Economic Analysis of Cooperative Medical Services in the People's Republic of China
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About this Collection | Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress
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Reproductive realities in modern China : birth control and abortion, 1911-2021
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Li X, Chongsuvivatwong V, Xia X, Sangsupawanich P, Zheng W, Ma K (August 2012).
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Dong Z, Phillips MR (November 2008). "Evolution of China's health-care system".
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Chinese Medical Modernization: Comparative Policy Continuities, 1930-1980s
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Photo from 1978 conference on primary health care in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan
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Hu D, Zhu W, Fu Y, Zhang M, Zhao Y, Hanson K, et al. (July 2017).
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and Southeast Asia with local healers to develop "medical garden" for
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Canada working with Mark Smith in the United States. This NGO leads
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a category of alternative health workers in Germany and Switzerland
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The proliferation of barefoot doctors in the early 1970s increased
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2074:. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies: University of Michigan.
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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2112:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. xix, 218.
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419:" that came along with the new longer life expectancy, such as
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1675:"Chen Zhu: from barefoot doctor to China's Minister of Health"
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The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution
521:. In 1999, Jean-Claude Rodet became the first president of
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important to emphasize rural healthcare. Barefoot doctors
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National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention
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a historical category of health worker in Eastern Europe
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missions based on "proximity, prevention and humility".
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National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine
1900:"WHO | China's village doctors take great strides"
115:, which also radically diminished the influence of the
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Rosenthal, Marilynn M.; Greiner, Jay R (Winter 1982).
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significantly by region in which they were published.
95:, and simultaneously worked as medical practitioners.
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19:For Stephen Russell, the Taoist practitioner, see
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2513:Macau Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture
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30:A barefoot doctor performs acupuncture on a man
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772:Hesketh, T.; Wei, X. Z. (1997-05-24).
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326:
14:
2708:
2596:Violence against doctors in China
2520:General Administration of Customs
2151:
1838:American Journal of Public Health
1633:Rodriguez, Sarah Mellors (2023).
1121:
1071:
842:American Journal of Public Health
688:
666:. University of Rochester Press.
604:
383:severe acute respiratory syndrome
1991:
1093:Iranian Journal of Public Health
539:
468:of this debate in China itself.
336:End of barefoot doctors in China
2093:. Philadelphia: Running Press.
1976:, Ă©dition Albin Michel - 2009,
1960:
1922:
1874:
1715:
1334:New England Journal of Medicine
1194:10.1016/j.endeavour.2017.06.004
273:Provincial Medical Patrol in a
16:1968â1981 doctor in rural China
2667:1985 disestablishments in Asia
2662:1981 disestablishments in Asia
2505:Hong Kong Department of Health
838:"The role of barefoot doctors"
202:
59:
50:
42:
1:
1691:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61561-5
1637:. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
1546:10.1016/S0415-6412(15)60004-2
1151:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61351-3
1057:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00396-7
1045:Social Science & Medicine
1000:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61355-0
597:
490:non-governmental organization
138:
100:Rural Reconstruction Movement
2677:History of medicine in China
2617:ChinaâCornellâOxford Project
2298:Traditional Chinese medicine
1740:10.1080/13602381.2014.922820
1728:Asia Pacific Business Review
1458:10.1016/0140-6736(93)91175-l
778:BMJ: British Medical Journal
517:and make essential oils for
7:
2697:Rural community development
2601:Water supply and sanitation
1234:10.2190/f3ca-3xau-13n2-rl1c
532:
10:
2713:
2629:China Family Panel Studies
2477:National Health Commission
1639:Cambridge University Press
1087:Lee Y, Kim H (July 2018).
854:10.2105/ajph.72.9_suppl.59
402:
18:
2642:
2609:
2533:
2467:
2321:
2283:
2248:Patriotic Health Campaign
2208:
2052:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2009:Federal Research Division
1832:Cueto M (November 2004).
1403:10.1186/s12939-016-0505-7
790:10.1136/bmj.314.7093.1543
570:Medical missions in China
409:World Health Organization
349:Switch to village doctors
193:
125:World Health Organization
67:. They included farmers,
2428:Swine influenza outbreak
2228:Healthcare system reform
2026:Tak-ho F (19 May 2006).
1795:10.1186/1471-2458-12-620
1673:Watts J (October 2008).
2672:Health care occupations
2308:Pharmaceutical industry
2253:China Welfare Institute
1850:10.2105/ajph.94.11.1864
1589:(16): 781. 1969-04-26.
261:
2682:Public health in China
2423:Disease-related deaths
2383:lead poisoning scandal
2341:Cardiovascular disease
523:MĂ©decins aux pieds nus
495:MĂ©decins aux pieds nus
481:
436:
398:Outcomes and reception
373:New healthcare systems
345:
286:
285:Example of moxibustion
278:
254:, and thus illiterate
232:Education and training
184:
31:
2351:Enterovirus 71 (EV71)
2275:Organ transplantation
1346:10.1056/NEJMhpr051133
932:– via ProQuest.
714:Gross M (July 2018).
479:
462:preventive healthcare
434:
343:
284:
269:
182:
81:preventive healthcare
29:
2223:Disease surveillance
454:Alma Ata Declaration
452:in 1978. There, the
175:Selected individuals
133:Alma Ata Declaration
2692:Cultural Revolution
2687:Healthcare in China
1910:on February 9, 2009
994:(9653): 1865â1867.
784:(7093): 1543â1545.
732:10.1017/mdh.2018.23
560:Healthcare in China
129:primary health care
113:Cultural Revolution
87:and treated common
47:traditional Chinese
21:The Barefoot Doctor
2571:Population history
2561:Illegal drug trade
2258:Hospitals in China
2238:Health informatics
1970:Jean-Pierre Willem
1929:Gao, Mobo (2008).
1579:"Barefoot Doctors"
1488:Human Organization
1272:Human Organization
910:Human Organization
848:(9 Suppl): 59â61.
592:Nurse practitioner
492:of doctors called
486:Jean-Pierre Willem
482:
444:and took place in
437:
417:chronic conditions
346:
287:
279:
185:
145:China's healthcare
131:and the resulting
117:Ministry of Health
98:In the 1930s, the
39:simplified Chinese
32:
2649:
2648:
2444:COVID-19 pandemic
2378:Iodine deficiency
2293:Medicine in China
2032:Asia Times Online
1982:978-2-226-18987-5
1944:978-0-7453-2780-8
1782:BMC Public Health
1648:978-1-009-02733-5
1340:(11): 1165â1170.
427:Historical legacy
290:Scope of practice
2704:
2408:Pneumonic plague
2346:Chronic diseases
2336:Blue-ear disease
2195:
2188:
2181:
2172:
2171:
2146:
2134:
2127:Lucas A (1982).
2123:
2108:Chen CC (1989).
2104:
2085:
2070:Sivin N (1987).
2066:
2057:
2051:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2012:
1995:
1994:
1985:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1906:. Archived from
1896:
1885:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1861:
1829:
1818:
1817:
1807:
1797:
1773:
1760:
1759:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1702:
1670:
1661:
1660:
1630:
1617:
1616:
1606:
1575:
1566:
1565:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1483:
1470:
1469:
1441:
1426:
1425:
1415:
1405:
1381:
1366:
1365:
1329:
1312:
1311:
1267:
1254:
1253:
1217:
1206:
1205:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1145:(9651): 1715â6.
1134:
1119:
1118:
1108:
1099:(Suppl 1): 1â8.
1084:
1069:
1068:
1039:
1020:
1019:
983:
934:
933:
901:
884:
883:
873:
833:
820:
819:
809:
769:
754:
753:
743:
711:
686:
685:
659:
549:
544:
543:
542:
503:
381:Eventually, the
247:Chinese medicine
204:
195:
121:Chinese medicine
61:
52:
44:
35:Barefoot doctors
2712:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2638:
2622:The China Study
2605:
2529:
2463:
2456:Omicron variant
2331:Avian influenza
2317:
2279:
2270:Medical schools
2243:Barefoot doctor
2204:
2202:Health in China
2199:
2154:
2149:
2143:
2120:
2101:
2082:
2061:Fang X (2012).
2045:
2044:
2037:
2035:
2021:
2019:Further reading
2004:Country Studies
2001:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1927:
1923:
1913:
1911:
1898:
1897:
1888:
1879:
1875:
1844:(11): 1864â74.
1830:
1821:
1774:
1763:
1720:
1716:
1671:
1664:
1649:
1631:
1620:
1577:
1576:
1569:
1530:
1523:
1484:
1473:
1442:
1429:
1382:
1369:
1330:
1315:
1268:
1257:
1218:
1209:
1178:
1174:
1135:
1122:
1085:
1072:
1040:
1023:
984:
937:
902:
887:
834:
823:
770:
757:
720:Medical History
712:
689:
674:
662:Fang X (2012).
660:
605:
600:
565:Barefoot lawyer
555:Health in China
547:Medicine portal
545:
540:
538:
535:
527:ethnobiological
497:
474:
429:
405:
400:
375:
351:
338:
329:
327:Income and cost
320:abortion access
292:
264:
234:
177:
141:
85:family planning
60:chĂŹjiÇo yÄ«shÄng
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2710:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2647:
2646:
2643:
2640:
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2613:
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2607:
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2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2531:
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2528:
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2522:
2517:
2509:
2501:
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2495:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2473:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2436:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2371:Plasma Economy
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2289:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2263:Classification
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2233:Women's health
2230:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2198:
2197:
2190:
2183:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2153:
2152:External links
2150:
2148:
2147:
2141:
2124:
2118:
2105:
2099:
2086:
2080:
2067:
2058:
2022:
2020:
2017:
1987:
1986:
1959:
1950:
1943:
1921:
1886:
1873:
1819:
1761:
1734:(3): 356â378.
1714:
1685:(9648): 1455.
1662:
1647:
1618:
1567:
1521:
1494:(4): 480â490.
1471:
1452:(8855): 1275.
1427:
1367:
1313:
1278:(3): 237â251.
1255:
1207:
1188:(3): 136â145.
1172:
1120:
1070:
1021:
935:
885:
821:
755:
726:(3): 333â359.
687:
672:
602:
601:
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584:
581:Barber surgeon
578:
572:
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531:
473:
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428:
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413:United Nations
404:
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363:medical school
350:
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176:
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140:
137:
127:conference on
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2591:Vegetarianism
2589:
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2466:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2450:Delta variant
2448:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2433:SARS pandemic
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
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2393:Mental health
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2203:
2196:
2191:
2189:
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2182:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2158:NPR Article:
2156:
2155:
2144:
2138:
2133:
2132:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2100:0-914294-92-X
2096:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2081:0-89264-073-1
2077:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2023:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2005:
1999:
1998:public domain
1983:
1979:
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1971:
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1932:
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1547:
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1539:
1536:(in German).
1535:
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1228:(3): 475â88.
1227:
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1191:
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948:
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931:
927:
923:
919:
916:(4): 330â41.
915:
911:
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673:9781580464338
669:
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575:Heilpraktiker
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225:gynecological
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105:health policy
101:
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90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
56:
48:
40:
36:
28:
22:
2619:
2581:Prostitution
2541:Demographics
2512:
2504:
2418:Tuberculosis
2242:
2159:
2130:
2109:
2090:
2071:
2062:
2048:cite journal
2036:. Retrieved
2031:
2003:
1990:
1973:
1962:
1953:
1930:
1924:
1912:. Retrieved
1908:the original
1903:
1881:
1880:Hu Teh-wei,
1876:
1841:
1837:
1785:
1781:
1731:
1727:
1717:
1682:
1678:
1634:
1586:
1582:
1540:(1): 10â13.
1537:
1533:
1491:
1487:
1449:
1445:
1393:
1389:
1337:
1333:
1275:
1271:
1225:
1221:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1142:
1138:
1096:
1092:
1048:
1044:
991:
987:
913:
909:
845:
841:
781:
777:
723:
719:
663:
522:
519:gemmotherapy
493:
483:
466:
438:
406:
380:
376:
367:
359:
352:
330:
317:
313:
293:
256:folk doctors
239:vaccinations
235:
221:
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154:rural health
150:
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97:
93:rice paddies
69:folk healers
58:
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2556:Food safety
2551:Environment
2546:Dust storms
2361:Hepatitis B
1967:(in French)
1935:Pluto Press
498: [
480:MAPD's logo
309:moxibustion
305:acupuncture
243:countryside
73:paramedical
2656:Categories
2469:Government
2439:SARS-CoV-2
2356:Fujian flu
2210:Healthcare
2142:0030594545
2119:0520062981
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1657:1366057905
1446:The Lancet
598:References
450:Kazakhstan
158:Mao Zedong
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1914:13 August
1756:153656512
1748:1360-2381
1595:0008-4409
1554:1439-4359
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1354:0028-4793
1292:0018-7259
1182:Endeavour
862:0090-0036
798:0959-8138
682:779874566
515:herbalism
484:In 1977,
387:epidemics
296:medicines
89:illnesses
2366:HIV/AIDS
2323:Diseases
2303:Pharmacy
2285:Medicine
1984:, Paris.
1868:15514221
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1709:18930519
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750:29886861
587:Feldsher
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511:Colombia
446:Alma-Ata
391:Renminbi
355:Chen Zhu
252:literate
208:Hangzhou
203:xĂŹaxiÄng
168:Red Flag
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2586:Smoking
2576:Poverty
2534:Related
2398:Obesity
2388:Leprosy
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1859:1448553
1805:3490804
1700:7159084
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880:7102877
871:1650037
816:9183206
807:2126766
741:6113761
507:Burundi
458:primary
403:Results
275:Xiangxi
217:farmers
190:Chinese
77:hygiene
2458:(2022)
2452:(2021)
2446:(2020)
2435:(2003)
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300:herbs
271:Hunan
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2114:ISBN
2095:ISBN
2076:ISBN
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1957:Fong
1939:ISBN
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