Background radiation

453: 1106: 1460:'s 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 μSv/a for older plants or 1 μSv/a for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test. When coal is burned, uranium, thorium and all the uranium daughters accumulated by disintegration – radium, radon, polonium – are released. Radioactive materials previously buried underground in coal deposits are released as fly ash or, if fly ash is captured, may be incorporated into concrete manufactured with fly ash. 1097:(or, about 100–300 neutrons per square meter per second). The flux is dependent on geomagnetic latitude, with a maximum near the magnetic poles. At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum. It also dramatically increases during solar flares. In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g. buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as "cosmic ray induced neutron signature", or "ship effect" as it was first detected with ships at sea. 1213: 1139: 1119: 4458: 4422: 794: 4482: 4434: 1076:

observed in few places only, a protective and adaptive effect is suggested by at least one study whose authors nonetheless caution that data from Ramsar are not yet sufficiently strong to relax existing regulatory dose limits. However, the recent statistical analyses discussed that there is no correlation between the risk of negative health effects and elevated level of natural background radiation.

4470: 510:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources is an inescapable feature of everyday life in both working and public environments. This exposure is in most cases of little or no concern to society, but in certain situations the introduction of health protection measures needs to be considered, for example when working with uranium and thorium ores and other Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material ( 1541:. The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types. Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels. 4446: 433: 87:

introduced and specified source. This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, where the existing background may affect this measurement. An example would be measurement of radioactive contamination in a gamma radiation background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.

1501:. Heavy smoking results in a radiation dose of 160 mSv/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210. This dose is not readily comparable to the radiation protection limits, since the latter deal with whole body doses, while the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body. 674:

residents to high concentrations. The widespread construction of well insulated and sealed homes in the northern industrialized world has led to radon becoming the primary source of background radiation in some localities in northern North America and Europe. Basement sealing and suction ventilation reduce exposure. Some building materials, for example

662:. Concentrations over 500 times the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic. Radon is a decay product of uranium, which is relatively common in the Earth's crust, but more concentrated in ore-bearing rocks scattered around the world. Radon seeps out of these 1197:

variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.

973:(C), (half-life 5,730 years). Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, these two are the largest components of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body. About 4,000 nuclei of K decay per second, and a similar number of C. The energy of 2204: 1532:

Regular Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels. Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time. Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make

1484:

delivers an effective dose to the whole body ranging from 1 to 20 mSv (100 to 2000 mrem). The average American receives about 3 mSv of diagnostic medical dose per year; countries with the lowest levels of health care receive almost none. Radiation treatment for various diseases also accounts for

1096:

Most of the natural neutron background is a product of cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere. The neutron energy peaks at around 1 MeV and rapidly drops above. At sea level, the production of neutrons is about 20 neutrons per second per kilogram of material interacting with the cosmic rays

1513:

refers to the measured value from any incidental sources that affect an instrument when a specific radiation source sample is being measured. This background contribution, which is established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from

1196:

for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both offsite "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that

86:

as "Dose or the dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified. A distinction is thus made between the dose which is already in a location, which is defined here as being "background", and the dose due to a deliberately

936:

atoms. These cosmogenic nuclides eventually reach the Earth's surface and can be incorporated into living organisms. The production of these nuclides varies slightly with short-term variations in solar cosmic ray flux, but is considered practically constant over long scales of thousands to millions

1952:

Fornalski, K. W.; Adams, R.; Allison, W.; Corrice, L. E.; Cuttler, J. M.; Davey, Ch.; Dobrzyński, L.; Esposito, V. J.; Feinendegen, L. E.; Gomez, L. S.; Lewis, P.; Mahn, J.; Miller, M. L.; Pennington, Ch. W.; Sacks, B.; Sutou, S.; Welsh, J. S. (2015). "The assumption of radon-induced cancer risk".

1063:

recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. They additionally receive a substantial internal dose from radon. Record radiation levels were found in a house where the effective dose due to ambient radiation fields was 131 mSv (13.1 rem) per year, and the internal

673:

Although radon is naturally occurring, exposure can be enhanced or diminished by human activity, notably house construction. A poorly sealed dwelling floor, or poor basement ventilation, in an otherwise well insulated house can result in the accumulation of radon within the dwelling, exposing its

2694:

Our preliminary studies seem to indicate the presence of adaptive response in the cells of some Ramsar residents, but we do not claim to have seen hormetic effects in any of those studied. Given the apparent lack of ill effects among observed populations of these high dose rate areas, these data

1252:

Total doses from the Fukushima I accidents were between 1 and 15 mSv for the inhabitants of the affected areas. Thyroid doses for children were below 50 mSv. 167 cleanup workers received doses above 100 mSv, with 6 of them receiving more than 250 mSv (the Japanese exposure limit for emergency

1075:

Epidemiological studies are underway to identify health effects associated with the high radiation levels in Ramsar. It is much too early to draw unambiguous statistically significant conclusions. While so far support for beneficial effects of chronic radiation (like longer lifespan) has been

1528:

used for surface contamination monitoring. In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored. In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the

1477:. This medical component can range much higher, with an average of 3 mSv per year across the USA population. Other human contributors include smoking, air travel, radioactive building materials, historical nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power accidents and nuclear industry operation. 1036:. This rate would convert to 0.8 Gy/a for year-round continuous exposure, but in fact the levels vary seasonally and are much lower in the nearest residences. The record measurement has not been duplicated and is omitted from UNSCEAR's latest reports. Nearby tourist beaches in 2010: 2208: 865:

crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment. During their flights airline crews typically get an additional occupational dose between 2.2 mSv (220 mrem) per year and 2.19 mSv/year, according to various studies.

996:

The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29 mSv/a, of which 0.17 mSv/a comes from K, 0.12 mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12 μSv/a comes from C.

779:, a radon decay product. The atmospheric background varies greatly with wind direction and meteorological conditions. Radon also can be released from the ground in bursts and then form "radon clouds" capable of traveling tens of kilometers. 625:

The level over the sea and other large bodies of water tends to be about a tenth of the terrestrial background. Conversely, coastal areas (and areas by the side of fresh water) may have an additional contribution from dispersed sediment.

2695:

suggest that current dose limits may be overly conservative. However, the available data do not seem sufficient to cause national or international advisory bodies to change their current conservative radiation protection recommendations;

1529:

background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination. In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the "Ready" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in "Measuring" mode.

1154:. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of C in the Northern Hemisphere. 1282:

at the same compound – released substantial radioactivity into the environment. The Windscale fire resulted in thyroid doses of 5–20 mSv for adults and 10–60 mSv for children. The doses from the accidents at Mayak are unknown.

1166:; some of this material is dispersed worldwide. The increase in background radiation due to these tests peaked in 1963 at about 0.15 mSv per year worldwide, or about 7% of average background dose from all sources. The 499:. In Europe, average natural background exposure by country ranges from under 2 mSv (200 mrem) annually in the United Kingdom to more than 7 mSv (700 mrem) annually for some groups of people in Finland. 1997: 964:

Two of the essential elements that make up the human body, namely potassium and carbon, have radioactive isotopes that add significantly to our background radiation dose. An average human contains about 17 milligrams of

1240:

Total doses from the Chernobyl accident ranged from 10 to 50 mSv over 20 years for the inhabitants of the affected areas, with most of the dose received in the first years after the disaster, and over 100 mSv for

1224:

as incidents typically do not release any additional radioactive substances into the environment. Large releases of radioactivity from nuclear reactors are extremely rare. To the present day, there were two major

984:

of 40 days. This means there are about 3700 beta particles per second produced by the decay of C. However, a C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of

1806: 1109:

Displays showing ambient radiation fields of 0.120–0.130 μSv/h (1.05–1.14 mSv/a) in a nuclear power plant. This reading includes natural background from cosmic and terrestrial sources.

2304:

Nair, MK; Nambi, KS; Amma, NS; Gangadharan, P; Jayalekshmi, P; Jayadevan, S; Cherian, V; Reghuram, KN (1999). "Population study in the high natural background radiation area in Kerala, India".

3839: 2412: 1457: 725: 575:

Many shorter half-life (and thus more intensely radioactive) isotopes have not decayed out of the terrestrial environment because of their on-going natural production. Examples of these are

701:

radioactive nuclides. These radioactive particles are inhaled and remain lodged in the lungs, causing continued exposure. Radon is thus assumed to be the second leading cause of

797:

Estimate of the maximum dose of radiation received at an altitude of 12 km 20 January 2005, following a violent solar flare. The doses are expressed in microsieverts per hour.

2563:

Hendry, Jolyon H; Simon, Steven L; Wojcik, Andrzej; Sohrabi, Mehdi; Burkart, Werner; Cardis, Elisabeth; Laurier, Dominique; Tirmarche, Margot; Hayata, Isamu (1 June 2009).

1521:

definition of background as being "Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified.

3819: 857:

in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level. This radiation is much more intense in the upper

572:(half-life 1.25 billion years) is only at about 8% of original activity. But during the time that humans have existed the amount of radiation has decreased very little. 1456:

estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19 μSv/a to their immediate neighbours in a radius of 500 m. The

1220:

Under normal circumstances, nuclear reactors release small amounts of radioactive gases, which cause small radiation exposures to the public. Events classified on the

1524:

The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation. An example of this is a

1216:

Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the nuclear accidents. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.

849:. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the 801:

The Earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from

495:) per year. In some developed countries, like the US and Japan, artificial exposure is, on average, greater than the natural exposure, due to greater access to 709:, and accounts for 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths per year in the US alone. However, the discussion about the opposite experimental results is still going on. 2508: 1084:

Background radiation doses in the immediate vicinity of particles of high atomic number materials, within the human body, have a small enhancement due to the

1844: 1814: 1913: 3824: 1055:, primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material. The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external 1048:. To convert to Sieverts (Sv) a radiation weighting factor is required; these weighting factors vary from 1 (beta & gamma) to 20 (alpha particles). 2443: 2057: 720:, United States may hold the record for the most radioactive dwellings in the world. International radiation protection organizations estimate that a 560:

since the formation of the Earth, because there is no significant amount currently transported to the Earth. Thus, the present activity on Earth from

2564: 90:

However, if no radiation source is specified as being of concern, then the total radiation dose measurement at a location is generally called the

1170:

of 1963 prohibited above-ground tests, thus by the year 2000 the worldwide dose from these tests has decreased to only 0.005 mSv per year.

1162:. Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as 901:, this background radiation is much more intense, and represents a considerable obstacle to potential future long term human exploration of the 3829: 3546: 1041: 1072:

was 72 mSv (7.2 rem) per year. This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.

1005:

Some areas have greater dosage than the country-wide averages. In the world in general, exceptionally high natural background locales include

658:). Radon is unevenly distributed and varies with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a 4339: 3705: 3519: 1316: 1296: 3319: 459:

used by early researchers first detected cosmic rays and other background radiation. They can be used to visualize the background radiation

3002: 1299:, and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 1 4324: 3146: 952:

created by nuclear reactions of high energy particles and gamma rays. At higher altitudes there is also the contribution of continuous

448:(0.82 mSv/a) This is very close to the world average background radiation of 0.87 mSv/a from cosmic and terrestrial sources. 3172: 3120: 3377: 51: 2836: 1028:

The highest level of purely natural radiation ever recorded on the Earth's surface was 90 μGy/h on a Brazilian black beach (

2912: 2363: 4293: 2805: 2288: 3870: 3485: 3449: 3279: 2948: 2525: 2270: 1907: 1758: 1720: 1266:: In addition to the civilian accidents described above, several accidents at early nuclear weapons facilities – such as the 475:

from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space. The worldwide average natural

4319: 4288: 4233: 3481: 1627: 1189:

recommends limiting occupational radiation exposure to 50 mSv (5 rem) per year, and 100 mSv (10 rem) in 5 years.

713: 1789: 1564:

List of international near-real-time collaborative/private measurement sites, employing primarily Geiger-Muller detectors:

1204:

conference in 2002, it was recommended that occupational doses below 1–2 mSv per year do not warrant regulatory scrutiny.

893:

which accumulates cosmic rays and results from the Earth's magnetic field. Outside low Earth orbit, as experienced by the

3952: 3834: 2678: 2233: 1748: 666:

into the atmosphere or into ground water or infiltrates into buildings. It can be inhaled into the lungs, along with its

3502: 1480:

A typical chest x-ray delivers 20 μSv (2 mrem) of effective dose. A dental x-ray delivers a dose of 5 to 10 μSv. A

697:

Radiation exposure from radon is indirect. Radon has a short half-life (4 days) and decays into other solid particulate

487:) per year. This is four times the worldwide average artificial radiation exposure, which in 2008 amounted to about 0.6 4268: 3814: 3539: 3417: 1518: 503: 83: 3423: 2179: 2154: 2051: 1684: 1221: 989:. The decay of a C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of 2082: 4334: 2531: 1999:

Indoor Radon Concentration Data: Its Geographic and Geologic Distribution, an Example from the Capital District, NY

2385:

Zhang, SP (2010). "Mechanism study of adaptive response in high background radiation area of Yangjiang in China".

1836: 3855: 2890:

Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation - UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes

1892: 1319:

life-cycle assessment, nearly all sources of energy result in some level of occupational and public exposure to

452: 3637: 2444:"Gamma dose rates and distribution of natural radionuclides in sand beaches – Ilha Grande, Southeastern Brazil" 1598: 1105: 3028: 556:

are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. Most of these sources have been decreasing, due to

467:, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition to this 4502: 4400: 3920: 3865: 3860: 3532: 3099: 1453: 1292: 1237:– which caused substantial contamination. The Chernobyl accident was the only one to cause immediate deaths. 1234: 2036: 622:

the same peak for atmospheric radon). Potassium-40 is detectable directly via its 1461 keV gamma peak.

2482: 42:

Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. These include both

4512: 4156: 1875: 1643: 1638: 878: 524: 47: 20: 2758:"Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation dose around uranium microparticles in the human body" 2613: 532:, for the purpose of the table above, only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major 4412: 4388: 4243: 4216: 3908: 3647: 2133: 2111: 1257: 1158:

Frequent above-ground nuclear explosions between the 1940s and 1960s scattered a substantial amount of

3243: 2887: 2411: 1890: 1708: 1557: 4426: 4273: 4126: 3594: 1159: 2977: 1534: 1533:

real-time readings available to the public. Instruments used for radiation measurement include the

948:

The cosmic radiation at sea level usually manifests as 511 keV gamma rays from annihilation of

4211: 4121: 3985: 3904: 3891: 3886: 3510: 2709:"Cancer Mortality Among People Living in Areas With Various Levels of Natural Background Radiation" 1545:

List of near-real-time government radiation measurement sites, employing multiple instrument types:

1246: 1056: 890: 476: 2938: 2565:"Human exposure to high natural background radiation: what can it teach us about radiation risks?" 2042:. In Greenberg, Michael I.; Hamilton, Richard J.; Phillips, Scott D.; McCluskey, Gayla J. (eds.). 94:, and this is usually the case where an ambient dose rate is measured for environmental purposes. 4151: 3945: 3682: 3331: 1304: 1167: 717: 659: 492: 484: 67: 3255: 3249: 2991: 432: 4517: 4392: 4303: 3977: 3912: 3809: 3742: 3494: 1633: 1538: 1525: 1242: 1126:

doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric

3515: 2992:"OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION PROTECTION: PROTECTING WORKERS AGAINST EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION" 2889: 514:). These situations have become the focus of greater attention by the Agency in recent years." 4396: 4131: 3916: 3725: 1710: 913: 906: 437: 1473:

The global average human exposure to artificial radiation is 0.6 mSv/a, primarily from

1452:

which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from

102:

Background radiation varies with location and time, and the following table gives examples:

4507: 4253: 4141: 4098: 3737: 3730: 3555: 3259: 3245: 3187: 3062: 2579: 2313: 1938: 1878:, Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, May 2005 1653: 1085: 981: 916:

in the atmosphere, in which secondary radiation generated by the cosmic rays combines with

818: 675: 3219: 2638:

Ghiassi-nejad, M; Mortazavi, SM; Cameron, JR; Niroomand-rad, A; Karam, PA (January 2002).

2416: 8: 4486: 4370: 4248: 4161: 3752: 3662: 3346: 3124: 2841:

Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

2810:

Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

2205:"Radioactive human body – Harvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations" 1648: 565: 4329: 3263: 3191: 3066: 2583: 2317: 4474: 4462: 4365: 4186: 4166: 4146: 4030: 3938: 3599: 3589: 3584: 3293: 3285: 3211: 2965: 2782: 2757: 2733: 2708: 2670: 2600: 2329: 1978: 1230: 1052: 1006: 942: 925: 768: 698: 463:

Radioactive material is found throughout nature. Detectable amounts occur naturally in

32: 3490: 2844: 2640:"Very high background radiation areas of Ramsar, Iran: preliminary biological studies" 2591: 1044:

were later evaluated at 14 and 15 μGy/h. Note that the values quoted here are in

4258: 4136: 4073: 4038: 3642: 3413: 3369: 3275: 3203: 3080: 2944: 2787: 2738: 2662: 2658: 2637: 2605: 2521: 2474: 2466: 2394: 2355: 2337: 2266: 2047: 1970: 1903: 1754: 1716: 1680: 1551: 937:

of years. The constant production, incorporation into organisms and relatively short

850: 557: 3215: 2813: 2674: 2510:

Natural Radioactivity in Extreme South of Bahia, Brazil Using Gamma-Ray Spectrometry

2285: 1982: 4438: 4263: 3783: 3778: 3361: 3297: 3267: 3195: 3171:

McBride, J. P.; Moore, R. E.; Witherspoon, J. P.; Blanco, R. E. (8 December 1978).

3070: 2940:

The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection

2777: 2769: 2728: 2720: 2654: 2595: 2587: 2458: 2321: 2090: 1962: 1608: 1279: 1131: 599: 265: 71: 43: 3457: 3406:

Radiation Exposure of the UK Population from Medical and Dental X-ray Examinations

3199: 2562: 2462: 1996:

Thomas, John J.; Thomas, Barbara R.; Overeynder, Helen M. (27–30 September 1995).

1753:. Bethesda, Md.: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 2009. 767:

Most of the atmospheric background is caused by radon and its decay products. The

4375: 4360: 4176: 4088: 4078: 3930: 3677: 3652: 3506: 2292: 1793: 1677:

IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection

1602: 1474: 1163: 1127: 980:

C is present in the human body at a level of about 3700 Bq (0.1 μCi) with a

706: 651: 496: 324:

worldwide average to workers only is 0.7 mSv, mostly due to radon in mines;

63: 4223: 4181: 4171: 4093: 4083: 4053: 3768: 3715: 3632: 3579: 3365: 3244:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (1988).

2888:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2000).

2639: 1891:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2006).

1786: 1709:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2008).

1498: 1267: 1174: 1065: 1014: 953: 894: 886: 834: 810: 721: 2222: 1966: 1764: 655: 618:. Uranium-238 manifests as 609, 1120, and 1764 keV peaks of bismuth-214 ( 4496: 4298: 4058: 4043: 3622: 3499: 2866: 2724: 2470: 2009:. Nashville, TN: American Association of Radon Scientists and Technologists. 1323:

as result of their manufacturing or operations. The following table uses man·

1212: 974: 917: 882: 683: 667: 647: 456: 3404: 945:

of ancient biological materials, such as wooden artifacts or human remains.

4450: 4278: 4238: 4103: 3747: 3667: 3604: 3207: 3084: 2791: 2773: 2742: 2666: 2609: 2478: 2398: 2341: 2258: 1974: 1951: 1939:"Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers – National Cancer Institute (USA)" 1494: 1481: 1320: 977:

produced by K is about 10 times that from the beta particles from C decay.

966: 902: 814: 643: 615: 611: 569: 533: 255: 169: 107: 3373: 2706: 2006: 1893:"Annex E: Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces" 4020: 3788: 3720: 3657: 1785:

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan

1550:

Europe and Canada: European Radiological Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP)

1271: 1147: 1138: 1045: 858: 776: 702: 603: 591: 561: 3254:. Radiation Research. Vol. 120. New York: United Nations. pp. 4068: 4015: 3672: 3524: 3289: 2333: 1143: 788: 679: 595: 3173:"Radiological impact of airborne effluents of coal and nuclear plants" 2413:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1458:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1118: 579:-226 (decay product of thorium-230 in decay chain of uranium-238) and 4355: 4228: 4063: 4010: 4000: 3961: 3710: 3627: 3574: 2507:

Vasconcelos, Danilo C.; et al. (27 September – 2 October 2009).

2265:(Revised and updated ed.). New York: ACE books. pp. 37–39. 1037: 1022: 1018: 1010: 970: 938: 929: 870: 817:. This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an 580: 537: 441: 173: 3271: 3075: 3050: 2325: 1595: 861:, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for 305:

peak of 0.11 mSv in 1963 and declining since; higher near sites

4005: 3990: 3773: 1033: 990: 949: 933: 842: 607: 345:

peak of 0.04 mSv in 1986 and declining since; higher near site

3097: 1750:

Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States

1674: 1051:

The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in

564:

is only half as much as it originally was because of its 4.5

4283: 3804: 3687: 3147:"Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options | UNECE" 1449: 1324: 1300: 1151: 1123: 921: 862: 846: 639: 638:, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground. Radon and its 545: 541: 488: 480: 261: 1573:(mix of old-data detector stations and some near-real-time ones) 793: 445: 1589: 1497:, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to 1000: 854: 830: 802: 745: 691: 634:

The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne

584: 576: 549: 59: 2517: 1615: 670:, where they will reside for a period of time after exposure. 363:

up to 0.02 mSv near sites; excludes occupational exposure

4108: 3995: 3170: 1876:

A Primer on the Detection of Nuclear and Radiological Weapons

1275: 1069: 874: 822: 635: 553: 146: 55: 35:

present in the environment at a particular location which is

2520:. Rio de Janeiro: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear. 590:

Thorium and uranium (and their daughters) primarily undergo

2707:

Dobrzyński, L.; Fornalski, K.W.; Feinendegen, L.E. (2015).

1902:. Vol. II. New York: United Nations (published 2008). 1670: 1668: 1201: 1186: 1060: 898: 869:

Similarly, cosmic rays cause higher background exposure in

838: 826: 806: 687: 663: 511: 464: 4445: 2913:"Resuming Nuclear Testing a Slap in the Face to Survivors" 873:

than in humans on the surface of Earth. Astronauts in low

3026: 1583: 1570: 1485:

some dose, both in individuals and in those around them.

986: 772: 3347:"Revised Radiation Doses for Typical X-Ray Examinations" 2303: 1715:. New York: United Nations (published 2010). p. 4. 1665: 598:, and are not easily detectable. However, many of their 381:

Industrial, security, medical, educational, and research

3029:"Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview" 2755: 1577: 650:

all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26

106:

Average annual human exposure to ionizing radiation in

3121:"Radiological Consequences of the 1957 Windscale Fire" 2756:

Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009).

2134:"Radiation exposure during commercial airline flights" 2112:"Radiation Exposure During Commercial Airline Flights" 2083:"Background Radiation & Other Sources of Exposure" 2044:

Occupational, industrial, and environmental toxicology

1995: 1448:

Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive

1059:

of 6 mSv (600 mrem) per year, six times the

4410: 3412:. National Radiological Protection Board. p. 9. 1514:

the rate measured when the sample is being measured.

39:

due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources.

3393:(5,000 patient dose measurements from 375 hospitals) 1187:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

3960: 3098:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (August 2009). 2441: 2131: 1874:Gary W. Philips, David J. Nagel, Timothy Coffey – 1807:"Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)" 1100: 928:can be produced, but probably the most notable is 771:shows prominent peaks at 609, 1120, and 1764 326:US is mostly due to medical and aviation workers. 235:sizeable population groups receive 10–20 mSv 4494: 3251:Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation 3100:"Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident" 286:cigarettes, air travel, building materials, etc. 97: 16:Measure of ionizing radiation in the environment 2286:Annual terrestrial radiation doses in the world 1463: 427: 3402: 3320:"Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger?" 3048: 1886: 1884: 1113: 712:About 100,000 Bq/m of radon was found in 548:and their decay products, some of which, like 3946: 3540: 3520:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1297:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1177:has caused up to 2.4 million deaths by 2020. 3344: 2034: 1837:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources" 1001:Areas with high natural background radiation 3706:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring 3447: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2506: 2046:(2nd ed.). St Louis, Missouri: Mosby. 2035:Upfal, Mark J.; Johnson, Christine (2003). 1881: 1799: 1675:International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). 1611:(the green circles are real-time detectors) 1558:near-real-time and laboratory data by state 716:basement in 1984. He and his neighbours in 606:is detectable via a 239 keV peak from 3953: 3939: 3547: 3533: 3491:Environmental and Background Radiation FAQ 2423:. Vol. 1. United Nations. p. 121 1693: 969:(K) and about 24 nanograms (10 g) of 440:on a hot summer day. Displayed background 3074: 2834: 2781: 2732: 2599: 2518:International Nuclear Atlantic Conference 2421:Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation 1743: 1741: 1739: 1712:Sources and effects of ionizing radiation 932:, which is produced by interactions with 52:naturally occurring radioactive materials 19:For background radiation from space, see 3554: 3027:World Health Organization (April 2006). 2549: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1211: 1180: 1137: 1117: 1104: 941:of carbon-14 are the principles used in 920:in the atmosphere to generate different 792: 451: 431: 3317: 2930: 2806:"Atmospheric δC record from Wellington" 889:of the Earth, but also suffer from the 853:and altitude. For example, the city of 82:Background radiation is defined by the 62:), as well as man-made medical X-rays, 4495: 4294:Wireless electronic devices and health 2943:. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37. 2881: 2762:Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2451:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2257: 1736: 1504: 518: 3934: 3871:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 3528: 3486:Radiation Effects Research Foundation 3008:from the original on 29 November 2003 2910: 2384: 2261:(1976) . "The Explosions Within Us". 2239:from the original on 27 February 2008 2232:. Argonne National Lab. August 2005. 2184:sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu 1859: 1509:In a radiation metrology laboratory, 1286: 1091: 728:(EEC) of radon by a factor of 8 to 9 724:may be calculated by multiplying the 195:depends on soil and building material 4320:List of civilian radiation accidents 4289:Wireless device radiation and health 4284:Biological dose units and quantities 4234:Electromagnetic radiation and health 3324:Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review 2936: 2904: 1847:from the original on 9 February 2016 1628:Background radiation equivalent time 1207: 726:equilibrium equivalent concentration 690:, may emanate radon if they contain 3429:from the original on 9 October 2022 3383:from the original on 9 October 2022 2684:from the original on 9 October 2022 2063:from the original on 9 October 2022 2016:from the original on 9 October 2022 1919:from the original on 9 October 2022 782: 629: 436:The weather station outside of the 13: 4269:Radioactivity in the life sciences 2999:International Atomic Energy Agency 2572:Journal of Radiological Protection 2366:from the original on 15 April 2003 1519:International Atomic Energy Agency 821:of secondary radiation, including 610:, 511, 583 and 2614 keV from 504:International Atomic Energy Agency 84:International Atomic Energy Agency 14: 4529: 3475: 3123:. 10 October 1997. Archived from 2442:Freitas, AC; Alencar, AS (2004). 1596:http://radioactiveathome.org/map/ 1488: 1310: 1222:International Nuclear Event Scale 959: 182:Terrestrial radiation from ground 4480: 4468: 4456: 4444: 4432: 4420: 3482:Background radiation description 3354:The British Journal of Radiology 2659:10.1097/00004032-200201000-00011 1079: 885:, are partially shielded by the 614:, and 911 and 969 keV from 149:, depends on indoor accumulation 3441: 3396: 3338: 3311: 3237: 3164: 3139: 3113: 3091: 3042: 3020: 2984: 2859: 2835:Levin, I.; et al. (1994). 2828: 2798: 2749: 2700: 2631: 2500: 2435: 2405: 2378: 2348: 2297: 2279: 2251: 2215: 2197: 2172: 2159:Federal Aviation Administration 2147: 2125: 2104: 2075: 2028: 1989: 1945: 1517:This is in accordance with the 1443: 1101:Artificial background radiation 897:astronauts who traveled to the 3638:Computed tomography dose index 3450:"Doses from cigarette smoking" 3049:Geoff Brumfiel (23 May 2012). 2387:Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 1931: 1829: 1779: 1763:. NCRP No. 160. Archived from 1552:Simple map of Gamma Dose Rates 1274:by the nuclear waste from the 1: 3403:Hart, D.; Wall, B.F. (2002). 3345:Wall, B.F.; Hart, D. (1997). 3200:10.1126/science.202.4372.1045 2463:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.01.002 2007:International Radon Symposium 1900:Effects of Ionizing Radiation 1841:Nuclear Safety & Security 1659: 1454:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1293:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1235:Fukushima I nuclear accidents 155:Ingestion of food & water 98:Background dose rate examples 77: 31:is a measure of the level of 3330:(3–4): 18–19. Archived from 2911:Adams, Lilly (26 May 2020). 2155:"Radiobiology Research Team" 1813:. March 2019. Archived from 1590:http://radiationnetwork.com/ 1464:Other sources of dose uptake 1245:. There were 28 deaths from 479:to humans is about 2.4 428:Natural background radiation 7: 4157:Cosmic background radiation 3051:"Fukushima's doses tallied" 2592:10.1088/0952-4746/29/2A/S03 1955:Cancer Causes & Control 1644:Flight-time equivalent dose 1639:Environmental radioactivity 1621: 1616:http://www.uradmonitor.com/ 1609:http://safecast.org/tilemap 1270:, the contamination of the 1114:Atmospheric nuclear testing 1032:in Portuguese) composed of 879:International Space Station 602:are strong gamma emitters. 525:Environmental radioactivity 292:Atmospheric nuclear testing 201:Cosmic radiation from space 48:environmental radioactivity 21:cosmic background radiation 10: 4534: 4386: 4244:Lasers and aviation safety 3902: 3366:10.1259/bjr.70.833.9227222 1787:"Radiation in environment" 1468: 1258:Three Mile Island accident 1256:The average dose from the 786: 522: 254:worldwide figure excludes 18: 4384: 4348: 4312: 4274:Radioactive contamination 4199: 4127:Electromagnetic radiation 4117: 4029: 3976: 3969: 3900: 3879: 3848: 3797: 3761: 3696: 3613: 3595:Radioactive contamination 3562: 3516:Radiation Dose Calculator 2087:Radiation Safety Training 1967:10.1007/s10552-015-0638-9 1811:World Nuclear Association 1160:radioactive contamination 813:derived from outside the 660:significant health hazard 4387:See also the categories 4325:1996 Costa Rica accident 3986:Acoustic radiation force 3903:See also the categories 3892:Radiation-induced cancer 3887:Acute radiation syndrome 3511:American Nuclear Society 2837:"δC record from Vermunt" 2725:10.1177/1559325815592391 2180:"Radioactive Human Body" 2132:Health Physics Society. 1247:acute radiation syndrome 1057:effective radiation dose 891:Van Allen radiation belt 4299:Radiation heat-transfer 4152:Gravitational radiation 2869:. University of Utrecht 2362:. ABC. 3 October 2002. 2230:Human Health Fact Sheet 1168:Limited Test Ban Treaty 914:elemental transmutation 912:Cosmic rays also cause 718:Boyertown, Pennsylvania 694:and are porous to gas. 68:nuclear weapons testing 4340:1990 Zaragoza accident 4335:1984 Moroccan accident 4304:Linear energy transfer 3978:Non-ionizing radiation 3743:Semiconductor detector 3699:measurement techniques 3495:Health Physics Society 3454:Health Physics Society 3318:Gabbard, Alex (1993). 2812:. 1994. Archived from 2774:10.1098/rsif.2009.0300 2037:"65 Residential Radon" 1634:Banana equivalent dose 1584:http://www.radmon.org/ 1571:http://www.gmcmap.com/ 1539:Scintillation detector 1526:scintillation detector 1217: 1155: 1135: 1110: 798: 471:, humans also receive 460: 449: 420:millisieverts per year 388:sub total (artificial) 4330:1987 Goiânia accident 4132:Synchrotron radiation 4122:Earth's energy budget 4104:Radioactive materials 4099:Particle accelerators 3762:Protection techniques 3726:Scintillation counter 1792:22 March 2011 at the 1601:29 March 2016 at the 1215: 1181:Occupational exposure 1141: 1121: 1108: 796: 587:-226 in said chain). 530:Terrestrial radiation 455: 438:Atomic Testing Museum 435: 311:Occupational exposure 4503:Background radiation 4401:Radiation protection 4254:Radiation protection 4142:Black-body radiation 4049:Background radiation 3964:(physics and health) 3921:Radiation protection 3738:Radiation monitoring 3731:Proportional counter 3616:quantities and units 3570:Background radiation 3556:Radiation protection 3505:15 July 2018 at the 3500:Radiation Dose Chart 3225:on 27 September 2012 2867:"Radiocarbon dating" 2847:on 23 September 2008 2312:(6 Suppl): S145–48. 2291:23 June 2007 at the 1654:Low-background steel 1578:http://www.netc.com/ 1511:background radiation 1194:background radiation 1086:photoelectric effect 982:biological half-life 676:lightweight concrete 583:(a decay product of 568:year half-life, and 260:US figure is mostly 92:background radiation 29:Background radiation 4371:Radiation hardening 4313:Radiation incidents 4249:Medical radiography 4208:Radiation syndrome 4162:Cherenkov radiation 3753:Whole-body counting 3663:Mean glandular dose 3600:Radioactive sources 3334:on 5 February 2007. 3264:1989RadR..120..187K 3192:1978Sci...202.1045M 3067:2012Natur.485..423B 2584:2009JRP....29...29H 2537:on 21 February 2014 2488:on 21 February 2014 2318:1999RadR..152S.145N 1796:retrieved 2011-6-29 1649:Noise (electronics) 1588:Radiation Network: 1505:Radiation metrology 1493:Cigarettes contain 1331: 1253:response workers). 926:cosmogenic nuclides 519:Terrestrial sources 221:sub total (natural) 214:depends on altitude 111: 4513:Ionizing radiation 4427:Nuclear technology 4366:Radioactive source 4187:Radiation exposure 4167:Askaryan radiation 4147:Particle radiation 4031:Ionizing radiation 3590:Internal dosimetry 3585:Ionizing radiation 3001:. 30 August 2002. 2816:on 1 February 2014 2619:on 21 October 2013 2306:Radiation Research 1941:. 6 December 2011. 1817:on 20 January 2016 1767:on 2 February 2014 1594:Radioactive@Home: 1535:Geiger–Müller tube 1330: 1287:Nuclear fuel cycle 1278:compound, and the 1231:Chernobyl accident 1218: 1156: 1136: 1134:from 1951 to 1962. 1111: 1092:Neutron background 943:radiocarbon dating 799: 748:by a factor of 40 461: 450: 444:level is 9.8 351:Nuclear fuel cycle 332:Chernobyl accident 105: 33:ionizing radiation 4408: 4407: 4389:Radiation effects 4259:Radiation therapy 4195: 4194: 4137:Thermal radiation 4074:Neutron radiation 4039:Radioactive decay 3928: 3927: 3909:Radiation effects 3880:Radiation effects 3643:Counts per minute 3448:Dade W. Moeller. 3281:978-92-1-142143-9 3186:(4372): 1045–50. 2950:978-0-7020-3048-2 2527:978-85-99141-03-8 2272:978-1-157-09468-5 1909:978-92-1-142263-4 1760:978-0-929600-98-7 1722:978-92-1-142274-0 1441: 1440: 1208:Nuclear accidents 1130:conducted at the 1021:in Australia and 924:. Many so-called 877:, such as in the 851:geomagnetic field 600:daughter products 558:radioactive decay 473:external exposure 469:internal exposure 425: 424: 382: 364: 346: 327: 306: 287: 269: 236: 215: 196: 177: 150: 132:Inhalation of air 72:nuclear accidents 4525: 4485: 4484: 4483: 4473: 4472: 4471: 4461: 4460: 4459: 4449: 4448: 4437: 4436: 4435: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4416: 4349:Related articles 4264:Radiation damage 4089:Nuclear reactors 3974: 3973: 3955: 3948: 3941: 3932: 3931: 3784:Radon mitigation 3779:Potassium iodide 3697:Instruments and 3549: 3542: 3535: 3526: 3525: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3460:on 2 August 2014 3456:. Archived from 3445: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3428: 3411: 3400: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3382: 3360:(833): 437–439. 3351: 3342: 3336: 3335: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3224: 3218:. Archived from 3177: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3078: 3061:(7399): 423–24. 3046: 3040: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3007: 2996: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2975: 2971: 2969: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2843:. Archived from 2832: 2826: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2785: 2753: 2747: 2746: 2736: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2691: 2689: 2683: 2644: 2635: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2618: 2612:. Archived from 2603: 2569: 2560: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2536: 2530:. Archived from 2515: 2504: 2498: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2487: 2481:. Archived from 2448: 2439: 2433: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2352: 2346: 2345: 2301: 2295: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2238: 2227: 2219: 2213: 2212: 2211:on 12 June 2015. 2207:. Archived from 2201: 2195: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2176: 2170: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2108: 2102: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2091:Miami University 2079: 2073: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2062: 2041: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2015: 2004: 1993: 1987: 1986: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1918: 1897: 1888: 1879: 1872: 1857: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1803: 1797: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1745: 1734: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1706: 1691: 1690: 1672: 1556:USA: EPA Radnet 1332: 1329: 1280:Kyshtym disaster 1229:accidents – the 1132:Nevada Test Site 783:Cosmic radiation 763: 761: 760: 757: 754: 743: 741: 740: 737: 734: 714:Stanley Watras's 630:Airborne sources 380: 362: 344: 323: 304: 285: 266:nuclear medicine 253: 234: 213: 194: 167: 144: 115:Radiation source 112: 104: 44:cosmic radiation 4533: 4532: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4481: 4479: 4469: 4467: 4457: 4455: 4443: 4433: 4431: 4421: 4419: 4411: 4409: 4404: 4403: 4380: 4376:Havana syndrome 4361:Nuclear physics 4344: 4308: 4201: 4191: 4177:Unruh radiation 4113: 4094:Nuclear weapons 4079:Nuclear fission 4025: 3965: 3959: 3929: 3924: 3923: 3905:Medical physics 3896: 3875: 3844: 3793: 3757: 3698: 3692: 3653:Equivalent dose 3615: 3609: 3558: 3553: 3507:Wayback Machine 3478: 3473: 3463: 3461: 3446: 3442: 3432: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3386: 3384: 3380: 3349: 3343: 3339: 3316: 3312: 3302: 3300: 3282: 3272:10.2307/3577647 3242: 3238: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3175: 3169: 3165: 3155: 3153: 3145: 3144: 3140: 3130: 3128: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3104: 3102: 3096: 3092: 3076:10.1038/485423a 3047: 3043: 3033: 3031: 3025: 3021: 3011: 3009: 3005: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2973: 2972: 2963: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2935: 2931: 2921: 2919: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2893: 2886: 2882: 2872: 2870: 2865: 2864: 2860: 2850: 2848: 2833: 2829: 2819: 2817: 2804: 2803: 2799: 2754: 2750: 2705: 2701: 2687: 2685: 2681: 2642: 2636: 2632: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2578:(2A): A29–A42. 2567: 2561: 2550: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2528: 2513: 2505: 2501: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2446: 2440: 2436: 2426: 2424: 2410: 2406: 2383: 2379: 2369: 2367: 2356:"Extreme Slime" 2354: 2353: 2349: 2326:10.2307/3580134 2302: 2298: 2293:Wayback Machine 2284: 2280: 2273: 2263:Only A Trillion 2256: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2216: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2188: 2186: 2178: 2177: 2173: 2163: 2161: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2138: 2136: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2095: 2093: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2054: 2039: 2033: 2029: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2002: 1994: 1990: 1961:(26): 1517–18. 1950: 1946: 1937: 1936: 1932: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1910: 1895: 1889: 1882: 1873: 1860: 1850: 1848: 1835: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1818: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1794:Wayback Machine 1784: 1780: 1770: 1768: 1761: 1747: 1746: 1737: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1707: 1694: 1687: 1673: 1666: 1662: 1624: 1603:Wayback Machine 1507: 1491: 1475:medical imaging 1471: 1466: 1446: 1313: 1289: 1210: 1183: 1164:nuclear fallout 1116: 1103: 1094: 1082: 1003: 962: 835:alpha particles 791: 785: 775:, belonging to 758: 755: 752: 751: 749: 744:and the EEC of 738: 735: 732: 731: 729: 632: 536:of concern are 527: 521: 497:medical imaging 442:gamma radiation 430: 325: 259: 110:(mSv) per year 100: 80: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4531: 4521: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4490: 4489: 4477: 4465: 4453: 4441: 4429: 4406: 4405: 4385: 4382: 4381: 4379: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4352: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4224:Health physics 4221: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4205: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4182:Dark radiation 4179: 4174: 4172:Bremsstrahlung 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4084:Nuclear fusion 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4054:Alpha particle 4051: 4046: 4041: 4035: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3982: 3980: 3971: 3967: 3966: 3958: 3957: 3950: 3943: 3935: 3926: 3925: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3894: 3889: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3794: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3769:Lead shielding 3765: 3763: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3716:Geiger counter 3713: 3708: 3702: 3700: 3694: 3693: 3691: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3648:Effective dose 3645: 3640: 3635: 3633:Committed dose 3630: 3625: 3619: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3580:Health physics 3577: 3572: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3559: 3552: 3551: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3513: 3497: 3488: 3477: 3476:External links 3474: 3472: 3471: 3440: 3419:978-0859514682 3418: 3395: 3337: 3310: 3280: 3236: 3163: 3138: 3127:on 17 May 2013 3112: 3090: 3041: 3019: 2983: 2974:|journal= 2949: 2929: 2903: 2880: 2858: 2827: 2797: 2768:(45): 603–11. 2748: 2699: 2647:Health Physics 2630: 2548: 2526: 2499: 2434: 2404: 2377: 2347: 2296: 2278: 2271: 2250: 2214: 2196: 2171: 2146: 2124: 2103: 2074: 2052: 2027: 1988: 1944: 1930: 1908: 1880: 1858: 1828: 1798: 1778: 1759: 1735: 1721: 1692: 1685: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1614:uRad Monitor: 1612: 1605: 1592: 1586: 1580: 1574: 1561: 1560: 1554: 1506: 1503: 1499:tobacco leaves 1490: 1489:Consumer items 1487: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1357:Coal (modern) 1354: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1346:Nuclear power 1343: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1312: 1311:Energy sources 1309: 1288: 1285: 1268:Windscale fire 1260:was 0.01 mSv. 1209: 1206: 1182: 1179: 1175:global fallout 1142:Atmospheric C 1115: 1112: 1102: 1099: 1093: 1090: 1081: 1078: 1066:committed dose 1015:Karunagappalli 1002: 999: 975:beta particles 961: 960:Food and water 958: 954:bremsstrahlung 887:magnetic field 787:Main article: 784: 781: 769:gamma spectrum 722:committed dose 668:decay products 654:(millisievert 648:decay products 631: 628: 523:Main article: 520: 517: 516: 515: 457:Cloud chambers 429: 426: 423: 422: 417: 414: 411: 408: 402: 401: 399: 396: 393: 390: 384: 383: 378: 376: 373: 370: 366: 365: 360: 357: 355: 352: 348: 347: 342: 339: 336: 333: 329: 328: 321: 318: 315: 312: 308: 307: 302: 299: 296: 293: 289: 288: 283: 281: 278: 275: 274:Consumer items 271: 270: 251: 248: 245: 242: 238: 237: 232: 229: 226: 223: 217: 216: 211: 208: 205: 202: 198: 197: 192: 189: 186: 183: 179: 178: 165: 162: 159: 156: 152: 151: 142: 139: 136: 133: 129: 128: 125: 122: 119: 116: 99: 96: 79: 76: 38: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4530: 4519: 4518:Radioactivity 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4488: 4478: 4476: 4466: 4464: 4454: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4440: 4430: 4428: 4418: 4417: 4414: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4393:Radioactivity 4390: 4383: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4353: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4198: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4116: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4059:Beta particle 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4044:Cluster decay 4042: 4040: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3972: 3970:Main articles 3968: 3963: 3956: 3951: 3949: 3944: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3913:Radioactivity 3910: 3906: 3899: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3798:Organisations 3796: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3760: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3735: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3623:Absorbed dose 3621: 3620: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563:Main 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IAEA. 1790:Archived 1622:See also 1599:Archived 1582:Radmon: 1537:and the 1432:Biomass 1233:and the 1227:civilian 1034:monazite 991:nitrogen 934:nitrogen 922:nuclides 847:neutrons 656:per year 640:isotopes 608:lead-212 506:states: 262:CT scans 4413:Portals 4217:chronic 3840:UNSCEAR 3805:Euratom 3688:Sievert 3374:9227222 3298:7316994 3290:3577647 3260:Bibcode 3188:Bibcode 3180:Science 3063:Bibcode 2922:16 July 2820:11 June 2783:2842777 2734:4674188 2601:4030667 2580:Bibcode 2370:2 March 2334:3580134 2314:Bibcode 2243:4 April 1482:CT scan 1469:Medical 1450:fly ash 1393:0.0003 1338:Public 1335:Source 1325:Sievert 1152:Austria 1124:thyroid 881:or the 863:airline 831:protons 803:protons 762:⁠ 750:⁠ 742:⁠ 730:⁠ 707:smoking 566:billion 546:thorium 542:uranium 241:Medical 176:, etc.) 127:Remark 64:fallout 4399:, and 3919:, and 3433:18 May 3416: 3387:18 May 3372: 3296: 3288: 3278: 3256:187–88 3214: 3206: 3083: 3055:Nature 2956:17 May 2947: 2790: 2780: 2741: 2731: 2673: 2665: 2608: 2598: 2524: 2477: 2469: 2397: 2340: 2332: 2269: 2050: 1981: 1973: 1906: 1757: 1719: 1683: 1630:(BRET) 1576:Netc: 1303:(100 m 1295:, the 1200:At an 1053:Ramsar 1007:Ramsar 895:Apollo 875:orbits 855:Denver 845:, and 823:X-rays 811:nuclei 746:thoron 705:after 692:radium 646:, and 585:radium 577:radium 550:radium 354:0.0002 124:Japan 118:World 60:radium 4451:Stars 4212:acute 4109:X-ray 3996:Light 3427:(PDF) 3410:(PDF) 3381:(PDF) 3350:(PDF) 3294:S2CID 3286:JSTOR 3223:(PDF) 3212:S2CID 3176:(PDF) 3006:(PDF) 2995:(PDF) 2682:(PDF) 2671:S2CID 2643:(PDF) 2617:(PDF) 2568:(PDF) 2535:(PDF) 2514:(PDF) 2486:(PDF) 2447:(PDF) 2330:JSTOR 2237:(PDF) 2226:(PDF) 2061:(PDF) 2040:(PDF) 2014:(PDF) 2003:(PDF) 1979:S2CID 1917:(PDF) 1896:(PDF) 1437:0.01 1407:0.05 1404:1–20 1396:0.15 1385:0.02 1349:0.43 1317:UNECE 1276:Mayak 1173:This 1070:radon 1068:from 1046:Grays 839:pions 827:muons 753:nSv·m 733:nSv·m 678:with 652:mSv/a 636:radon 592:alpha 554:radon 406:Total 375:0.003 369:Other 359:0.001 335:0.002 317:0.005 314:0.005 295:0.005 147:radon 66:from 56:radon 50:from 3830:IRPA 3825:ICRP 3820:ICRU 3815:IAEA 3658:Gray 3466:2013 3435:2012 3414:ISBN 3389:2012 3370:PMID 3305:2012 3276:ISBN 3231:2012 3204:PMID 3158:2021 3133:2013 3107:2013 3081:PMID 3036:2013 3014:2022 2978:help 2958:2012 2945:ISBN 2924:2024 2898:2022 2875:2008 2853:2016 2822:2007 2788:PMID 2739:PMID 2690:2012 2663:PMID 2625:2012 2606:PMID 2543:2012 2522:ISBN 2494:2012 2475:PMID 2467:ISSN 2429:2012 2395:PMID 2372:2009 2338:PMID 2267:ISBN 2245:2011 2191:2022 2166:2022 2141:2013 2119:2011 2098:2016 2069:2012 2048:ISBN 2022:2012 1971:PMID 1925:2012 1904:ISBN 1853:2016 1823:2014 1773:2012 1755:ISBN 1730:2012 1717:ISBN 1681:ISBN 1427:0.1 1417:0.8 1390:Oil 1382:0.1 1371:1.4 1360:0.7 1352:4.5 1315:Per 1291:The 1202:IAEA 1185:The 1150:and 1061:ICRP 1040:and 907:Mars 903:Moon 899:Moon 807:iron 759:Bq·h 739:Bq·h 688:tuff 664:ores 594:and 552:and 544:and 512:NORM 502:The 493:mrem 485:mrem 477:dose 465:soil 446:μR/h 416:3.83 413:6.24 410:3.01 398:2.33 395:3.14 392:0.61 341:0.01 320:0.01 301:0.01 280:0.13 264:and 250:2.30 247:3.00 244:0.60 231:1.50 228:3.10 225:2.40 210:0.30 207:0.33 204:0.39 191:0.40 188:0.21 185:0.48 164:0.40 161:0.28 158:0.29 141:0.40 138:2.28 135:1.26 70:and 58:and 46:and 3683:Rem 3673:Rad 3362:doi 3268:doi 3196:doi 3184:202 3071:doi 3059:485 2778:PMC 2770:doi 2729:PMC 2721:doi 2655:doi 2596:PMC 2588:doi 2459:doi 2322:doi 2310:152 1963:doi 1374:11 1363:11 1305:rem 1301:mSv 987:DNA 905:or 805:to 773:keV 620:cf. 481:mSv 121:US 37:not 4499:: 4395:, 4391:, 3915:, 3911:, 3907:, 3452:. 3422:. 3376:. 3368:. 3358:70 3356:. 3352:. 3328:26 3326:. 3322:. 3292:. 3284:. 3274:. 3266:. 3258:. 3248:. 3210:. 3202:. 3194:. 3182:. 3178:. 3149:. 3079:. 3069:. 3057:. 3053:. 2997:. 2970:: 2968:}} 2964:{{ 2915:. 2839:. 2808:. 2786:. 2776:. 2764:. 2760:. 2737:. 2727:. 2717:13 2715:. 2711:. 2692:. 2677:. 2669:. 2661:. 2651:82 2649:. 2645:. 2604:. 2594:. 2586:. 2576:29 2574:. 2570:. 2551:^ 2516:. 2473:. 2465:. 2455:75 2453:. 2449:. 2419:. 2391:44 2389:. 2358:. 2336:. 2328:. 2320:. 2308:. 2228:. 2182:. 2157:. 2089:. 2085:. 2056:. 2005:. 1977:. 1969:. 1959:10 1957:. 1912:. 1898:. 1883:^ 1861:^ 1839:. 1809:. 1738:^ 1695:^ 1679:. 1667:^ 1249:. 1146:, 1088:. 993:. 909:. 841:, 837:, 833:, 829:, 825:, 764:. 682:, 540:, 258:; 172:, 74:. 4415:: 3954:e 3947:t 3940:v 3548:e 3541:t 3534:v 3468:. 3437:. 3391:. 3364:: 3307:. 3270:: 3262:: 3233:. 3198:: 3190:: 3160:. 3135:. 3109:. 3087:. 3073:: 3065:: 3038:. 3016:. 2980:) 2960:. 2926:. 2900:. 2877:. 2855:. 2824:. 2794:. 2772:: 2766:7 2745:. 2723:: 2657:: 2627:. 2590:: 2582:: 2545:. 2496:. 2461:: 2431:. 2401:. 2374:. 2344:. 2324:: 2316:: 2275:. 2247:. 2193:. 2168:. 2143:. 2121:. 2100:. 2071:. 2024:. 1985:. 1965:: 1927:. 1855:. 1825:. 1775:. 1732:. 1689:. 756:/ 736:/ 372:– 338:– 298:– 277:– 268:. 168:( 23:.

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