Atmosphere of Mars

33: 1656: 1299:(SPICAM) has shown the presence of two distinct ozone layers at low-to-mid latitudes. These comprise a persistent, near-surface layer below an altitude of 30 km (19 mi), a separate layer that is only present in northern spring and summer with an altitude varying from 30 to 60 km, and another separate layer that exists 40–60 km above the southern pole in winter, with no counterpart above the Mars's north pole. This third ozone layer shows an abrupt decrease in elevation between 75 and 50 degrees south. SPICAM detected a gradual increase in ozone concentration at 50 km (31 mi) until midwinter, after which it slowly decreased to very low concentrations, with no layer detectable above 35 km (22 mi). 1185: 2417: 2022: 2375: 2334: 1855: 1893: 844: 1154: 1396:. However, methane is chemically unstable in an oxidizing atmosphere with UV radiation. The lifetime of methane in the Martian atmosphere is about 400 years. The detection of methane in a planetary atmosphere may indicate the presence of recent geological activities or living organisms. Since 2004, trace amounts of methane (range from 60 ppb to under detection limit (< 0.05 ppb)) have been reported in various missions and observational studies. The source of methane on Mars and the explanation for the enormous discrepancy in the observed methane concentrations are still under active debate. 2396: 979: 2350: 13595: 1483: 1698: 1767: 1181:, Ar, is produced from the radioactive decay of K. In contrast, Ar is primordial: It was present in the atmosphere after the formation of Mars. Observations indicate that Mars is enriched in Ar relative to Ar, which cannot be attributed to mass-selective loss processes. A possible explanation for the enrichment is that a significant amount of primordial atmosphere, including Ar, was lost by impact erosion in the early history of Mars, while Ar was emitted to the atmosphere after the impact. 1318: 2438: 1706: 1878:

atmosphere, thermal tides have a larger influence on the Martian atmosphere because of the stronger diurnal temperature contrast. The surface pressure measured by Mars rovers showed clear signals of thermal tides, although the variation also depends on the shape of the planet's surface and the amount of suspended dust in the atmosphere. The atmospheric waves can also travel vertically and affect the temperature and water-ice content in the middle atmosphere of Mars.

2467: 1690: 1918: 13508: 1600: 1682: 1362: 13520: 2500: 12485: 1463:, other than helium and argon, are present at trace levels (neon at 2.5 ppmv, krypton at 0.3 ppmv and xenon at 0.08 ppmv) in the Martian atmosphere. The concentration of helium, neon, krypton and xenon in the Martian atmosphere has been measured by different missions. The isotopic ratios of noble gases reveal information about the early geological activities on Mars and the evolution of its atmosphere. 2514: 1817: 2107:

super-rotating jet can be found in Martian atmosphere during global dust storms, but it is much weaker than the ones observed on slow-rotating planets like Venus and Titan. GCM experiments showed that the thermal tides can play a role in inducing the super-rotating jet. Nevertheless, modeling super-rotation still remains as a challenging topic for planetary scientists.

1770: 1769: 1774: 1773: 1768: 1775: 1922: 1920: 1991:) is chemically unstable in the current oxidizing atmosphere of Mars. It would quickly break down due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and chemical reactions with other gases. Therefore, a persistent presence of methane in the atmosphere may imply the existence of a source to continually replenish the gas. 1925: 1924: 1919: 1604: 1926: 1603: 1608: 1606: 1601: 1837:

the ones observed on Earth. Study of dust devils' tracks showed that most of Martian dust devils occur at around 60°N and 60°S in spring and summer. They lift about 2.3 × 10 kg of dust from land surface to atmosphere annually, which is comparable to the contribution from local and regional dust storms.

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Since water is an important source of these odd hydrogen species, higher abundance of ozone is usually observed in the regions with lower water vapor content. Measurements showed that the total column of ozone can reach 2–30 μm-atm around the poles in winter and spring, where the air is cold and

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is relatively weak on Mars (about 5 °C) because of the low concentration of water vapor and low atmospheric pressure. While water vapor in Earth's atmosphere has the largest contribution to greenhouse effect on modern Earth, it is present in only very low concentration in the Martian atmosphere.

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However, the observations showed that there are not enough fast oxygen atoms the Martian exosphere as predicted by the dissociative recombination mechanism. Model estimations of oxygen escape rate suggested it can be over 10 times lower than the hydrogen escape rate. Ion pick and sputtering have been

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then decomposes into hydrogen atoms, and the atoms that have sufficient thermal energy can escape from the gravitation of Mars (Jeans escape). The escape of atomic hydrogen is evident from the UV spectrometers on different orbiters. While most studies suggested that the escape of hydrogen is close to

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In general, the gases found on modern Mars are depleted in lighter stable isotopes, indicating the Martian atmosphere has changed by some mass-selected processes over its history. Scientists often rely on these measurements of isotope composition to reconstruct conditions of the Martian atmosphere in

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Global dust storms (area > 10 km ) occur on average once every 3 Martian years. Observations showed that larger dust storms are usually the result of merging smaller dust storms, but the growth mechanism of the storm and the role of atmospheric feedbacks are still not well understood. Although it

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Local and regional dust storms are not rare on Mars. Local storms have a size of about 10 km and occurrence of about 2000 events per Martian year, while regional storms of 10 km large are observed frequently in southern spring and summer. Near the polar cap, dust storms sometimes can be generated by

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to outer space owing to their heavier mass. However, the higher abundance of hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere and the high fluxes of extreme UV from the young Sun, together could have driven a hydrodynamic outflow and dragged away these heavy gases. Hydrodynamic escape also contributed to the loss

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The mass and composition of the Martian atmosphere are thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime. A thicker, warmer and wetter atmosphere is required to explain several apparent features in the earlier history of Mars, such as the existence of liquid water bodies. Observations

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The currently thin Martian atmosphere prohibits the existence of liquid water on the surface of Mars, but many studies suggest that the Martian atmosphere was much thicker in the past. The higher density during spring and fall is reduced by 25% during the winter when carbon dioxide partly freezes at

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In 2009, an Earth-based observational study reported detection of large-scale electric discharge events on Mars and proposed that they are related to lightning discharge in Martian dust storms. However, later observation studies showed that the result is not reproducible using the radar receiver on

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showed that the migration of dunes is not rare on Mars. The global average migration rate of dunes (2 – 120 m tall) is about 0.5 meter per year. Atmospheric circulation models suggested repeated cycles of wind erosion and dust deposition can lead, possibly, to a net transport of soil materials from

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Dust devils are common on Mars. Like their counterparts on Earth, dust devils form when the convective vortices driven by strong surface heating are loaded with dust particles. Dust devils on Mars usually have a diameter of tens of meters and height of several kilometers, which are much taller than

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in the Martian atmosphere is much weaker than Earth's: 5 °C (9.0 °F) on Mars, versus 33 °C (59 °F) on Earth due to the much lower density of carbon dioxide, leading to less greenhouse warming. The daily range of temperature in the lower atmosphere presents ample variation due to

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technology, scientists started to measure the composition of the Martian atmosphere in the mid-20th century. Lewis David Kaplan and his team detected the signals of water vapor and carbon dioxide in the spectrogram of Mars in 1964, as well as carbon monoxide in 1969. In 1965, the measurements made

1607: 1470:) is produced by the reaction between odd hydrogen species in the middle atmosphere. It can be delivered to the upper atmosphere by mixing or diffusion, decompose to atomic hydrogen (H) by solar radiation and escape the Martian atmosphere. Photochemical modeling estimated that the mixing ratio of H 2705:

Franz, Heather B.; Trainer, Melissa G.; Malespin, Charles A.; Mahaffy, Paul R.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Becker, Richard H.; Benna, Mehdi; Conrad, Pamela G.; Eigenbrode, Jennifer L. (1 April 2017). "Initial SAM calibration gas experiments on Mars: Quadrupole mass spectrometer results and implications".

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observed that "the ruddy tint of the planet does not arise from any peculiarity of its atmosphere; it seems to be fully proved by the fact that the redness is always deepest near the centre, where the atmosphere is thinnest." Spectroscopic observations in the 1860s and 1870s led many to think the

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rover detected a tenfold increase ('spike') in methane in the atmosphere around it in late 2013 and early 2014. Four measurements taken over two months in this period averaged 7.2 ppb, implying that Mars is episodically producing or releasing methane from an unknown source. Before and after that,

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of a film of molecules onto a surface, the amount of surface area for any given volume of material is the main contributor for how much adsorption can occur. A solid block of material, for example, would have no internal surface area, but a porous material, like a sponge, would have high internal

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are prevalent on Mars, which are sometimes observable by telescopes from Earth, and in 2018 even with the naked eye as a change in colour and brightness of the planet. Planet-encircling dust storms (global dust storms) occur on average every 5.5 Earth years (every 3 Martian years) on Mars and can

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McAdam, A. C.; Franz, H.; Archer, P. D.; Freissinet, C.; Sutter, B.; Glavin, D. P.; Eigenbrode, J. L.; Bower, H.; Stern, J.; Mahaffy, P. R.; Morris, R. V.; Ming, D. W.; Rampe, E.; Brunner, A. E.; Steele, A.; Navarro-González, R.; Bish, D. L.; Blake, D.; Wray, J.; Grotzinger, J.; MSL Science Team

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Amoroso, Marilena; Merritt, Donald; Parra, Julia Marín-Yaseli de la; Cardesín-Moinelo, Alejandro; Aoki, Shohei; Wolkenberg, Paulina; Alessandro Aronica; Formisano, Vittorio; Oehler, Dorothy (May 2019). "Independent confirmation of a methane spike on Mars and a source region east of Gale Crater".

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Solar heating on the day side and radiative cooling on the night side of a planet can induce pressure difference. Thermal tides, which are the wind circulation and waves driven by such a daily-varying pressure field, can explain a lot of variability of the Martian atmosphere. Compared to Earth's

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has a background level of 0.15 and peaks in the perihelion season (southern spring and summer). The local abundance of dust varies greatly by seasons and years. During global dust events, Mars surface assets can observe optical depth that is over 4. Surface measurements also showed the effective

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Under sufficiently strong wind (> 30 ms), dust particles can be mobilized and lifted from the surface to the atmosphere. Some of the dust particles can be suspended in the atmosphere and travel by circulation before falling back to the ground. Dust particles can attenuate solar radiation and

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orbiter showed that the globally annually-averaged column abundance of water vapor is about 10–20 precipitable microns (pr. μm). Maximum abundance of water vapor (50-70 pr. μm) is found in the northern polar regions in early summer due to the sublimation of water ice in the polar cap.

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Water vapor is a trace gas in the Martian atmosphere and has huge spatial, diurnal and seasonal variability. Measurements made by Viking orbiter in the late 1970s suggested that the entire global total mass of water vapor is equivalent to about 1 to 2 km of ice. More recent measurements by

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is the driving force behind seasonal cycles, other processes such as dust storms, atmospheric tides, and transient eddies also play a role. Understanding each of these more minor processes and how they contribute to the overall atmospheric cycle will give a clearer picture as to how the Martian

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can extend to over 10 km thick during the daytime. The near-surface diurnal temperature range is huge (60 °C) due to the low thermal inertia. Under dusty conditions, the suspended dust particles can reduce the surface diurnal temperature range to only 5 °C. The temperature above

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heating. The temperature of the Martian thermosphere increases with altitude and varies by season. The daytime temperature of the upper thermosphere ranges from 175 K (at aphelion) to 240 K (at perihelion) and can reach up to 390 K, but it is still significantly lower than the temperature of

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is not efficient in the modern Martian atmosphere due to the relatively low temperature at the exobase (≈200 K at 200 km altitude). It can only explain the escape of hydrogen from Mars. Other non-thermal processes are needed to explain the observed escape of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.

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On Earth, mountain ranges sometimes force an air mass to rise and cool down. As a result, water vapor becomes saturated and clouds are formed during the lifting process. On Mars, orbiters have observed a seasonally recurrent formation of huge water-ice clouds around the downwind side of the

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Super-rotation refers to the phenomenon that atmospheric mass has a higher angular velocity than the surface of the planet at the equator, which in principle cannot be driven by inviscid axisymmetric circulations. Assimilated data and general circulation model (GCM) simulation suggest that

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Stevens, M.H.; Siskind, D.E.; Evans, J.S.; Jain, S.K.; Schneider, N.M.; Deighan, J.; Stewart, A.I.F.; Crismani, M.; Stiepen, A. (28 May 2017). "Martian mesospheric cloud observations by IUVS on MAVEN: Thermal tides coupled to the upper atmosphere: IUVS Martian Mesospheric Clouds".

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Jakosky, B. M.; Brain, D.; Chaffin, M.; Curry, S.; Deighan, J.; Grebowsky, J.; Halekas, J.; Leblanc, F.; Lillis, R. (15 November 2018). "Loss of the Martian atmosphere to space: Present-day loss rates determined from MAVEN observations and integrated loss through time".

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the low thermal inertia; it can range from −75 °C (−103 °F) to near 0 °C (32 °F) near the surface in some regions. The temperature of the upper part of the Martian atmosphere is also significantly lower than Earth's because of the absence of

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Bougher, S. W.; Pawlowski, D.; Bell, J. M.; Nelli, S.; McDunn, T.; Murphy, J. R.; Chizek, M.; Ridley, A. (February 2015). "Mars Global Ionosphere-Thermosphere Model: Solar cycle, seasonal, and diurnal variations of the Mars upper atmosphere: BOUGHER ET AL".

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the pole caps. The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to the density found 35 km (22 mi) above the Earth's surface and is ≈0.020 kg/m. The atmosphere of Mars has been losing mass to space since the planet's core slowed down, and the

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Feldman, Paul D.; Steffl, Andrew J.; Parker, Joel Wm.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; Bertaux, Jean-Loup; Alan Stern, S.; Weaver, Harold A.; Slater, David C.; Versteeg, Maarten (1 August 2011). "Rosetta-Alice observations of exospheric hydrogen and oxygen on Mars".

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Schofield, John T.; Shirley, James H.; Piqueux, Sylvain; McCleese, Daniel J.; Paul O. Hayne; Kass, David M.; Halekas, Jasper S.; Chaffin, Michael S.; Kleinböhl, Armin (February 2018). "Hydrogen escape from Mars enhanced by deep convection in dust storms".

11142:"Life on Mars? Rover's Latest Discovery Puts It 'On the Table' - The identification of organic molecules in rocks on the red planet does not necessarily point to life there, past or present, but does indicate that some of the building blocks were present" 1414:) in the atmosphere would be an indicator of current volcanic activity. It has become especially interesting due to the long-standing controversy of methane on Mars. If volcanoes have been active in recent Martian history, it would be expected to find SO 6804:

Stevens, M.H.; Evans, J.S.; Schneider, N.M.; Stewart, A.I.F.; Deighan, J.; Jain, S.K.; Crismani, M.; Stiepen, A.; Chaffin, M.S.; McClintock, W.E.; Holsclaw, G.M.; Lefèvre, F.; Lo, D.Y.; Clarke, J.T.; Montmessin, F.; Bougher, S.W.; Jakosky, B.M. (2015).

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Lemmon, Mark T.; Wolff, Michael J.; Bell, James F.; Smith, Michael D.; Cantor, Bruce A.; Smith, Peter H. (1 May 2015). "Dust aerosol, clouds, and the atmospheric optical depth record over 5 Mars years of the Mars Exploration Rover mission".

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On Mars, the near-surface wind is not only emitting dust but also modifying the geomorphology of Mars over long time scales. Although it was thought that the atmosphere of Mars is too thin for mobilizing the sandy features, observations made by

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Trokhimovskiy, Alexander; Fedorova, Anna; Korablev, Oleg; Montmessin, Franck; Bertaux, Jean-Loup; Rodin, Alexander; Smith, Michael D. (1 May 2015). "Mars' water vapor mapping by the SPICAM IR spectrometer: Five martian years of observations".

2006:(ppb). However, there have been other reports of detection of methane by ground-based telescopes and Curiosity rover. Trace amounts of methane, at the level of several ppb, were first reported in Mars's atmosphere by a team at the NASA 10917:"What Sounds Captured by NASA's Perseverance Rover Reveal About Mars – A new study based on recordings made by the rover finds that the speed of sound is slower on the Red Planet than on Earth and that, mostly, a deep silence prevails" 5749:

Fox, J.L. (December 2007). "Comment on the papers "Production of hot nitrogen atoms in the martian thermosphere" by F. Bakalian and "Monte Carlo computations of the escape of atomic nitrogen from Mars" by F. Bakalian and R.E. Hartle".

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Troposphere (≈0–40 km): The layer where most of the weather phenomena (e.g. convection and dust storms) take place. Its dynamics is heavily driven by the daytime surface heating and the amount of suspended dust. Mars has a higher

2197:). Since then, many orbiters and landers have been sent to Mars to measure different properties of the Martian atmosphere, such as concentration of trace gases and isotopic ratios. In addition, telescopic observations and analysis of 270:

of the Martian upper atmosphere, measurements of isotopic composition and analyses of Martian meteorites, provide evidence of the long-term changes of the atmosphere and constraints for the relative importance of different processes.

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Mahaffy, P.R.; Webster, C.R.; Atreya, S.K.; Franz, H.; Wong, M.; Conrad, P.G.; Harpold, D.; Jones, J.J.; Leshin, L.A. (19 July 2013). "Abundance and isotopic composition of gases in the Martian atmosphere from the Curiosity rover".

1759:) needed to operate. By 12 June, the storm was the most extensive recorded at the surface of the planet, and spanned an area about the size of North America and Russia combined (about a quarter of the planet). By 13 June, 958:

atmosphere works as a whole. It has been suggested that the regolith on Mars has high internal surface area, implying that it might have a relatively high capacity for the storage of adsorbed gas. Since adsorption works through the

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Toigo, Anthony D.; Richardson, Mark I.; Wang, Huiqun; Guzewich, Scott D.; Newman, Claire E. (1 March 2018). "The cascade from local to global dust storms on Mars: Temporal and spatial thresholds on thermal and dynamical feedback".

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It is thought that the vertical distribution and seasonality of ozone in the Martian atmosphere is driven by the complex interactions between chemistry and transport of oxygen-rich air from sunlit latitudes to the poles. The UV/IR

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McCleese, D. J.; Schofield, J. T.; Taylor, F. W.; Abdou, W. A.; Aharonson, O.; Banfield, D.; Calcutt, S. B.; Heavens, N. G.; Irwin, P. G. J. (November 2008). "Intense polar temperature inversion in the middle atmosphere on Mars".

10945:"Sound on Mars Has a 'Unique' And Extremely Trippy Property, Recordings Reveal – Mars has two speeds of sound, which "may induce a unique listening experience on Mars with an early arrival of high-pitched sounds compared to bass" 2075:, are another possible source, but no evidence for the presence of such organisms has been found on Mars. There are some suspicions about the detection of methane, which suggests that it may instead be caused by the undocumented 7721:

Montmessin, Franck; Forget, François; Millour, Ehouarn; Navarro, Thomas; Madeleine, Jean-Baptiste; Hinson, David P.; Spiga, Aymeric (September 2017). "Snow precipitation on Mars driven by cloud-induced night-time convection".

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Dust has an uneven vertical distribution on Mars. Apart from the planetary boundary layer, sounding data showed that there are other peaks of dust mixing ratio at the higher altitude (e.g. 15–30 km above the surface).

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One of the ways to estimate the amount of water lost by hydrogen escape in the upper atmosphere is to examine the enrichment of deuterium over hydrogen. Isotope-based studies estimate that 12 m to over 30 m

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The vertical temperature structure of the Martian atmosphere differs from Earth's atmosphere in many ways. Information about the vertical structure is usually inferred by using the observations from thermal infrared

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Argon is the third most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 1.9%. In terms of stable isotopes, Mars is enriched in Ar relative to Ar, which can be attributed to hydrodynamic escape.

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Ruf, Christopher; Renno, Nilton O.; Kok, Jasper F.; Bandelier, Etienne; Sander, Michael J.; Gross, Steven; Skjerve, Lyle; Cantor, Bruce (2009). "Emission of non-thermal microwave radiation by a Martian dust storm".

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Forget, François; Montmessin, Franck; Bertaux, Jean-Loup; González-Galindo, Francisco; Lebonnois, Sébastien; Quémerais, Eric; Reberac, Aurélie; Dimarellis, Emmanuel; López-Valverde, Miguel A. (28 January 2009).

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provide independent sources of information to verify the findings. The imageries and measurements made by these spacecraft greatly improve our understanding of the atmospheric processes outside Earth. The rover

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In 2019, NASA scientists working on the Curiosity rover mission, who have been taking measurements of the gas, discovered that the amount of oxygen in the Martian atmosphere rose by 30% in spring and summer.

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Herschel William (1 January 1784). "XIX. On the remarkable appearances at the polar regions of the planet Mars, and its spheroidical figure; with a few hints relating to its real diameter and atmosphere".

843: 238:. The photochemical reactions in the atmosphere tend to oxidize the organic species and turn them into carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. Although the most sensitive methane probe on the recently launched 917:

back to the atmosphere. As a result, significant annual variability in atmospheric pressure (≈25%) and atmospheric composition can be observed on Mars. The condensation process can be approximated by the

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failed to find methane in the atmosphere over the whole of Mars, several previous missions and ground-based telescopes detected unexpected levels of methane in the Martian atmosphere, which may even be a

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diffusion-limited on Mars, more recent studies suggest that the escape rate is modulated by dust storms and has a large seasonality. The estimated escape flux of hydrogen range from 10 cm s to 10 cm s.

1580:) for creating a temperature inversion. However, a seasonal ozone layer and a strong temperature inversion in the middle atmosphere have been observed over the Martian south pole. The altitude of the 3950:

Lee, Jee-Yon; Marti, Kurt; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Kawamura, Kenji; Yoo, Hee-Soo; Lee, Jin Bok; Kim, Jin Seog (1 September 2006). "A redetermination of the isotopic abundances of atmospheric Ar".

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provided the first ever in-situ measurements of the composition of the Martian atmosphere. Another objective of the mission included investigations for evidence of past or present life on Mars (see

1965:, seemingly due to the low pressure and thermal turbulence of Martian surface air; and, as a result of these conditions, sound is much quieter, and live music would be more variable, than on Earth. 7526:

Jakosky, Bruce M.; Farmer, Crofton B. (1982). "The seasonal and global behavior of water vapor in the Mars atmosphere: Complete global results of the Viking Atmospheric Water Detector Experiment".

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in the early Martian atmosphere should have been ten times higher than the present value. The huge enrichment of radiogenic Ar over primordial Ar is also consistent with the impact erosion theory.

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Petrosyan, A.; Galperin, B.; Larsen, S. E.; Lewis, S. R.; Määttänen, A.; Read, P. L.; Renno, N.; Rogberg, L. P. H. T.; Savijärvi, H. (17 September 2011). "The Martian Atmospheric Boundary Layer".

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Valeille, Arnaud; Bougher, Stephen W.; Tenishev, Valeriy; Combi, Michael R.; Nagy, Andrew F. (1 March 2010). "Water loss and evolution of the upper atmosphere and exosphere over martian history".

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Wong, Michael H.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Mahaffy, Paul N.; Franz, Heather B.; Malespin, Charles; Trainer, Melissa G.; Stern, Jennifer C.; Conrad, Pamela G.; Manning, Heidi L.K. (16 December 2013).

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flyby confirmed that the Martian atmosphere is constituted mostly of carbon dioxide, and the surface pressure is about 400 to 700 Pa. After the composition of the Martian atmosphere was known,

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of water has been lost to space via hydrogen escape in Mars' history. It is noted that atmospheric-escape-based approach only provides the lower limit for the estimated early water inventory.

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Moores, John E.; Gough, Raina V.; Martinez, German M.; Meslin, Pierre-Yves; Smith, Christina L.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Mahaffy, Paul R.; Newman, Claire E.; Webster, Christopher R. (May 2019).

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has low water saturation ratio. The actual reactions between ozone and odd hydrogen species may be further complicated by the heterogeneous reactions that take place in water-ice clouds.

2010:

in 2003. Large differences in the abundances were measured between observations taken in 2003 and 2006, which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal.

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15 km is controlled by radiative processes instead of convection. Mars is also a rare exception to the "0.1-bar tropopause" rule found in the other atmospheres in our solar system.

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adsorption into it from the atmosphere. Adsorption from the atmosphere into the regolith has previously been proposed as an explanation for the observed cycles in the methane and water

9874:"Structure and dynamics of the Martian lower and middle atmosphere as observed by the Mars Climate Sounder: Seasonal variations in zonal mean temperature, dust, and water ice aerosols" 1722:), the actual mechanisms are yet to be verified, and electrostatic or magnetic forces may also play in modulating dust emission. Researchers reported that the largest single source of 10148: 3396: 11617: 10799: 3882:

Atreya, Sushil K.; Trainer, Melissa G.; Franz, Heather B.; Wong, Michael H.; Manning, Heidi L.K.; Malespin, Charles A.; Mahaffy, Paul R.; Conrad, Pamela G.; Brunner, Anna E. (2013).

223:. However, the mechanism responsible for the development of large dust storms is still not well understood. It has been suggested to be loosely related to gravitational influence of 7787: 7052: 6494: 11673:

Wurm, Gerhard; Schmidt, Lars; Steinpilz, Tobias; Boden, Lucia; Teiser, Jens (1 October 2019). "A challenge for Martian lightning: Limits of collisional charging at low pressure".

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Haberle, Robert M.; Juárez, Manuel de la Torre; Kahre, Melinda A.; Kass, David M.; Barnes, Jeffrey R.; Hollingsworth, Jeffery L.; Harri, Ari-Matti; Kahanpää, Henrik (June 2018).

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Haberle, R. M. (1 January 2015), "SOLAR SYSTEM/SUN, ATMOSPHERES, EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERES | Planetary Atmospheres: Mars", in North, Gerald R.; Pyle, John; Zhang, Fuqing (eds.),

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Whiteway, J.A.; Komguem, L.; Dickinson, C.; Cook, C.; Illnicki, M.; Seabrook, J.; Popovici, V.; Duck, T. J.; Davy, R. (3 July 2009). "Mars Water-Ice Clouds and Precipitation".

2098:. A laboratory study showed that the air pressure on Mars is not favorable for charging the dust grains, and thus it is difficult to generate lightning in Martian atmosphere. 10053: 1486:

The vertical structure of the atmosphere of Mars overlying with temperature profiles retrieved from the entry probes of Mars landers. Data source: NASA Planetary Data System

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Vasavada, Ashwin R.; Zurek, Richard W.; Sander, Stanley P.; Crisp, Joy; Lemmon, Mark; Hassler, Donald M.; Genzer, Maria; Harri, Ari-Matti; Smith, Michael D. (8 June 2018).

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Vago, Jorge L.; Svedhem, Håkan; Zelenyi, Lev; Etiope, Giuseppe; Wilson, Colin F.; López-Moreno, Jose-Juan; Bellucci, Giancarlo; Patel, Manish R.; Neefs, Eddy (April 2019).

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showed that water-ice clouds can form at the top of the planetary boundary layer at night and precipitate back to the surface as ice crystals in the northern polar region.

5670: 2381: 660:. Dissociative recombination can produce carbon atoms that travel faster than the escape velocity of Mars, and those moving upward can then escape the Martian atmosphere: 1532:

of Mars locates at about 100 km (around 0.01 to 0.001 Pa level) and has a temperature of 100–120 K. The temperature can sometimes be lower than the frost point of CO

12391: 9239:"The structure and variability of Mars dayside thermosphere from MAVEN NGIMS and IUVS measurements: Seasonal and solar activity trends in scale heights and temperatures" 7396: 1516:

of Mars is 4.3 °C km, but the measured average lapse rate is about 2.5 °C km because the suspended dust particles absorb solar radiation and heat the air. The

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atmosphere can produce enough warming for Mars. The hydrogen can be produced by the vigorous outgassing from a highly reduced early Martian mantle and the presence of CO

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Similar to stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere, the ozone present in the Martian atmosphere can be destroyed by catalytic cycles involving odd hydrogen species:

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Yung, Yuk L.; Chen, Pin; Nealson, Kenneth; Atreya, Sushil; Beckett, Patrick; Blank, Jennifer G.; Ehlmann, Bethany; Eiler, John; Etiope, Giuseppe (19 September 2018).

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density in the lower thermosphere. Mars also has a complicated ionosphere that interacts with the solar wind particles, extreme UV radiation and X-rays from Sun, and

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is the second most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 2.6%. Various measurements showed that the Martian atmosphere is enriched in

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Bougher, Stephen W.; Roeten, Kali J.; Olsen, Kirk; Mahaffy, Paul R.; Benna, Mehdi; Elrod, Meredith; Jain, Sonal K.; Schneider, Nicholas M.; Deighan, Justin (2017).

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Owen, T.; Biemann, K.; Rushneck, D. R.; Biller, J. E.; Howarth, D. W.; Lafleur, A. L. (17 December 1976). "The Atmosphere of Mars: Detection of Krypton and Xenon".

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A 700 kilometer long dust storm front (marked by the red arrow) as viewed from orbit at different angles. The red circle of Martian terrain is just for orientation.

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McElroy, Michael B.; Yung, Yuk Ling; Nier, Alfred O. (1 October 1976). "Isotopic Composition of Nitrogen: Implications for the Past History of Mars' Atmosphere".

9595:

Montabone, L.; Forget, F.; Millour, E.; Wilson, R.J.; Lewis, S.R.; Cantor, B.; et al. (1 May 2015). "Eight-year climatology of dust optical depth on Mars".

8193:

Webster, C. R.; Mahaffy, P. R.; Atreya, S. K.; Flesch, G. J.; Mischna, M. A.; Meslin, P.-Y.; Farley, K. A.; Conrad, P. G.; Christensen, L. E. (23 January 2015).

3325: 2018:

readings averaged around one-tenth that level. On 7 June 2018, NASA announced a cyclical seasonal variation in the background level of atmospheric methane.

718:

and collision of carbon with fast oxygen atoms. The estimated overall escape flux is about 0.6 × 10 cm s to 2.2 × 10 cm s and depends heavily on solar activity.

515:

during early Mars' history, a much stronger greenhouse effect must have occurred in the Martian atmosphere to warm the surface up above freezing point of water.

1900:

volcano. The image was taken on 21 September 2018, but similar cloud formation events had been observed in the same site before. Photo credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin

837:

suggested as the alternative mechanisms for the oxygen escape, but this model suggests that they are less important than dissociative recombination at present.

9752:

Chen-Chen, H.; Pérez-Hoyos, S.; Sánchez-Lavega, A. (1 February 2019). "Dust particle size and optical depth on Mars retrieved by the MSL navigation cameras".

8612:

Owen, Tobias; Biemann, K.; Rushneck, D. R.; Biller, J. E.; Howarth, D. W.; Lafleur, A. L. (1977). "The composition of the atmosphere at the surface of Mars".

4109:

Conrad, P. G.; Malespin, C. A.; Franz, H. B.; Pepin, R. O.; Trainer, M. G.; Schwenzer, S. P.; Atreya, S. K.; Freissinet, C.; Jones, J. H. (15 November 2016).

3067: 9328: 4869:

Kasting, James F.; Freedman, Richard; Robinson, Tyler D.; Zugger, Michael E.; Kopparapu, Ravi; Ramirez, Ramses M. (January 2014). "Warming early Mars with CO

7026: 11009: 10424: 6020: 3109: 7961:

Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A.; Maillard, Jean Pierre; Owen, Tobias C. (December 2004). "Detection of methane in the martian atmosphere: evidence for life?".

6912: 1643:

interact with infrared radiation, which can lead to a significant radiative effect on Mars. Orbiter measurements suggest that the globally-averaged dust

9527: 13869: 11570:

Anderson, Marin M.; Siemion, Andrew P. V.; Barott, William C.; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Delory, Gregory T.; Pater, Imke de; Werthimer, Dan (December 2011).

9305: 5385: 1742: 8383:

Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A. (15 November 2005). "A sensitive search for SO2 in the martian atmosphere: Implications for seepage and origin of methane".

1685:

Difference of dust and water clouds: the orange cloud at the center of the image is a large dust cloud, the other white polar clouds are water clouds.

539:

has also been one of the proposed effective greenhouse gases in the early history of Mars. However, other studies suggested that high solubility of SO

11392: 10944: 3884:"Primordial argon isotope fractionation in the atmosphere of Mars measured by the SAM instrument on Curiosity and implications for atmospheric loss" 10181: 1232: 9056:

Robinson, T. D.; Catling, D. C. (January 2014). "Common 0.1 bar tropopause in thick atmospheres set by pressure-dependent infrared transparency".

6945: 2416: 484:

owing to the low escape velocity of Mars. An early computer model suggested that Mars could have lost 99% of its initial atmosphere by the end of

12258: 2126: 477:

is very important for the escape of heavy gases on the nightside of Mars and could have contributed to 65% loss of argon in the history of Mars.

469:

by hydrodynamic escape in one to ten million years under much stronger solar extreme UV on Mars. Meanwhile, more recent observations made by the

7685: 460:

in the early history of Mars may explain the isotopic fractionation of argon and xenon. On modern Mars, the atmosphere is not leaking these two

10139:"As Massive Storm Rages on Mars, Opportunity Rover Falls Silent – Dust clouds blotting out the sun could be the end of the solar-powered probe" 9042: 2402: 492:

ratio on Mars is only 10% of that on Earth and Venus. Assuming the three rocky planets have the same initial volatile inventory, then this low

10455: 2437: 11782: 10738: 11651: 11149: 10138: 7624: 7346:

Lebonnois, Sébastien; Quémerais, Eric; Montmessin, Franck; Lefèvre, Franck; Perrier, Séverine; Bertaux, Jean-Loup; Forget, François (2006).

5337:

Bhattacharyya, D.; Clarke, J. T.; Chaufray, J. Y.; Mayyasi, M.; Bertaux, J. L.; Chaffin, M. S.; Schneider, N. M.; Villanueva, G. L. (2017).

3388: 760:

Nitrogen escape rate is very sensitive to the mass of the atom and solar activity. The overall estimated escape rate of N is 4.8 × 10 cm s.

11571: 7779: 6757:

González-Galindo, Francisco; Määttänen, Anni; Forget, François; Spiga, Aymeric (1 November 2011). "The martian mesosphere as revealed by CO

5564:

Gröller, H.; Lichtenegger, H.; Lammer, H.; Shematovich, V. I. (1 August 2014). "Hot oxygen and carbon escape from the martian atmosphere".

2918: 2862: 2605: 2356: 1334:

Unlike in Earth's atmosphere, liquid-water clouds cannot exist in the Martian atmosphere; this is because of the low atmospheric pressure.

11426: 10791: 10485: 7996:

Geminale, A.; Formisano, V.; Giuranna, M. (July 2008). "Methane in Martian atmosphere: Average spatial, diurnal, and seasonal behaviour".

6486: 6180:

Guzewich, Scott D.; Newman, C.E.; de la Torre Juárez, M.; Wilson, R.J.; Lemmon, M.; Smith, M.D.; Kahanpää, H.; Harri, A.-M. (April 2016).

5131: 4260: 3031: 531:

to generate such a greenhouse effect. Nevertheless, photochemical modeling showed that maintaining an atmosphere with this high level of H

7048: 5847:

Lammer, H.; Lichtenegger, H.I.M.; Kolb, C.; Ribas, I.; Guinan, E.F.; Abart, R.; Bauer, S.J. (September 2003). "Loss of water from Mars".

5196:

Chaufray, J.Y.; Bertaux, J.L.; Leblanc, F.; Quémerais, E. (June 2008). "Observation of the hydrogen corona with SPICAM on Mars Express".

4157: 2466: 446:

ratios, N is much more depleted in the Martian atmosphere. It is thought that the photochemical escape processes are responsible for the

11515:"Non-detection of impulsive radio signals from lightning in Martian dust storms using the radar receiver on the Mars Express spacecraft" 11248: 8249: 7104:

Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A. (1 November 2006). "Photochemistry of the martian atmosphere: Seasonal, latitudinal, and diurnal variations".

3146:

Kok, Jasper F; Parteli, Eric J R; Michaels, Timothy I; Karam, Diana Bou (14 September 2012). "The physics of wind-blown sand and dust".

2884: 1847: 1709:

Mars without a dust storm in June 2001 (on left) and with a global dust storm in July 2001 (on right), as seen by Mars Global Surveyor

10610:

Lee, C.; Lawson, W. G.; Richardson, M. I.; Heavens, N. G.; Kleinböhl, A.; Banfield, D.; McCleese, D. J.; Zurek, R.; Kass, D. (2009).

8031:

Mumma, M.J.; Villanueva, G.L.; Novak, R.E.; Hewagama, T.; Bonev, B.P.; DiSanti, M.A.; Mandell, A.M.; Smith, M.D. (20 February 2009).

2550: 2129:

and noted the occasional movement of a brighter region on Mars, which he attributed to clouds and vapors. In 1809, French astronomer

1734: 195:

The atmosphere of Mars is colder than Earth’s owing to the larger distance from the Sun, receiving less solar energy and has a lower

12361: 11085: 5928: 13594: 10916: 9998: 7810: 7082: 1528:

in the mesosphere acts as a cooling agent by efficiently radiating heat into space. Stellar occultation observations show that the

488:

period based on a hypothetical bombardment flux estimated from lunar crater density. In terms of relative abundance of carbon, the

5539: 1564:

heating processes is not important in the Martian thermosphere because of the absence of a strong magnetic field in Mars, but the

963:

surface area. Given the loose, finely grained nature of the Martian regolith, there is the possibility of significant levels of CO

12219: 10247: 10214: 8702: 4190: 180:

having a max density 20g/m (about 2% of Earth’s value) with a temperature generally below zero down to -60 Celsius. The average

12768: 11234:"The Astrobiology of Mars: Methane and Other Candinate Biomarker Gases, and Related Interdisciplinary Studies on Earth and Mars" 8540:. 44th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, held 18–22 March 2013 in The Woodlands, Texas. LPI Contribution No. 1719, p. 1751 5634: 4216: 4061:

Pepin, Robert O. (1 July 1991). "On the origin and early evolution of terrestrial planet atmospheres and meteoritic volatiles".

2993: 652:

An ion and an electron can recombine and produce electronic-neutral products. The products gain extra kinetic energy due to the

450:

and has caused a significant loss of nitrogen on geological timescales. Estimates suggest that the initial partial pressure of N

12838: 5958: 1503:, landers' entry profiles. Mars's atmosphere can be classified into three layers according to the average temperature profile: 12383: 8655:

Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A.; Gladstone, G. Randall (1 August 2005). "Helium on Mars and Venus: EUVE observations and modeling".

7347: 6329:"Simultaneous adsorption of CO 2 and H 2 O under Mars-like conditions and application to the evolution of the Martian climate" 5153:

Anderson, Donald E. (1974). "Mariner 6, 7, and 9 Ultraviolet Spectrometer Experiment: Analysis of hydrogen Lyman alpha data".

4938:

Batalha, Natasha; Domagal-Goldman, Shawn D.; Ramirez, Ramses; Kasting, James F. (15 September 2015). "Testing the early Mars H

1422:

has been detected in the atmosphere, with a sensitivity upper limit set at 0.2 ppb. However, a team led by scientists at

32: 13557: 12977: 12962: 5339:"Seasonal Changes in Hydrogen Escape From Mars Through Analysis of HST Observations of the Martian Exosphere Near Perihelion" 2565: 2395: 1655: 730:

is important for the nitrogen escape on Mars. In addition, other photochemical escape mechanism also play an important role:

13436: 11907: 11108: 9657: 7308: 12693: 9489: 4601:

Leblanc, F.; Martinez, A.; Chaufray, J. Y.; Modolo, R.; Hara, T.; Luhmann, J.; Lillis, R.; Curry, S.; McFadden, J. (2018).

2258:

The atmosphere of Mars is a resource of known composition available at any landing site on Mars. It has been proposed that

2194: 1572:

Mars does not have a persistent stratosphere due to the lack of shortwave-absorbing species in its middle atmosphere (e.g.

1115:

in the upper atmosphere downward. The balance between photolysis and redox production keeps the average concentration of CO

869: 12461: 10768: 8495:; Greathouse, T. K.; Richter, M. J.; Lacy, J. H.; Fouchet, T.; Bézard, B.; Lefèvre, F.; Forget, F.; Atreya, S. K. (2011). 13191: 12778: 12489: 10280: 9873: 711: 474: 9552:

Smith, Michael D. (1 January 2004). "Interannual variability in TES atmospheric observations of Mars during 1999–2003".

5064:

Schrag, Daniel P.; Zuber, Maria T.; Halevy, Itay (21 December 2007). "A sulfur dioxide climate feedback on early Mars".

13431: 9813:

Vicente-Retortillo, Álvaro; Martínez, Germán M.; Renno, Nilton O.; Lemmon, Mark T.; de la Torre-Juárez, Manuel (2017).

8427: 8145:

Geminale, A.; Formisano, V.; Sindoni, G. (1 February 2011). "Mapping methane in Martian atmosphere with PFS-MEX data".

6131:

Ordonez-Etxeberria, Iñaki; Hueso, Ricardo; Sánchez-Lavega, Agustín; Millour, Ehouarn; Forget, Francois (January 2019).

3732:

Marty, Bernard (1 January 2012). "The origins and concentrations of water, carbon, nitrogen and noble gases on Earth".

10999: 10585: 8537: 4771:"Mars' upper atmosphere and ionosphere at low, medium, and high solar activities: Implications for evolution of water" 3270: 2063:. It has also been shown that methane could be produced by a process involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral 1738: 13060: 9018: 4372:

Hunten, Donald M.; Pepin, Robert O.; Walker, James C.G. (1 March 1987). "Mass fractionation in hydrodynamic escape".

3801: 2825: 2675: 2325:

was able to make oxygen on Mars. The process is complex and takes a lot of time to produce a small amount of oxygen.

12330: 9120:"Density and temperatures of the upper Martian atmosphere measured by stellar occultations with Mars Express SPICAM" 6133:"Meteorological pressure at Gale crater from a comparison of REMS/MSL data and MCD modelling: Effect of dust storms" 995:

Moreover, under low atmospheric pressure, greenhouse gases cannot absorb infrared radiation effectively because the

9366: 3686:

Mahaffy, P.R.; Conrad, P.G.; MSL Science Team (1 February 2015). "Volatile and Isotopic Imprints of Ancient Mars".

2444: 1423: 1231:

in the upper atmosphere and can escape the atmosphere via dissociative recombination or ion pickup. In early 2016,

7663: 4541:

Jakosky, B.M.; Slipski, M.; Benna, M.; Mahaffy, P.; Elrod, M.; Yelle, R.; Stone, S.; Alsaeed, N. (31 March 2017).

3088: 3059: 2214:

are still operating on the surface of Mars to carry out experiments and report the local daily weather. The rover

251:. However, the interpretation of the measurements is still highly controversial and lacks a scientific consensus. 12713: 9872:

McCleese, D.J.; Heavens, N.G.; Schofield, J.T.; Abdou, W.A.; Bandfield, J.L.; Calcutt, S.B.; et al. (2010).

7262:

Franck Lefèvre; Montmessin, Franck (November 2013). "Transport-driven formation of a polar ozone layer on Mars".

6968: 1184: 919: 13698: 6682: 6653: 5981: 5257: 5232: 588:

O or other hydrogen-containing compounds in the lower atmosphere and diffuses to the exosphere. The exospheric H

12753: 12590: 12547: 10826: 10692: 8538:"Insights into the Sulfur Mineralogy of Martian Soil at Rocknest, Gale Crater, Enabled by Evolved Gas Analyses" 3657: 982:

Comparison of the abundance of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon in the atmospheres of Earth, Venus, and Mars

942: 10416: 6904: 9945:

Guzewich, Scott D.; Talaat, Elsayed R.; Toigo, Anthony D.; Waugh, Darryn W.; McConnochie, Timothy H. (2013).

9519: 3101: 2473: 2021: 946: 5338: 13737: 13732: 13166: 12414:"NASA's Perseverance rover produces oxygen on Mars in historic first — water could be next, scientists say" 10971:

Mumma, M. J.; Novak, R. E.; DiSanti, M. A.; Bonev, B. P. (2003). "A Sensitive Search for Methane on Mars".

7147:

Perrier, S.; Bertaux, J.L.; Lefèvre, F.; Lebonnois, S.; Korablev, O.; Fedorova, A.; Montmessin, F. (2006).

2532: 2245: 2133:

wrote about his observation of "yellow clouds" on Mars, which are likely to be dust storm events. In 1864,

2076: 9297: 4425:

Hans Keppler; Shcheka, Svyatoslav S. (October 2012). "The origin of the terrestrial noble-gas signature".

2333: 1052:(OH) produced from the photolysis of water vapor, together with the other odd hydrogen species (e.g. H, HO 901:) ratio of 94.9%. In winter polar regions, the surface temperature can be lower than the frost point of CO 13859: 13826: 13396: 13151: 13146: 13055: 12663: 2116: 2052: 2007: 1791: 13842:

Atmospheres in boldface are significant atmospheres; atmospheres in italics are unconfirmed atmospheres.

11384: 10171: 5980:

Soto, Alejandro; Mischna, Michael; Schneider, Tapio; Lee, Christopher; Richardson, Mark (1 April 2015).

1718:

is thought that Martian dust can be entrained into the atmosphere by processes similar to Earth's (e.g.

13792: 13328: 13161: 13032: 12918: 12805: 10716: 9440:

Slipski, M.; Jakosky, B. M.; Benna, M.; Elrod, M.; Mahaffy, P.; Kass, D.; Stone, S.; Yelle, R. (2018).

8831:"Observations of atmospheric tides on Mars at the season and latitude of the Phoenix atmospheric entry" 6935: 2577: 1239:

in the atmosphere of Mars, which has not been found since the Viking and Mariner mission in the 1970s.

1221: 1147: 657: 13678: 12242: 7348:"Vertical distribution of ozone on Mars as measured by SPICAM/Mars Express using stellar occultations" 6967:

Hartogh, P.; Jarchow, C.; Lellouch, E.; de Val-Borro, M.; Rengel, M.; Moreno, R.; et al. (2010).

1512:

of 11.1 km than Earth (8.5 km) because of its weaker gravity. The theoretical dry adiabatic

1150:. The enrichment of heavy isotopes of nitrogen is possibly caused by mass-selective escape processes. 481: 13550: 13448: 13263: 12955: 12773: 12353: 11513:

Gurnett, D. A.; Morgan, D. D.; Granroth, L. J.; Cantor, B. A.; Farrell, W. M.; Espley, J. R. (2010).

8727:

Krasnopolsky, V. A. (30 November 2001). "Detection of Molecular Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of Mars".

7699: 7651: 2232: 1998:, which has made the most sensitive measurements of methane in Mars' atmosphere with over 100 global 9815:"Determination of dust aerosol particle size at Gale Crater using REMS UVS and Mastcam measurements" 4818:

Sagan, Carl (September 1977). "Reducing greenhouses and the temperature history of Earth and Mars".

1892: 1854: 1556:

in the Martian thermosphere may explain part of the discrepancy because of the cooling effects of CO

1153: 568: 13366: 13358: 12935: 10447: 2287: 2143: 1887: 1727: 1517: 1130:(>50 km) in tropical regions, where the air temperature is lower than the frost point of CO 12698: 11735: 10730: 8457:

Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A (2012). "Search for methane and upper limits to ethane and SO2 on Mars".

6848:"Comparative planetology of the history of nitrogen isotopes in the atmospheres of Titan and Mars" 5694:"Comparative planetology of the history of nitrogen isotopes in the atmospheres of Titan and Mars" 2278:

for the return mission. Mission studies that propose using the atmosphere in this way include the

2032:

The principal candidates for the origin of Mars' methane include non-biological processes such as

12748: 12605: 12116: 11643: 11324:"Differentiating biotic from abiotic methane genesis in hydrothermally active planetary surfaces" 11141: 7616: 6448: 6394:"Methane seasonal cycle at Gale Crater on Mars consistent with regolith adsorption and diffusion" 6220: 6181: 5007:

Johnson, Sarah Stewart; Mischna, Michael A.; Grove, Timothy L.; Zuber, Maria T. (8 August 2008).

4659:

Vickery, A.M.; Melosh, H.J. (April 1989). "Impact erosion of the primordial atmosphere of Mars".

1816: 512: 505: 12431: 2914: 2854: 2597: 13717: 13138: 13113: 12950: 12853: 12795: 12727: 12615: 11415: 10477: 6518:"Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere" 5123: 4247: 3023: 2222: 2151: 2150:, which has no appreciable atmosphere, in many respects. In 1926, photographic observations by 1957:

is slower in the thin Martian atmosphere than on Earth. The speed of sound on Mars, within the

1859: 1312: 975:

adsorption is occurring, and if so, the extent of its impact on the overall atmospheric cycle.

954: 888: 485: 4110: 13638: 13611: 13333: 13313: 13186: 12997: 12945: 12940: 12923: 12800: 12785: 11233: 10084: 8492: 8194: 7890: 7320: 7197: 6490: 3419: 2259: 2165:

With an enhanced understanding of optical properties of atmospheric gases and advancement in

2095: 1672: 1577: 687:

UV photolysis of carbon monoxide is another crucial mechanism for the carbon escape on Mars:

447: 196: 38: 11322:

Oze, Christopher; Jones, Camille; Goldsmith, Jonas I.; Rosenbauer, Robert J. (7 June 2012).

8512: 8158: 8113: 8009: 7196:

Perrier, Séverine; Montmessin, Franck; Lebonnois, Sébastien; Forget, François; Fast, Kelly;

7006: 6464: 5587: 4129: 3751: 2892: 2719: 2130: 1723: 1637: 13816: 13765: 13652: 13543: 13348: 13343: 13130: 12444: 12293: 12175: 12128: 12087: 12048: 12011: 11977: 11883: 11823: 11750: 11692: 11526: 11461: 11337: 11286: 11186: 11040: 10980: 10863: 10623: 10523: 10369: 10320: 10093: 10013: 9958: 9888: 9826: 9771: 9710: 9614: 9561: 9453: 9398: 9250: 9134: 9075: 9006: 8949: 8890: 8842: 8799: 8787: 8736: 8664: 8621: 8562: 8508: 8466: 8392: 8341: 8287: 8209: 8154: 8109: 8044: 8005: 7970: 7906: 7853: 7731: 7582: 7535: 7476: 7430: 7362: 7271: 7209: 7160: 7113: 7002: 6859: 6818: 6770: 6669: 6592: 6529: 6460: 6405: 6340: 6282: 6232: 6193: 6144: 6105: 6058: 6047:"The seasonal variation of atmospheric pressure on Mars as affected by the south polar cap" 5996: 5883: 5805: 5759: 5705: 5646: 5583: 5513: 5423: 5353: 5293: 5244: 5205: 5162: 5073: 5020: 4965: 4896: 4827: 4782: 4727: 4668: 4617: 4554: 4497: 4434: 4381: 4330: 4125: 4111:"In situ measurement of atmospheric krypton and xenon on Mars with Mars Science Laboratory" 4070: 4008: 3959: 3895: 3838: 3747: 3695: 3633: 3563: 3505: 3435: 3285: 3230: 3165: 2950: 2813: 2715: 2571: 2322: 2253: 2249: 2216: 2159: 2134: 1999: 1947: 1932: 1786: 1492: 1352: 1346: 1048:

in the current Martian atmosphere would be removed by photolysis in about 3,500 years. The

465:

of carbon, and models suggest that it is possible to lose 1,000 hPa (1 bar) of CO

181: 52: 11275:"Have olivine, will gas: Serpentinization and the abiogenic production of methane on Mars" 978: 8: 13758: 13684: 13624: 13617: 13524: 13480: 13293: 12903: 12883: 12848: 12600: 12060: 11075: 10143: 10025: 6807:"New observations of molecular nitrogen in the Martian upper atmosphere by IUVS on MAVEN" 6583:

McElroy, M.B.; Donahue, T.M. (15 September 1972). "Stability of the Martian atmosphere".

5918: 4255: 3827:"Isotopes of nitrogen on Mars: Atmospheric measurements by Curiosity's mass spectrometer" 3177: 2505: 2033: 1811: 1749: 1719: 1544: 1339: 996: 898: 457: 177: 13727: 12297: 12179: 12132: 12091: 12052: 12015: 11981: 11887: 11836: 11827: 11811: 11754: 11696: 11530: 11465: 11341: 11290: 11190: 11044: 10984: 10867: 10627: 10527: 10373: 10324: 10097: 10017: 9962: 9947:"High-altitude dust layers on Mars: Observations with the Thermal Emission Spectrometer" 9892: 9830: 9775: 9714: 9618: 9565: 9457: 9402: 9254: 9138: 9079: 9010: 8953: 8894: 8846: 8791: 8740: 8668: 8625: 8566: 8470: 8396: 8345: 8291: 8213: 8048: 7974: 7910: 7857: 7735: 7586: 7539: 7480: 7434: 7366: 7275: 7213: 7164: 7117: 7074: 6863: 6822: 6774: 6673: 6596: 6533: 6409: 6344: 6286: 6236: 6197: 6148: 6109: 6062: 6000: 5887: 5809: 5763: 5709: 5650: 5517: 5427: 5357: 5297: 5248: 5209: 5166: 5077: 5024: 4969: 4900: 4831: 4786: 4731: 4672: 4621: 4558: 4501: 4438: 4385: 4334: 4074: 4012: 3963: 3899: 3842: 3699: 3637: 3567: 3509: 3439: 3289: 3234: 3169: 2954: 2817: 1204:) in the Martian atmosphere is 0.174%. It is one of the products of the photolysis of CO 13831: 13583: 13221: 12930: 12843: 12833: 12540: 11950: 11849: 11774: 11716: 11682: 11609: 11583: 11552: 11495: 11360: 11323: 11304: 11113: 11004: 10897: 10884: 10849: 10710: 10652: 10611: 10554: 10511: 10395: 10114: 10079: 10045: 9912: 9795: 9761: 9734: 9700: 9638: 9604: 9422: 9219: 9158: 9099: 9065: 9036: 8983: 8922: 8860: 8811: 8760: 8594: 8365: 8241: 8078: 7940: 7755: 7508: 7388: 7241: 7018: 6992: 6880: 6847: 6736: 6634: 6560: 6517: 6429: 6374: 6306: 6248: 6162: 5829: 5795: 5726: 5693: 5607: 5573: 5447: 5377: 5319: 5105: 5046: 4989: 4955: 4920: 4886: 4851: 4700: 4641: 4523: 4466: 4354: 4040: 3924: 3883: 3859: 3826: 3771: 3737: 3592: 3551: 3469: 3317: 3197: 3155: 2974: 2667: 1161: 260: 189: 13747: 11274: 10237: 10204: 7442: 5860: 5501: 1648:

radius of dust particles ranges from 0.6 μm to 2 μm and has considerable seasonality.

1584:

of Mars varies greatly from 60 to 140 km, and the variability is driven by the CO

13709: 13453: 13390: 13241: 13231: 13118: 13096: 13074: 13012: 13002: 12987: 12913: 12898: 12863: 12858: 12703: 12250: 12211: 12193: 12144: 11954: 11899: 11853: 11841: 11766: 11720: 11708: 11613: 11601: 11597: 11556: 11544: 11487: 11365: 11214: 11177: 11056: 10901: 10889: 10698: 10688: 10657: 10639: 10559: 10541: 10387: 10338: 10119: 10078:

Ojha, Lujendra; Lewis, Kevin; Karunatillake, Suniti; Schmidt, Mariek (20 July 2018).

10037: 10029: 9976: 9916: 9904: 9854: 9799: 9787: 9726: 9642: 9630: 9577: 9471: 9426: 9414: 9278: 9150: 9091: 9024: 9014: 8975: 8914: 8906: 8815: 8803: 8752: 8698: 8680: 8637: 8586: 8578: 8408: 8369: 8357: 8313: 8305: 8233: 8225: 8170: 8127: 8070: 8062: 7932: 7924: 7871: 7759: 7747: 7598: 7551: 7512: 7500: 7492: 7446: 7380: 7287: 7245: 7233: 7225: 7178: 7129: 7022: 6885: 6786: 6687: 6626: 6618: 6565: 6547: 6433: 6421: 6378: 6366: 6298: 6166: 6074: 6012: 5899: 5833: 5821: 5731: 5662: 5611: 5599: 5531: 5451: 5439: 5381: 5369: 5311: 5262: 5178: 5097: 5089: 5038: 4993: 4981: 4924: 4912: 4843: 4800: 4751: 4743: 4692: 4684: 4645: 4633: 4580: 4572: 4527: 4515: 4470: 4458: 4450: 4407: 4393: 4346: 4182: 4149: 4141: 4086: 4082: 4044: 4032: 4024: 3975: 3929: 3911: 3864: 3807: 3797: 3763: 3711: 3649: 3597: 3579: 3523: 3496: 3461: 3453: 3321: 3309: 3301: 3246: 3201: 3189: 3181: 2978: 2966: 2831: 2821: 2731: 2671: 2291: 2204: 2198: 2003: 1995: 1827: 1589: 1496: 1435: 1178: 1011: 991: 239: 235: 200: 13752: 11778: 11499: 11308: 10612:"Thermal tides in the Martian middle atmosphere as seen by the Mars Climate Sounder" 10399: 10049: 9223: 9103: 8987: 8864: 8764: 8598: 8245: 8082: 7944: 7392: 6740: 6638: 6252: 5950: 4358: 3775: 3473: 13799: 13722: 13458: 13383: 13040: 13022: 13007: 12967: 12878: 12790: 12301: 12183: 12136: 12095: 12056: 12019: 11942: 11891: 11831: 11758: 11700: 11593: 11534: 11477: 11469: 11355: 11345: 11294: 11204: 11194: 11048: 10879: 10871: 10854: 10647: 10631: 10549: 10531: 10377: 10328: 10109: 10101: 10021: 9966: 9896: 9844: 9834: 9779: 9738: 9718: 9622: 9569: 9461: 9406: 9268: 9258: 9209: 9201: 9162: 9142: 9083: 8965: 8957: 8926: 8898: 8850: 8795: 8778:

Smith, Michael D. (May 2008). "Spacecraft Observations of the Martian Atmosphere".

8744: 8672: 8629: 8570: 8516: 8474: 8400: 8349: 8295: 8217: 8162: 8117: 8052: 8013: 7978: 7914: 7861: 7739: 7590: 7543: 7484: 7438: 7370: 7279: 7217: 7168: 7121: 7010: 6875: 6867: 6826: 6778: 6726: 6718: 6677: 6608: 6600: 6555: 6537: 6516:

Yung, Yuk L.; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Li, King-Fai (16 June 2009).

6468: 6413: 6393: 6356: 6348: 6310: 6290: 6240: 6201: 6152: 6113: 6092:

Hess, S. L.; Ryan, J. A.; Tillman, J. E.; Henry, R. M.; Leovy, C. B. (March 1980).

6066: 6004: 5891: 5856: 5813: 5767: 5721: 5713: 5654: 5591: 5521: 5431: 5361: 5323: 5301: 5252: 5213: 5170: 5109: 5081: 5050: 5028: 4973: 4904: 4855: 4835: 4790: 4735: 4704: 4676: 4625: 4603:"On Mars's Atmospheric Sputtering After MAVEN's First Martian Year of Measurements" 4562: 4505: 4442: 4397: 4389: 4338: 4301: 4290:"Noble gases and nitrogen in Tissint reveal the composition of the Mars atmosphere" 4133: 4078: 4016: 3967: 3919: 3903: 3854: 3846: 3755: 3703: 3641: 3587: 3571: 3513: 3443: 3293: 3271:"No detection of methane on Mars from early ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter observations" 3238: 3173: 2958: 2723: 2663: 2360: 2155: 2122: 1872: 1596:

of Mars starts at about 230 km and gradually merges with interplanetary space.

1482: 1049: 780:

reaction as well) can generate the oxygen atoms that travel fast enough to escape:

653: 10970: 10510:

Urso, Anna C.; Fenton, Lori K.; Banks, Maria E.; Chojnacki, Matthew (1 May 2019).

8574: 8521: 8496: 8276:"Background levels of methane in Mars' atmosphere show strong seasonal variations" 8122: 8097: 7200:; et al. (August 2008). "Heterogeneous chemistry in the atmosphere of Mars". 7014: 4718:

Owen, Tobias; Bar-Nun, Akiva (1 August 1995). "Comets, impacts, and atmospheres".

3492:"Background levels of methane in Mars' atmosphere show strong seasonal variations" 1697: 13821: 13490: 13443: 13101: 12992: 12888: 12873: 12868: 12820: 12810: 12763: 12758: 12668: 12653: 12628: 12595: 12565: 12039:

Wright, W. H. (1925). "Photographs of Mars made with light of different colors".

11968:

Dawes, W.R. (1865). "Physical Observations of Mars Near the Opposition in 1864".

11868: 11704: 10949: 10205:"NASA to Hold Media Teleconference on Martian Dust Storm, Mars Opportunity Rover" 9783: 9722: 9626: 9573: 8676: 8478: 8404: 7982: 7594: 7125: 6871: 6782: 6604: 6244: 6205: 6157: 6132: 6008: 5895: 5817: 5771: 5717: 5217: 4977: 4543:"Mars' atmospheric history derived from upper-atmosphere measurements of Ar / Ar" 4288:

Avice, G.; Bekaert, D.V.; Chennaoui Aoudjehane, H.; Marty, B. (9 February 2018).

3645: 3242: 2962: 2527: 2478: 2427: 2056: 1979: 1962: 1676: 1431: 1387: 1366: 165: 115: 20: 13785: 13742: 11052: 5917:

Jones, Nancy; Steigerwald, Bill; Brown, Dwayne; Webster, Guy (14 October 2014).

5280:

Zahnle, Kevin; Haberle, Robert M.; Catling, David C.; Kasting, James F. (2008).

4342: 4320: 1763:

rover began experiencing serious communication problems due to the dust storm.

13401: 12723: 12678: 12633: 11173:"Organic matter preserved in 3-billion-year-old mudstones at Gale crater, Mars" 10875: 10760: 10105: 7866: 7841: 6845: 6093: 6046: 4137: 3971: 3759: 3707: 3089:

https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/is-the-mars-opposition-already-over/

2263: 2190: 1954: 1407: 145: 75: 13691: 10270: 8353: 8166: 8017: 6472: 6417: 5595: 5435: 3297: 2727: 1457:. The estimated mean volume ratio of CO in the Martian atmosphere is 0.0747%. 555:

in the Martian atmosphere, and hence reduce the potential warming effect of SO

13864: 13853: 13511: 13279: 13108: 13091: 13083: 13017: 12972: 12893: 12828: 12743: 12658: 12648: 12638: 12533: 12254: 12197: 12148: 11903: 11845: 11770: 11712: 11605: 11548: 11491: 10643: 10545: 10391: 10342: 10033: 9980: 9908: 9858: 9791: 9730: 9634: 9581: 9475: 9418: 9282: 9154: 9095: 9028: 8979: 8910: 8807: 8684: 8641: 8582: 8412: 8361: 8309: 8229: 8174: 8131: 8066: 7928: 7751: 7602: 7555: 7496: 7450: 7384: 7291: 7229: 7182: 7133: 6790: 6691: 6622: 6551: 6449:"Little variability of methane on Mars induced by adsorption in the regolith" 6425: 6370: 6302: 6078: 6016: 5903: 5825: 5666: 5603: 5535: 5443: 5373: 5315: 5266: 5182: 5093: 5042: 4985: 4916: 4847: 4804: 4747: 4688: 4637: 4576: 4519: 4454: 4411: 4145: 4090: 4028: 3979: 3915: 3811: 3767: 3715: 3653: 3583: 3457: 3305: 3250: 3185: 2970: 2835: 2735: 2283: 2068: 1958: 1862:

on Mars detected by HiRISE. Photo credit: NASA/JPL Caltech/U. Arizona/JHU-APL

1780: 1644: 1392:

As a volcanic and biogenic species, methane is of interest to geologists and

1308: 1236: 1127: 913:. In summer, the polar dry ice cap can undergo sublimation and release the CO 264: 224: 13659: 11762: 11350: 11199: 11172: 10702: 8748: 8633: 8300: 8275: 8221: 8057: 8032: 7919: 7894: 7547: 7488: 7149:"Global distribution of total ozone on Mars from SPICAM/MEX UV measurements" 6613: 6542: 6361: 6130: 6117: 6070: 5174: 5085: 4567: 4542: 4306: 4289: 4020: 3518: 3491: 3448: 3423: 2547: – Planned science mission to Mars featuring semi-hard landing strategy 1453:

and quickly reacts with the oxidants in the Martian atmosphere to re-form CO

1317: 909:

gas in the atmosphere can condense on the surface to form 1–2 m thick solid

13670: 13470: 13465: 13406: 13338: 13318: 12982: 12738: 12683: 12623: 12354:"Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) – NASA Mars Curiosity Rover" 11946: 11369: 11218: 11209: 11060: 10893: 10681: 10661: 10577: 10563: 10123: 10080:"The Medusae Fossae Formation as the single largest source of dust on Mars" 10041: 8918: 8756: 8590: 8317: 8237: 8074: 7936: 7875: 7504: 7316: 7237: 6889: 6630: 6569: 6270: 5735: 5630: 5497: 5101: 4755: 4739: 4696: 4584: 4462: 4350: 4036: 3933: 3868: 3601: 3527: 3465: 3313: 3193: 2538: 2519: 2455: 2448: 2385: 2364: 2307: 2179: 2175: 2166: 2139: 2090: 1746: 1633: 1549: 1524:

Mesosphere (≈40–100 km): The layer that has the lowest temperature. CO

1509: 1393: 1335: 1295: 1290: 968: 248: 244: 13645: 12501: 9849: 9273: 9214: 8149:. Methane on Mars: Current Observations, Interpretation and Future Plans. 3575: 2553: – software that simulates the circulations of the Martian atmosphere 1705: 184:

is about 610 pascals (0.088 psi) which is 0.6% of the Earth's value.

13215: 13210: 12673: 12521:

Summary of weekly weather on Mars prepared by Malin Space Science systems

12513: 12306: 12281: 12243:"The Doctor From Nazi Germany and the Roots of the Hunt for Life on Mars" 11895: 11539: 11514: 11482: 11473: 11299: 10635: 10382: 10357: 10333: 10308: 9900: 9839: 9814: 9466: 9441: 9263: 9238: 9205: 9146: 8970: 8961: 8855: 8830: 7375: 7173: 7148: 6831: 6806: 6722: 6328: 6094:"The annual cycle of pressure on Mars measured by Viking Landers 1 and 2" 5526: 5365: 5306: 5281: 5033: 5008: 4795: 4770: 4629: 4510: 4485: 4402: 3907: 3850: 2544: 2483: 2406: 2294:, converting atmospheric carbon dioxide along with additional hydrogen (H 2290:

study. Two major chemical pathways for use of the carbon dioxide are the

2279: 2275: 2125:

published an article about his observations of the Martian atmosphere in

1660: 1573: 1500: 1189: 205: 157: 125: 12322: 9358: 7421:

Titov, D.V. (1 January 2002). "Water vapour in the atmosphere of Mars".

7221: 6731: 4446: 1946:

on Mars. These studies were based on measurements by instruments on the

208:

and the radiative cooling effect of carbon dioxide at higher altitudes.

13566: 13323: 13308: 12643: 12573: 11572:"The Allen Telescope Array Search for Electrostatic Discharges on Mars" 9971: 9946: 9116: 7571: 7049:"Flying Observatory Detects Atomic Oxygen in Martian Atmosphere – NASA" 6221:"Detection of Northern Hemisphere transient eddies at Gale Crater Mars" 3620:

Zahnle, Kevin; Freedman, Richard S.; Catling, David C. (1 April 2011).

2072: 2037: 1906: 1897: 1822: 1613: 1581: 1513: 930: 897:

is the main component of the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume (

516: 220: 215: 211: 10172:"NASA's Curiosity Rover Is Tracking a Huge Dust Storm on Mars (Photo)" 6352: 6179: 5658: 4153: 2182:. Containers that simulated environmental conditions on Mars, called " 1157: 279:

Isotopic ratio of different species in Martian and Earth's atmosphere

13776: 13475: 13411: 13045: 12908: 12507: 11388: 10823:"Mars Express: Keeping an eye on a curious cloud | Red Planet Report" 10536: 10176: 9812: 9087: 8902: 7743: 7283: 6940: 6294: 4908: 4839: 4680: 4287: 3389:"Mars methane mystery thickens as newest probe fails to find the gas" 2227: 2171: 1681: 1593: 1529: 1460: 1361: 461: 443: 439: 173: 12733: 11031:

Hand, Eric (2018). "Mars methane rises and falls with the seasons".

10822: 9410: 6756: 5563: 4937: 3621: 2541: – Scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of Mars 551:

aerosol and surface deposition prohibit the long-term build-up of SO

13485: 13197: 13178: 13050: 12520: 12188: 12163: 12140: 12100: 12075: 12024: 11999: 11687: 11074:

Webster, Guy; Neal-Jones, Nancy; Brown, Dwayne (16 December 2014).

10915:

Agle, DC; Fox, Karen; Johnson, Alana; Brennan, Pat (1 April 2022).

10512:"Boundary condition controls on the high-sand-flux regions of Mars" 9766: 8699:"Curiosity finds evidence of Mars crust contributing to atmosphere" 8330: 7345: 6846:

Mandt, Kathleen; Mousis, Olivier; Chassefière, Eric (1 July 2015).

6447:

Meslin, P.-Y.; Gough, R.; Lefèvre, F.; Forget, F. (February 2011).

5578: 4960: 2359:

Polar ice cap with the depth of the atmosphere, as well as a large

2311: 2183: 2045: 1943: 1942:

In April 2022, scientists reported, for the first time, studies of

1543:

Thermosphere (≈100–230 km): The layer is mainly controlled by

1374: 959: 938: 865: 169: 149: 85: 11588: 9751: 9705: 9609: 9070: 6997: 6966: 5919:"NASA Mission Provides Its First Look at Martian Upper Atmosphere" 5800: 5336: 4891: 3742: 3160: 2314:

solid oxide electrolyte to split the carbon dioxide into oxygen (O

941:

to contribute to the annual atmospheric variability. Although the

12688: 7811:"NASA Finds Ancient Organic Material, Mysterious Methane on Mars" 5692:

Mandt, Kathleen; Mousis, Olivier; Chassefière, Eric (July 2015).

5467:"How Global Dust Storms Affect Martian Water, Winds, and Climate" 4217:"NASA's MAVEN reveals most of Mars' atmosphere was lost to space" 2994:"NASA's MAVEN Reveals Most of Mars' Atmosphere Was Lost to Space" 2574: – Hypothetical modification of Mars into a habitable planet 2339: 2210: 2064: 1984: 1370: 910: 12384:"NASA Wants to Make Rocket Fuel From Martian Soil - ExtremeTech" 7195: 3796:. Henderson, Gideon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2079:

from the rovers or a misinterpretation of measurement raw data.

1689: 13603: 12484: 12115:

Kaplan, Lewis D.; Münch, Guido; Spinrad, Hyron (January 1964).

11076:"NASA Rover Finds Active and Ancient Organic Chemistry on Mars" 7888: 5412: 5195: 3417: 2535: – Astronautical use of materials harvested in outer space 2041: 1561: 861: 857: 161: 105: 13535: 11109:"'A Great Moment': Rover Finds Clue That Mars May Harbor Life" 10687:. Kieffer, Hugh H. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. 1992. 9359:"Mars Education | Developing the Next Generation of Explorers" 7720: 7146: 6045:

Hess, Seymour L.; Henry, Robert M.; Tillman, James E. (1979).

5784: 2028:

detected a cyclical seasonal variation in atmospheric methane.

1622: 1418:

together with methane in the current Martian atmosphere. No SO

1399:

See also the section "detection of methane" for more details.

12282:"New analysis software for Viking Lander meteorological data" 10203:

Good, Andrew; Brown, Dwayne; Wendell, JoAnna (12 June 2018).

10077: 9871: 8491: 7647: 5282:"Photochemical instability of the ancient Martian atmosphere" 4868: 4600: 3685: 2559: 1565: 1209: 470: 153: 95: 12280:

Kemppinen, O; Tillman, J.E; Schmidt, W; Harri, A.-M (2013).

12279: 9594: 9387: 8939: 8030: 7466: 6803: 5916: 5873: 4486:"Thermal escape of carbon from the early Martian atmosphere" 3949: 3552:"Methane on Mars and Habitability: Challenges and Responses" 2051:

that could then generate methane and other hydrocarbons via

1338:-like water-ice clouds have been observed by the cameras on 57:

610 Pa (0.088 psi; 4.6 mmHg; 0.0060 atm)

13574: 12556: 12162:

Kaplan, Lewis D.; Connes, J.; Connes, P. (September 1969).

11512: 11328: 11321: 11080: 10921: 10275: 10242: 10209: 8033:"Strong Release of Methane on Mars in Northern Summer 2003" 7695: 7659: 6973:

at sub-millimetre wavelengths and upper limits on HCL and H

6969:"Herschel / HIFI observations of Mars: First detection of O 6908: 6683:

10.1175/1520-0469(1972)029<1380:SAAOOO>2.0.CO;2

5923: 5846: 5279: 5258:

10.1175/1520-0469(1973)030<1481:TEOLGF>2.0.CO;2

5124:"Sulfur dioxide may have helped maintain a warm early Mars" 4484:

Tian, Feng; Kasting, James F.; Solomon, Stanley C. (2009).

3219: 2812:. Kasting, James F. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2704: 2147: 2138:

atmosphere of Mars is similar to Earth's. In 1894, though,

853: 228: 141: 12212:"Mariner 4 Anniversary Marks 30 Years of Mars Exploration" 11569: 10609: 10446:

Stolte, Daniel; Communications, University (22 May 2019).

9997:

Read, P L; Lewis, S R; Mulholland, D P (4 November 2015).

9329:"NASA Missions See Effects at Mars From Large Solar Storm" 8881:

Leovy, Conway (July 2001). "Weather and climate on Mars".

8497:"A stringent upper limit to SO2 in the Martian atmosphere" 8192: 4540: 1216:). It can react with atomic oxygen (O) to re-form ozone (O 11935:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

11672: 11385:"Mars Life Could Leave Traces in Red Planet's Air: Study" 9236: 9190: 8611: 8552: 7995: 6391: 4596: 4594: 3997: 176:. The atmosphere of Mars is much thinner and colder than 12495: 10509: 10271:"Mars Dust Storm News – Teleconference – audio (065:22)" 9944: 9439: 8273: 8144: 7960: 7956: 7954: 7893:; Ignatiev, Nikolai; Giuranna, Marco (3 December 2004). 7842:"Mars scientists edge closer to solving methane mystery" 7261: 6752: 6750: 6515: 6446: 5006: 4108: 3422:; Ignatiev, Nikolai; Giuranna, Marco (3 December 2004). 3268: 2939: 2162:

to discover quantitative evidence of Mars's atmosphere.

1540:

ice clouds in the Martian mesosphere have been reported.

1449:

Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced by the photolysis of CO

1233:

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)

12525: 12286:

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems

12004:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

11170: 10478:"NASA – NASA Orbiter Catches Mars Sand Dunes in Motion" 8195:"Mars methane detection and variability at Gale crater" 6707: 5979: 4946:

greenhouse hypothesis with a 1-D photochemical model".

3489: 3145: 1616:

accelerates ions from Mars' upper atmosphere into space

1006:, photons with wavelength shorter than 225 nm), CO 37:

Image of Mars and its thin atmosphere, photographed by

11073: 9999:"The physics of Martian weather and climate: a review" 9658:"Atmospheric opacity from Opportunity's point of view" 9003:

Atmospheric evolution on inhabited and lifeless worlds

7567: 7565: 6761:

cloud observations and general circulation modeling".

6218: 5691: 5233:"The Escape of Light Gases from Planetary Atmospheres" 4591: 3881: 3824: 2810:

Atmospheric evolution on inhabited and lifeless worlds

2178:

research began on Earth to determine the viability of

2110: 2101: 1961:

between 20 Hz – 20 kHz, varies depending on

1851:

the lowlands to the uplands on geological timescales.

1200:

The estimated mean volume ratio of molecular oxygen (O

10914: 8722: 8720: 8654: 7951: 6747: 5982:"Martian atmospheric collapse: Idealized GCM studies" 5635:"The production and escape of nitrogen atoms on Mars" 3619: 3549: 3348: 3346: 2660:

Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences (Second Edition)

1224:

detected molecular oxygen in the Martian atmosphere.

527:

and water vapor can lower the required abundance of H

11810:

Read, Peter L.; Lebonnois, Sebastien (30 May 2018).

11450: 11171:

Eigenbrode, Jennifer L.; et al. (8 June 2018).

10445: 9689: 9490:"Mars' ionosphere shaped by crustal magnetic fields" 7617:"Scientists 'map' water vapor in Martian atmosphere" 7309:"A seasonal ozone layer over the Martian south pole" 6091: 4183:"Curiosity Sniffs Out History of Martian Atmosphere" 3490:

Webster, Christopher R.; et al. (8 June 2018).

2555:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

2495: 2002:, has found no methane to a detection limit of 0.05 1693:

Detail of a Martian dust storm, as viewed from orbit

562: 9996: 7562: 4424: 1840: 710:Other potentially important mechanisms include the 656:between ions and electrons. This process is called 12161: 12114: 11734:Laraia, Anne L.; Schneider, Tapio (30 July 2015). 10680: 10417:"The Devils of Mars | Science Mission Directorate" 8717: 7257: 7255: 4483: 3355:"First results from the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter" 3343: 1365:Precipitated water ice covering the Martian plain 273: 11869:"Equatorial jets in the dusty Martian atmosphere" 11812:"Superrotation on Venus, on Titan, and Elsewhere" 11067: 10309:"The distribution of dust devil activity on Mars" 9685: 9683: 9655: 8450: 5495: 5408: 5406: 5063: 5009:"Sulfur-induced greenhouse warming on early Mars" 4371: 3787: 3785: 3485: 3483: 2270:) from the Martian atmosphere to make methane (CH 1755:mission since the dust blocked the sunlight (see 971:. More research is needed to help determine if CO 13851: 11931: 11805: 11803: 11100: 10675: 10673: 10671: 10505: 10503: 10302: 10300: 10298: 10229: 10202: 8188: 8186: 8184: 7895:"Detection of Methane in the Atmosphere of Mars" 7462: 7460: 6044: 5910: 4246:Catling, David C.; Zahnle, Kevin J. (May 2009). 3424:"Detection of Methane in the Atmosphere of Mars" 3215: 3213: 3211: 1909:, which is likely caused by the same mechanism. 1714:frontal activities and extra-tropical cyclones. 1126:ice clouds can form in winter polar regions and 480:The Martian atmosphere is particularly prone to 11733: 11376: 10238:"NASA Encounters the Perfect Storm for Science" 9055: 8829:Withers, Paul; Catling, D. C. (December 2010). 7252: 6927: 6703: 6701: 6651: 6522:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5559: 5557: 5502:"Hot carbon densities in the exosphere of Mars" 4283: 4281: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 1896:Water-ice clouds formed in the vicinity of the 877: 511:To explain the coexistence of liquid water and 11315: 11247:. Greenbelt, MD: Goddard Space Flight Center. 11164: 10936: 10908: 10306: 10262: 10196: 9680: 9547: 9545: 9243:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 8876: 8874: 8828: 6896: 6652:Parkinson, T.D.; Hunten, D.M. (October 1972). 6582: 6487:"Greenhouse effects ... also on other planets" 6264: 6262: 5506:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 5403: 5346:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 4104: 4102: 4100: 3782: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3480: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2239: 2067:, which is known to be common on Mars. Living 1733:On 1 June 2018, NASA scientists detected 1056:), can convert carbon monoxide (CO) back to CO 13551: 12541: 11993: 11991: 11816:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11809: 11800: 11637: 11635: 11413: 11133: 10997: 10973:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 10841: 10668: 10500: 10411: 10409: 10307:Whelley, Patrick L.; Greeley, Ronald (2008). 10295: 10163: 9992: 9990: 9442:"Variability of Martian Turbopause Altitudes" 8780:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8548: 8546: 8485: 8387:. Jovian Magnetospheric Environment Science. 8181: 7525: 7457: 6797: 4658: 4245: 4239: 4056: 4054: 3727: 3725: 3382: 3380: 3208: 3060:"The Fact and Fiction of Martian Dust Storms" 3053: 3051: 3049: 2337:Martian sky with clouds at sunset, viewed by 1659:Seasonal variations in oxygen and methane at 1474:in the lower atmosphere is about 15 ±5 ppmv. 1227:Atomic oxygen is produced by photolysis of CO 10792:"Mars Express keeps an eye on curious cloud" 10605: 10603: 10355: 10130: 10071: 8726: 8456: 8382: 7773: 7771: 7769: 7103: 6905:"Remaining Martian atmosphere still dynamic" 6698: 6322: 6320: 6268: 5554: 4768: 4278: 4210: 4208: 3986: 3794:The Cambridge Handbook of Earth Science Data 3672: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3102:"Opportunity Hunkers Down During Dust Storm" 2849: 2847: 2845: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2230:program, landed in February 2021. The rover 1369:, the water ice precipitated by adhering to 726:Like carbon, dissociative recombination of N 12164:"Carbon Monoxide in the Martian Atmosphere" 11423:Ninth International Conference on Mars 2019 9542: 8871: 8529: 7303: 7301: 6936:"Most of Mars' atmosphere is lost in space" 6839: 6269:Fanale, F. P.; Cannon, W. A. (April 1971). 6259: 5625: 5623: 5621: 4717: 4097: 3945: 3943: 3608: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 2742: 2620: 1745:) on Mars which resulted in the end of the 1623:Atmospheric dust and other dynamic features 1568:orbiter has detected several aurora events. 1107:Mixing also plays a role in regenerating CO 13558: 13544: 12548: 12534: 11988: 11867:Lewis, Stephen R.; Read, Peter L. (2003). 11736:"Superrotation in Terrestrial Atmospheres" 11632: 10964: 10847: 10448:"On Mars, Sands Shift to a Different Drum" 10406: 10268: 9987: 9041:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 8543: 8095: 6327:Zent, Aaron P.; Quinn, Richard C. (1995). 4051: 3722: 3377: 3046: 1576:in Earth's atmosphere and organic haze in 1060:. The reaction cycle can be described as: 31: 16:Layer of gases surrounding the planet Mars 13870:Planetary atmospheres of the Solar System 12320: 12305: 12187: 12099: 12023: 11866: 11835: 11686: 11587: 11538: 11481: 11359: 11349: 11298: 11272: 11225: 11208: 11198: 10883: 10651: 10600: 10553: 10535: 10381: 10332: 10113: 9970: 9848: 9838: 9765: 9704: 9608: 9556:. Special Issue on DS1 / Comet Borrelly. 9465: 9272: 9262: 9213: 9069: 8969: 8854: 8520: 8428:"Volcanoes ruled out for Martian methane" 8299: 8121: 8056: 7918: 7865: 7766: 7645: 7374: 7172: 7041: 6996: 6879: 6830: 6730: 6681: 6612: 6559: 6541: 6360: 6326: 6317: 6156: 5799: 5725: 5577: 5525: 5464: 5305: 5256: 5032: 4959: 4890: 4794: 4566: 4509: 4401: 4305: 4214: 4205: 3923: 3858: 3791: 3741: 3591: 3534: 3517: 3447: 3257: 3159: 2991: 2842: 2683: 2551:Mars regional atmospheric modeling system 2384:Martian atmosphere with cloud cover over 1321:Clouds captured by NASA's Curiosity rover 1119:stable in the modern Martian atmosphere. 12442: 11997: 11876:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 11266: 10942: 10616:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10313:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 9446:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 9326: 9194:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 7298: 6182:"Atmospheric tides in Gale Crater, Mars" 5639:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 5618: 5286:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 5152: 4775:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 3940: 3124: 3099: 2562: – NASA Mars orbiter (2013–Present) 2332: 2121:In 1784, German-born British astronomer 2020: 1968: 1916: 1891: 1888:Orographic lift § Associated clouds 1853: 1815: 1765: 1704: 1696: 1688: 1680: 1654: 1598: 1481: 1360: 1316: 1183: 1152: 1040:If there is no chemical production of CO 977: 584:) is produced from the dissociation of H 254: 9000: 6902: 2807: 2657: 1973: 1912: 1002:In the presence of solar UV radiation ( 156:(2%). It also contains trace levels of 13852: 12432:"Mars Clouds Higher Than Any On Earth" 12394:from the original on 26 September 2020 12240: 12073: 12038: 11961: 11641: 11414:Zahnle, Kevin; Catling, David (2019). 11000:"Mars Methane Boosts Chances for Life" 10850:"In situ recording of Mars soundscape" 10829:from the original on 27 September 2019 10771:from the original on 10 September 2019 8800:10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124334 7808: 6497:from the original on 29 September 2019 5496:Nagy, Andrew F.; Liemohn, Michael W.; 5230: 3833:. Mars atmospheric nitrogen isotopes. 3331:from the original on 27 September 2020 2142:and other qualitative observations by 438:While Mars and Earth have similar C / 227:, somewhat similar to the creation of 13539: 12529: 12364:from the original on 12 November 2020 12261:from the original on 25 November 2020 12117:"An Analysis of the Spectrum of Mars" 11967: 11644:"Why Mars Lightning Is Weak and Rare" 11382: 11231: 11139: 11121:from the original on 16 December 2014 11106: 11088:from the original on 17 December 2014 11012:from the original on 20 December 2014 10427:from the original on 26 December 2018 10356:Balme, Matt; Greeley, Ronald (2006). 10184:from the original on 21 December 2020 10136: 9551: 9530:from the original on 11 November 2013 9520:"New views of the Martian ionosphere" 8880: 8777: 8096:Fonti, S.; Marzo, G.A. (March 2010). 7889:Formisano, Vittorio; Atreya, Sushil; 7839: 7420: 5878:. Solar Wind Interactions with Mars. 5465:Shekhtman, Svetlana (29 April 2019). 4817: 4060: 3731: 3418:Formisano, Vittorio; Atreya, Sushil; 3386: 3112:from the original on 30 November 2020 3057: 2566:Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes 1560:in high altitude. It is thought that 1477: 12455: 12333:from the original on 1 December 2020 11254:from the original on 25 October 2012 11241:Astrobiology Science Conference 2010 11232:Mumma, Michael; et al. (2010). 11030: 10820: 10235: 10169: 9327:Greicius, Tony (28 September 2017). 9295: 7840:Witze, Alexandra (25 October 2018). 7402:from the original on 8 November 2020 7085:from the original on 17 January 2020 7075:"Nasa probes oxygen mystery on Mars" 7055:from the original on 8 November 2020 7029:from the original on 7 February 2019 6948:from the original on 30 January 2016 6933: 6271:"Adsorption on the Martian Regolith" 5961:from the original on 3 November 2020 5931:from the original on 19 October 2014 5391:from the original on 5 November 2020 4266:from the original on 26 October 2020 3399:from the original on 7 November 2020 3365:from the original on 13 October 2019 3034:from the original on 2 December 2020 2662:, Academic Press, pp. 168–177, 2195:Viking lander biological experiments 2186:", were developed for this purpose. 1881: 1638:Martian soil § Atmospheric dust 1444: 986:Despite the high concentration of CO 929:There also exists the potential for 11837:10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010137 11743:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 11432:from the original on 1 October 2021 11395:from the original on 9 October 2019 11107:Chang, Kenneth (16 December 2014). 10998:Naeye, Robert (28 September 2004). 9926:from the original on 15 August 2017 9001:Catling, David C. (13 April 2017). 6662:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 6026:from the original on 15 August 2017 5748: 5629: 5237:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 5231:Hunten, Donald M. (November 1973). 4227:from the original on 17 August 2020 4118:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3734:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3660:from the original on 1 October 2020 3004:from the original on 17 August 2020 2921:from the original on 23 August 2021 2865:from the original on 23 August 2021 2608:from the original on 23 August 2021 2111:History of atmospheric observations 2102:Super-rotating jet over the equator 2082: 1797:(1:38; animation; 30 October 2018; 1627: 1195: 605:and CO in ionosphere can produce CO 13: 12424: 12323:"Mars Weather at Elysium Planitia" 12000:"Concerning an Atmosphere on Mars" 11620:from the original on 27 April 2019 7666:from the original on 8 August 2012 4769:Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A. (2002). 2668:10.1016/b978-0-12-382225-3.00312-1 1673:Climate of Mars § Dust storms 721: 575: 519:first proposed that a 1 bar H 140:is the layer of gases surrounding 14: 13881: 12477: 12458:"The Low Down on Methane on Mars" 12456:Khan, Michael (4 December 2009). 12445:"Pressure on the Surface of Mars" 12222:from the original on 28 July 2020 11913:from the original on 26 July 2020 11788:from the original on 23 July 2018 11642:Choi, Charles; Q. (6 June 2019). 10802:from the original on 15 June 2019 10761:"Orographic cloud – AMS Glossary" 10741:from the original on 17 June 2019 10588:from the original on 26 July 2020 10488:from the original on 26 July 2020 10283:from the original on 13 June 2018 10250:from the original on 25 June 2018 10217:from the original on 21 June 2018 10151:from the original on 13 June 2018 10059:from the original on 20 July 2018 9308:from the original on 31 July 2020 8705:from the original on 9 March 2020 8425: 8255:from the original on 22 July 2018 6915:from the original on 26 July 2020 5673:from the original on 21 July 2018 5542:from the original on 28 July 2020 5477:from the original on 17 June 2019 4193:from the original on 28 July 2020 4163:from the original on 19 July 2018 3070:from the original on 2 March 2016 3058:Hille, Karl (18 September 2015). 1402: 1351:lander. Measurements made by the 1188:Seasonal variations of oxygen at 1010:in the Martian atmosphere can be 882: 563:Atmospheric escape on modern Mars 454:may have been up to 30 hPa. 13593: 13518: 13507: 13506: 12483: 12406: 12376: 12351: 12345: 12314: 12273: 12234: 12204: 12155: 12108: 12067: 12061:10.5479/ADS/bib/1925LicOB.12.48W 12032: 11925: 11860: 11727: 11666: 11654:from the original on 9 June 2019 11563: 11506: 11444: 11416:"The paradox of Martian Methane" 11407: 11152:from the original on 8 June 2018 11024: 10991: 10943:Ferreira, Becky (4 April 2022). 10814: 10783: 10753: 10723: 10570: 10470: 10458:from the original on 4 June 2019 10439: 10349: 9938: 9865: 9806: 9745: 9668:from the original on 9 June 2019 9649: 9588: 9512: 9500:from the original on 3 June 2019 9482: 9433: 9381: 9369:from the original on 3 June 2019 9351: 9339:from the original on 8 June 2019 9320: 9289: 9230: 9184: 9110: 9049: 8994: 8933: 8822: 8771: 8691: 8648: 8605: 8438:from the original on 8 June 2019 8419: 8376: 8324: 8267: 8138: 8089: 8024: 7989: 7882: 7833: 7821:from the original on 8 June 2019 7802: 7790:from the original on 2 June 2019 7714: 7678: 7639: 7627:from the original on 8 June 2019 7609: 7327:from the original on 3 June 2019 5568:. Planetary evolution and life. 5134:from the original on 8 June 2019 4294:Geochemical Perspectives Letters 3387:Weule, Genelle (11 April 2019). 2568: – Surface features on Mars 2512: 2498: 2465: 2436: 2415: 2394: 2373: 2348: 2328: 2236:is scheduled to launch in 2028. 2044:formation, all of which produce 2013:In 2014, NASA reported that the 1953:. The scientists found that the 1866: 1841:Wind modification of the surface 1618:(video (01:13); 5 November 2015) 1590:the magnetic field of its crust. 1552:. The higher concentration of CO 1424:NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 842: 768:Dissociative recombination of CO 763: 596: 13565: 10789: 10358:"Dust devils on Earth and Mars" 9951:Journal of Geophysical Research 9881:Journal of Geophysical Research 9662:NASA's Mars Exploration Program 9298:"MAVEN Captures Aurora on Mars" 9172:from the original on 3 May 2019 9127:Journal of Geophysical Research 9005:. Kasting, James F. Cambridge. 8614:Journal of Geophysical Research 7777: 7528:Journal of Geophysical Research 7519: 7414: 7355:Journal of Geophysical Research 7339: 7189: 7153:Journal of Geophysical Research 7140: 7097: 7067: 6960: 6654:"Spectroscopy and acronomy of O 6645: 6576: 6509: 6479: 6440: 6385: 6333:Journal of Geophysical Research 6212: 6173: 6124: 6085: 6051:Journal of Geophysical Research 6038: 5973: 5943: 5867: 5840: 5778: 5742: 5685: 5489: 5458: 5330: 5273: 5224: 5189: 5155:Journal of Geophysical Research 5146: 5116: 5057: 5013:Journal of Geophysical Research 5000: 4931: 4862: 4811: 4762: 4711: 4652: 4534: 4477: 4418: 4365: 4314: 4221:NASA's Mars Exploration Program 4175: 3952:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 3875: 3818: 3411: 3352: 3093: 3082: 3016: 2998:NASA's Mars Exploration Program 2885:"Weather, Weather, Everywhere?" 990:in the Martian atmosphere, the 274:Atmosphere in the early history 12241:Scoles, Sarah (24 July 2020). 11140:Chang, Kenneth (7 June 2018). 10731:"NASA – Thermal Tides at Mars" 10026:10.1088/0034-4885/78/12/125901 10006:Reports on Progress in Physics 3178:10.1088/0034-4885/75/10/106901 3148:Reports on Progress in Physics 3100:Greicius, Tony (8 June 2018). 3024:"Temperature extremes on Mars" 2985: 2933: 2907: 2877: 2590: 1996:ESA-Roscomos Trace Gas Orbiter 1858:Movement of sandy features in 1805: 1666: 1302: 144:. It is primarily composed of 1: 12496:NASA Mars Exploration Program 10578:"Thermal tide – AMS Glossary" 10236:Good, Andrew (13 June 2018). 10137:Malik, Tariq (13 June 2018). 8575:10.1126/science.194.4271.1293 8098:"Mapping the methane on Mars" 7443:10.1016/S0273-1177(01)00568-3 6903:Webster, Guy (8 April 2013). 5861:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00170-2 2583: 2146:suggested Mars resembles the 1937:) (video; 1:29; 1 April 2022) 1930: 1820: 1434:soil samples analyzed by the 234:The Martian atmosphere is an 12963:Recurring slope lineae (RSL) 11705:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.05.004 11519:Geophysical Research Letters 11454:Geophysical Research Letters 11273:Oze, C.; Sharma, M. 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(2017). 2578:Mars carbonate catastrophe 2243: 2127:Philosophical Transactions 2114: 1977: 1905:20 km-high volcanoes 1885: 1870: 1809: 1677:Dust storms § On Mars 1670: 1631: 1385: 1381: 1306: 1222:Herschel Space Observatory 886: 658:dissociative recombination 543:, efficient formation of H 258: 219:threaten the operation of 18: 13840: 13809: 13775: 13708: 13669: 13602: 13591: 13573: 13501: 13449:List of films set on Mars 13424: 13375: 13357: 13301: 13292: 13272: 13264:C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) 13256: 13177: 13129: 13082: 13073: 13061:Classical albedo features 13031: 12819: 12712: 12614: 12581: 12572: 12563: 12443:Mikulski, Lauren (2000). 12168:The Astrophysical Journal 12121:The Astrophysical Journal 12041:Lick Observatory Bulletin 11576:The Astrophysical Journal 11425:. LPI Contrib. 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H. (1926). 11947:10.1098/rstl.1784.0020 11383:Staff (25 June 2012). 10715:: CS1 maint: others ( 4740:10.1006/icar.1995.1122 2343: 2152:William Hammond Wright 2029: 1939: 1901: 1863: 1860:Nili Patera dune field 1833: 1802: 1710: 1702: 1694: 1686: 1663: 1619: 1536:, and detections of CO 1487: 1378: 1322: 1313:Martian polar ice caps 1192: 1165: 1128:at very high altitudes 983: 889:Martian polar ice caps 486:late heavy bombardment 448:isotopic fractionation 12080:Astrophysical Journal 11970:Astronomical Register 10796:European Space Agency 10362:Reviews of Geophysics 10092:(2867 (2018)): 2867. 10085:Nature Communications 8942:Reviews of Geophysics 7784:European Space Agency 7780:"The methane mystery" 7694:(accelerated movie). 7321:European Space Agency 6491:European Space Agency 5500:; Kim, Jhoon (2001). 3576:10.1089/ast.2018.1917 3359:European Space Agency 2336: 2096:Allen Telescope Array 2024: 1969:Unexplained phenomena 1929: 1895: 1857: 1819: 1778: 1708: 1700: 1692: 1684: 1671:Further information: 1658: 1611: 1485: 1466:Molecular hydrogen (H 1364: 1320: 1187: 1156: 981: 868:—measured by MAVEN's 702:< 116  nm) ⟶ 580:Molecular hydrogen (H 255:Atmospheric evolution 197:effective temperature 39:Emirates Mars Mission 19:Further information: 13817:Prebiotic atmosphere 13339:Permanent settlement 12492:at Wikimedia Commons 12449:The Physics Factbook 12307:10.5194/gi-2-61-2013 11896:10.1029/2002JE001933 11540:10.1029/2010GL044368 11474:10.1029/2009GL038715 11300:10.1029/2005GL022691 10765:glossary.ametsoc.org 10636:10.1029/2008JE003285 10582:glossary.ametsoc.org 10383:10.1029/2005RG000188 10334:10.1029/2007JE002966 9901:10.1029/2010JE003677 9840:10.1002/2017GL072589 9467:10.1029/2018JE005704 9264:10.1002/2016JA023454 9206:10.1002/2014JE004715 9147:10.1029/2008JE003086 8962:10.1029/2010RG000351 8856:10.1029/2010GL045382 8432:www.newscientist.com 7376:10.1029/2005JE002643 7174:10.1029/2006JE002681 7081:. 14 November 2019. 6832:10.1002/2015GL065319 6723:10.1002/2017GL072717 5527:10.1029/2001JA000007 5512:(A10): 21565–21568. 5366:10.1002/2017JA024572 5307:10.1029/2008JE003160 5034:10.1029/2007JE002962 4796:10.1029/2001JE001809 4630:10.1002/2018GL077199 4511:10.1029/2008GL036513 3908:10.1002/2013GL057763 3851:10.1002/2013GL057840 2572:Terraforming of Mars 2254:Colonization of Mars 2250:Terraforming of Mars 2160:Donald Howard Menzel 2135:William Rutter Dawes 2094:and the Earth-based 1974:Detection of methane 1913:Acoustic environment 1787:Mars Climate Sounder 1578:Jupiter's atmosphere 1550:Earth's thermosphere 1158:Argon isotope ratios 1032:< 225 nm) ⟶ 937:into and out of the 601:Photochemistry of CO 13481:Timekeeping on Mars 13158:Planetary transits 13143:Satellite transits 13056:Observation history 12904:Lobate debris apron 12388:www.extremetech.com 12298:2013GI......2...61K 12180:1969ApJ...157L.187K 12133:1964ApJ...139....1K 12092:1926ApJ....63...48M 12053:1925LicOB..12...48W 12016:1894PASP....6..273C 11982:1865AReg....3..220D 11888:2003JGRE..108.5034L 11828:2018AREPS..46..175R 11755:2015JAtS...72.4281L 11697:2019Icar..331..103W 11531:2010GeoRL..3717802G 11466:2009GeoRL..3613202R 11342:2012PNAS..109.9750O 11291:2005GeoRL..3210203O 11191:2018Sci...360.1096E 11185:(6393): 1096–1101. 11045:2018Sci...359...16H 11005:Sky & Telescope 10985:2003DPS....35.1418M 10868:2022Natur.605..653M 10628:2009JGRE..114.3005L 10528:2019Geo....47..427C 10374:2006RvGeo..44.3003B 10325:2008JGRE..113.7002W 10144:Scientific American 10098:2018NatCo...9.2867O 10018:2015RPPh...78l5901R 9963:2013JGRE..118.1177G 9893:2010JGRE..11512016M 9831:2017GeoRL..44.3502V 9776:2019Icar..319...43C 9715:2015Icar..251...96L 9619:2015Icar..251...65M 9566:2004Icar..167..148S 9458:2018JGRE..123.2939S 9403:2008NatGe...1..745M 9255:2017JGRA..122.1296B 9139:2009JGRE..114.1004F 9080:2014NatGe...7...12R 9011:2017aeil.book.....C 8954:2011RvGeo..49.3005P 8895:2001Natur.412..245L 8847:2010GeoRL..3724204W 8792:2008AREPS..36..191S 8741:2001Sci...294.1914K 8735:(5548): 1914–1917. 8669:2005Icar..176..395K 8626:1977JGR....82.4635O 8567:1976Sci...194.1293O 8561:(4271): 1293–1295. 8471:2012Icar..217..144K 8397:2005Icar..178..487K 8346:2019NatGe..12..326G 8292:2018Sci...360.1093W 8286:(6393): 1093–1096. 8214:2015Sci...347..415W 8049:2009Sci...323.1041M 8043:(5917): 1041–1045. 7975:2004Icar..172..537K 7911:2004Sci...306.1758F 7905:(5702): 1758–1761. 7858:2018Natur.563...18W 7736:2017NatGe..10..652S 7587:2015Icar..251...50T 7540:1982JGR....87.2999J 7481:2009Sci...325...68W 7435:2002AdSpR..29..183T 7367:2006JGRE..111.9S05L 7276:2013NatGe...6..930M 7222:10.1038/nature07116 7214:2008Natur.454..971L 7165:2006JGRE..111.9S06P 7118:2006Icar..185..153K 6864:2015Icar..254..259M 6823:2015GeoRL..42.9050S 6775:2011Icar..216...10G 6674:1972JAtS...29.1380P 6597:1972Sci...177..986M 6534:2009PNAS..106.9576L 6410:2019NatGe..12..321M 6345:1995JGR...100.5341Z 6287:1971Natur.230..502F 6237:2018Icar..307..150H 6198:2016Icar..268...37G 6149:2019Icar..317..591O 6110:1980GeoRL...7..197H 6063:1979JGR....84.2923H 6001:2015Icar..250..553S 5888:2010Icar..206...28V 5810:2011Icar..214..394F 5764:2007Icar..192..296F 5710:2015Icar..254..259M 5651:1993JGR....98.3297F 5518:2001JGR...10621565N 5428:2018NatAs...2..126H 5358:2017JGRA..12211756B 5298:2008JGRE..11311004Z 5249:1973JAtS...30.1481H 5210:2008Icar..195..598C 5167:1974JGR....79.1513A 5078:2007Sci...318.1903H 5072:(5858): 1903–1907. 5025:2008JGRE..113.8005J 4970:2015Icar..258..337B 4901:2014NatGe...7...59R 4832:1977Natur.269..224S 4787:2002JGRE..107.5128K 4781:(E12): 11‑1–11‑11. 4732:1995Icar..116..215O 4673:1989Natur.338..487M 4622:2018GeoRL..45.4685L 4559:2017Sci...355.1408J 4553:(6332): 1408–1410. 4502:2009GeoRL..36.2205T 4447:10.1038/nature11506 4439:2012Natur.490..531S 4386:1987Icar...69..532H 4335:1976Sci...194...70M 4256:Scientific American 4075:1991Icar...92....2P 4013:2013Sci...341..263M 3964:2006GeCoA..70.4507L 3900:2013GeoRL..40.5605A 3843:2013GeoRL..40.6033W 3700:2015Eleme..11...51M 3638:2011Icar..212..493Z 3568:2018AsBio..18.1221Y 3510:2018Sci...360.1093W 3504:(6393): 1093–1096. 3440:2004Sci...306.1758F 3434:(5702): 1758–1761. 3290:2019Natur.568..517K 3235:2018Icar..302..514T 3170:2012RPPh...75j6901K 2955:2018Icar..315..146J 2859:nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov 2818:2017aeil.book.....C 2506:Solar System portal 2226:, which formed the 1812:Martian dust devils 1574:stratospheric ozone 1208:, water vapor, and 1160:are a signature of 997:pressure-broadening 458:Hydrodynamic escape 280: 236:oxidized atmosphere 206:stratospheric ozone 46:General information 27: 13860:Atmosphere of Mars 13832:Stellar atmosphere 13710:Natural satellites 12490:Atmosphere of Mars 12464:on 7 December 2009 12247:The New York Times 11279:Geophys. Res. Lett 11146:The New York Times 11114:The New York Times 9972:10.1002/jgre.20076 3736:. 313–314: 56–66. 2476:Martian sunset by 2447:Martian sunset by 2344: 2199:Martian meteorites 2131:Honoré Flaugergues 2030: 1940: 1902: 1864: 1834: 1803: 1779:Mars dust storm – 1711: 1703: 1695: 1687: 1664: 1620: 1488: 1478:Vertical structure 1379: 1323: 1193: 1166: 984: 654:Coulomb attraction 278: 261:Atmospheric escape 138:atmosphere of Mars 26:Atmosphere of Mars 25: 13847: 13846: 13533: 13532: 13486:Sol (day on Mars) 13454:Martian scientist 13437:Memorials on Mars 13420: 13419: 13391:The Case for Mars 13288: 13287: 13069: 13068: 13003:Terrain softening 12968:Ring mold craters 12936:North Polar Basin 12859:Dark slope streak 12704:Vastitas Borealis 12601:Dust devil tracks 12488:Media related to 12438:. 28 August 2006. 11749:(11): 4281–4296. 11336:(25): 9750–9754. 10862:(7911): 653–658. 9452:(11): 2939–2957. 9391:Nature Geoscience 9058:Nature Geoscience 8889:(6843): 245–249. 8620:(28): 4635–4639. 8334:Nature Geoscience 8208:(6220): 415–417. 7891:Encrenaz, Thérèse 7724:Nature Geoscience 7702:on 3 January 2019 7534:(B4): 2999–3019. 7264:Nature Geoscience 7208:(7207): 971–975. 7198:Encrenaz, Thérèse 6907:(Press release). 6817:(21): 9050–9056. 6717:(10): 4709–4715. 6591:(4053): 986–988. 6528:(24): 9576–9579. 6398:Nature Geoscience 6353:10.1029/94JE01899 6281:(5295): 502–504. 5951:"Seasons on Mars" 5659:10.1029/92JE02289 5645:(E2): 3297–3310. 5161:(10): 1513–1518. 4879:Nature Geoscience 4826:(5625): 224–226. 4667:(6215): 487–489. 4616:(10): 4685–4691. 4433:(7421): 531–534. 4007:(6143): 263–266. 3958:(17): 4507–4512. 3894:(21): 5605–5609. 3837:(23): 6033–6037. 3562:(10): 1221–1242. 3420:Encrenaz, Thérèse 3284:(7753): 517–520. 2915:"Mars Fact Sheet" 2855:"Mars Fact Sheet" 2598:"Mars Fact Sheet" 2426:Cloud cover over 2405:Cloud cover over 2292:Sabatier reaction 2233:Rosalind Franklin 2140:spectral analysis 2036:-rock reactions, 2004:parts per billion 1959:audible bandwidth 1927: 1882:Orographic clouds 1781:optical depth tau 1776: 1609: 1497:radio occultation 1445:Other trace gases 1373:(observed by the 1050:hydroxyl radicals 992:greenhouse effect 776:(produced from CO 712:sputtering escape 475:sputtering escape 432: 431: 201:greenhouse effect 148:(95%), molecular 134: 133: 13877: 13597: 13560: 13553: 13546: 13537: 13536: 13523: 13522: 13521: 13510: 13509: 13384:The Mars Project 13299: 13298: 13247: 13237: 13227: 13205: 13203: 13202: 13080: 13079: 12941:Ocean hypothesis 12791:Outflow channels 12579: 12578: 12550: 12543: 12536: 12527: 12526: 12487: 12473: 12471: 12469: 12460:. Archived from 12452: 12439: 12418: 12417: 12416:. 22 April 2021. 12410: 12404: 12403: 12401: 12399: 12380: 12374: 12373: 12371: 12369: 12349: 12343: 12342: 12340: 12338: 12318: 12312: 12311: 12309: 12277: 12271: 12270: 12268: 12266: 12238: 12232: 12231: 12229: 12227: 12208: 12202: 12201: 12191: 12159: 12153: 12152: 12112: 12106: 12105: 12103: 12071: 12065: 12064: 12036: 12030: 12029: 12027: 11995: 11986: 11985: 11965: 11959: 11958: 11929: 11923: 11922: 11920: 11918: 11912: 11873: 11864: 11858: 11857: 11839: 11807: 11798: 11797: 11795: 11793: 11787: 11740: 11731: 11725: 11724: 11690: 11670: 11664: 11663: 11661: 11659: 11639: 11630: 11629: 11627: 11625: 11591: 11567: 11561: 11560: 11542: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11485: 11448: 11442: 11441: 11439: 11437: 11431: 11420: 11411: 11405: 11404: 11402: 11400: 11380: 11374: 11373: 11363: 11353: 11319: 11313: 11312: 11302: 11270: 11264: 11263: 11261: 11259: 11253: 11238: 11229: 11223: 11222: 11212: 11202: 11168: 11162: 11161: 11159: 11157: 11137: 11131: 11130: 11128: 11126: 11104: 11098: 11097: 11095: 11093: 11071: 11065: 11064: 11028: 11022: 11021: 11019: 11017: 10995: 10989: 10988: 10968: 10962: 10961: 10959: 10957: 10940: 10934: 10933: 10931: 10929: 10912: 10906: 10905: 10887: 10845: 10839: 10838: 10836: 10834: 10818: 10812: 10811: 10809: 10807: 10787: 10781: 10780: 10778: 10776: 10757: 10751: 10750: 10748: 10746: 10727: 10721: 10720: 10714: 10706: 10686: 10677: 10666: 10665: 10655: 10607: 10598: 10597: 10595: 10593: 10574: 10568: 10567: 10557: 10539: 10537:10.1130/G45793.1 10507: 10498: 10497: 10495: 10493: 10474: 10468: 10467: 10465: 10463: 10443: 10437: 10436: 10434: 10432: 10421:science.nasa.gov 10413: 10404: 10403: 10385: 10353: 10347: 10346: 10336: 10304: 10293: 10292: 10290: 10288: 10266: 10260: 10259: 10257: 10255: 10233: 10227: 10226: 10224: 10222: 10200: 10194: 10193: 10191: 10189: 10167: 10161: 10160: 10158: 10156: 10134: 10128: 10127: 10117: 10075: 10069: 10068: 10066: 10064: 10058: 10003: 9994: 9985: 9984: 9974: 9957:(6): 1177–1194. 9942: 9936: 9935: 9933: 9931: 9925: 9878: 9869: 9863: 9862: 9852: 9842: 9825:(8): 3502–3508. 9810: 9804: 9803: 9769: 9749: 9743: 9742: 9708: 9695:. Dynamic Mars. 9687: 9678: 9677: 9675: 9673: 9653: 9647: 9646: 9612: 9599:. Dynamic Mars. 9592: 9586: 9585: 9549: 9540: 9539: 9537: 9535: 9516: 9510: 9509: 9507: 9505: 9486: 9480: 9479: 9469: 9437: 9431: 9430: 9385: 9379: 9378: 9376: 9374: 9355: 9349: 9348: 9346: 9344: 9324: 9318: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9293: 9287: 9286: 9276: 9266: 9249:(1): 1296–1313. 9234: 9228: 9227: 9217: 9188: 9182: 9181: 9179: 9177: 9171: 9124: 9114: 9108: 9107: 9088:10.1038/ngeo2020 9073: 9053: 9047: 9046: 9040: 9032: 8998: 8992: 8991: 8973: 8937: 8931: 8930: 8903:10.1038/35084192 8878: 8869: 8868: 8858: 8826: 8820: 8819: 8775: 8769: 8768: 8724: 8715: 8714: 8712: 8710: 8695: 8689: 8688: 8652: 8646: 8645: 8609: 8603: 8602: 8550: 8541: 8533: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8489: 8483: 8482: 8454: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8443: 8423: 8417: 8416: 8380: 8374: 8373: 8328: 8322: 8321: 8303: 8271: 8265: 8264: 8262: 8260: 8254: 8199: 8190: 8179: 8178: 8142: 8136: 8135: 8125: 8093: 8087: 8086: 8060: 8028: 8022: 8021: 8004:(9): 1194–1203. 7993: 7987: 7986: 7958: 7949: 7948: 7922: 7886: 7880: 7879: 7869: 7837: 7831: 7830: 7828: 7826: 7806: 7800: 7799: 7797: 7795: 7775: 7764: 7763: 7744:10.1038/ngeo3008 7718: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7707: 7698:. Archived from 7682: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7671: 7643: 7637: 7636: 7634: 7632: 7613: 7607: 7606: 7577:. Dynamic Mars. 7569: 7560: 7559: 7523: 7517: 7516: 7464: 7455: 7454: 7418: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7407: 7401: 7378: 7352: 7343: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7332: 7305: 7296: 7295: 7284:10.1038/ngeo1957 7259: 7250: 7249: 7193: 7187: 7186: 7176: 7144: 7138: 7137: 7101: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7045: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7034: 7000: 6964: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6931: 6925: 6924: 6922: 6920: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6883: 6843: 6837: 6836: 6834: 6801: 6795: 6794: 6754: 6745: 6744: 6734: 6705: 6696: 6695: 6685: 6668:(7): 1380–1390. 6649: 6643: 6642: 6616: 6614:2060/19730010098 6580: 6574: 6573: 6563: 6545: 6513: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6502: 6483: 6477: 6476: 6459:(2–3): 247–258. 6444: 6438: 6437: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6364: 6362:2060/19940030969 6324: 6315: 6314: 6295:10.1038/230502a0 6266: 6257: 6256: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6177: 6171: 6170: 6160: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6042: 6036: 6035: 6033: 6031: 6025: 5986: 5977: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5966: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5936: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5844: 5838: 5837: 5803: 5782: 5776: 5775: 5746: 5740: 5739: 5729: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5678: 5627: 5616: 5615: 5581: 5561: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5529: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5462: 5456: 5455: 5416:Nature Astronomy 5410: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5390: 5343: 5334: 5328: 5327: 5309: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5260: 5243:(8): 1481–1494. 5228: 5222: 5221: 5193: 5187: 5186: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5139: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5036: 5004: 4998: 4997: 4963: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4909:10.1038/ngeo2000 4894: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4840:10.1038/269224a0 4815: 4809: 4808: 4798: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4715: 4709: 4708: 4681:10.1038/338487a0 4656: 4650: 4649: 4607: 4598: 4589: 4588: 4570: 4538: 4532: 4531: 4513: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4405: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4285: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4265: 4252: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4212: 4203: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4162: 4115: 4106: 4095: 4094: 4058: 4049: 4048: 3995: 3984: 3983: 3947: 3938: 3937: 3927: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3862: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3789: 3780: 3779: 3745: 3729: 3720: 3719: 3683: 3670: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3617: 3606: 3605: 3595: 3547: 3532: 3531: 3521: 3487: 3478: 3477: 3451: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3384: 3375: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3350: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3330: 3275: 3266: 3255: 3254: 3217: 3206: 3205: 3163: 3143: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3097: 3091: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3055: 3044: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2911: 2905: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2895:on 14 April 2009 2891:. Archived from 2881: 2875: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2851: 2840: 2839: 2805: 2740: 2739: 2702: 2681: 2680: 2655: 2618: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2594: 2556: 2522: 2517: 2516: 2515: 2508: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2469: 2440: 2419: 2398: 2377: 2361:orographic cloud 2352: 2274:) and use it as 2156:Lick Observatory 2123:William Herschel 2083:Lightning events 1928: 1873:Atmospheric tide 1799:file description 1777: 1628:Atmospheric dust 1610: 1280: 1267: 1259: 1220:). In 2010, the 1196:Oxygen and ozone 1179:Argon's isotopes 1162:atmospheric loss 1103: 1099:Net: CO + O ⟶ CO 1095: 1083: 1070: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 999:effect is weak. 846: 832: 830: 829: 826: 818: 816: 815: 812: 807: 806: 803: 795: 793: 792: 789: 756: 755:+ e ⟶ N + N + 2e 747: 743: 739: 705: 701: 697: 693: 683: 678: 677: 674: 666: 648: 644: 640: 635: 633: 632: 629: 622: 618: 535:is difficult. SO 495: 491: 422:2.5221 ± 0.0063 419: 403: 387: 371: 355: 339: 323: 302: 295: 281: 277: 190:leakage of gases 182:surface pressure 130:0.03% (variable) 53:surface pressure 35: 28: 24: 13885: 13884: 13880: 13879: 13878: 13876: 13875: 13874: 13850: 13849: 13848: 13843: 13836: 13805: 13771: 13704: 13665: 13598: 13589: 13569: 13564: 13534: 13529: 13519: 13517: 13497: 13491:Darian calendar 13416: 13371: 13353: 13284: 13268: 13252: 13245: 13240: 13235: 13230: 13225: 13220: 13200: 13199: 13196: 13173: 13125: 13119:Voltaire crater 13097:Stickney crater 13065: 13027: 12869:Fretted terrain 12815: 12715: 12708: 12669:Sinus Meridiani 12654:Planum Australe 12629:Cerberus (Mars) 12610: 12568: 12566:Outline of Mars 12559: 12554: 12480: 12467: 12465: 12430: 12427: 12425:Further reading 12422: 12421: 12412: 12411: 12407: 12397: 12395: 12382: 12381: 12377: 12367: 12365: 12350: 12346: 12336: 12334: 12321:mars.nasa.gov. 12319: 12315: 12278: 12274: 12264: 12262: 12239: 12235: 12225: 12223: 12210: 12209: 12205: 12160: 12156: 12113: 12109: 12072: 12068: 12037: 12033: 11996: 11989: 11966: 11962: 11930: 11926: 11916: 11914: 11910: 11871: 11865: 11861: 11808: 11801: 11791: 11789: 11785: 11738: 11732: 11728: 11671: 11667: 11657: 11655: 11640: 11633: 11623: 11621: 11568: 11564: 11511: 11507: 11449: 11445: 11435: 11433: 11429: 11418: 11412: 11408: 11398: 11396: 11381: 11377: 11320: 11316: 11271: 11267: 11257: 11255: 11251: 11236: 11230: 11226: 11169: 11165: 11155: 11153: 11138: 11134: 11124: 11122: 11105: 11101: 11091: 11089: 11072: 11068: 11039:(6371): 16–17. 11029: 11025: 11015: 11013: 10996: 10992: 10969: 10965: 10955: 10953: 10941: 10937: 10927: 10925: 10913: 10909: 10846: 10842: 10832: 10830: 10819: 10815: 10805: 10803: 10788: 10784: 10774: 10772: 10759: 10758: 10754: 10744: 10742: 10729: 10728: 10724: 10708: 10707: 10695: 10679: 10678: 10669: 10608: 10601: 10591: 10589: 10576: 10575: 10571: 10508: 10501: 10491: 10489: 10476: 10475: 10471: 10461: 10459: 10444: 10440: 10430: 10428: 10415: 10414: 10407: 10354: 10350: 10305: 10296: 10286: 10284: 10267: 10263: 10253: 10251: 10234: 10230: 10220: 10218: 10201: 10197: 10187: 10185: 10168: 10164: 10154: 10152: 10135: 10131: 10076: 10072: 10062: 10060: 10056: 10001: 9995: 9988: 9943: 9939: 9929: 9927: 9923: 9887:(E12): E12016. 9876: 9870: 9866: 9811: 9807: 9750: 9746: 9688: 9681: 9671: 9669: 9654: 9650: 9593: 9589: 9550: 9543: 9533: 9531: 9518: 9517: 9513: 9503: 9501: 9488: 9487: 9483: 9438: 9434: 9411:10.1038/ngeo332 9397:(11): 745–749. 9386: 9382: 9372: 9370: 9357: 9356: 9352: 9342: 9340: 9325: 9321: 9311: 9309: 9294: 9290: 9235: 9231: 9189: 9185: 9175: 9173: 9169: 9122: 9115: 9111: 9054: 9050: 9034: 9033: 9021: 8999: 8995: 8938: 8934: 8879: 8872: 8827: 8823: 8776: 8772: 8725: 8718: 8708: 8706: 8697: 8696: 8692: 8653: 8649: 8610: 8606: 8551: 8544: 8534: 8530: 8490: 8486: 8455: 8451: 8441: 8439: 8424: 8420: 8381: 8377: 8329: 8325: 8272: 8268: 8258: 8256: 8252: 8197: 8191: 8182: 8143: 8139: 8094: 8090: 8029: 8025: 7994: 7990: 7959: 7952: 7887: 7883: 7852:(7729): 18–19. 7838: 7834: 7824: 7822: 7807: 7803: 7793: 7791: 7776: 7767: 7719: 7715: 7705: 7703: 7684: 7683: 7679: 7669: 7667: 7646:mars.nasa.gov. 7644: 7640: 7630: 7628: 7615: 7614: 7610: 7570: 7563: 7530:. Solid Earth. 7524: 7520: 7475:(5936): 68–70. 7465: 7458: 7419: 7415: 7405: 7403: 7399: 7350: 7344: 7340: 7330: 7328: 7307: 7306: 7299: 7270:(11): 930–933. 7260: 7253: 7194: 7190: 7145: 7141: 7102: 7098: 7088: 7086: 7073: 7072: 7068: 7058: 7056: 7047: 7046: 7042: 7032: 7030: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6965: 6961: 6951: 6949: 6932: 6928: 6918: 6916: 6901: 6897: 6844: 6840: 6802: 6798: 6760: 6755: 6748: 6706: 6699: 6657: 6650: 6646: 6581: 6577: 6514: 6510: 6500: 6498: 6485: 6484: 6480: 6445: 6441: 6390: 6386: 6325: 6318: 6267: 6260: 6217: 6213: 6178: 6174: 6129: 6125: 6090: 6086: 6043: 6039: 6029: 6027: 6023: 5984: 5978: 5974: 5964: 5962: 5949: 5948: 5944: 5934: 5932: 5915: 5911: 5872: 5868: 5845: 5841: 5783: 5779: 5747: 5743: 5690: 5686: 5676: 5674: 5628: 5619: 5562: 5555: 5545: 5543: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5478: 5463: 5459: 5411: 5404: 5394: 5392: 5388: 5341: 5335: 5331: 5292:(E11): E11004. 5278: 5274: 5229: 5225: 5194: 5190: 5151: 5147: 5137: 5135: 5122: 5121: 5117: 5062: 5058: 5005: 5001: 4945: 4941: 4936: 4932: 4876: 4872: 4867: 4863: 4816: 4812: 4767: 4763: 4716: 4712: 4657: 4653: 4605: 4599: 4592: 4539: 4535: 4482: 4478: 4423: 4419: 4370: 4366: 4329:(4260): 70–72. 4319: 4315: 4286: 4279: 4269: 4267: 4263: 4250: 4244: 4240: 4230: 4228: 4215:mars.nasa.gov. 4213: 4206: 4196: 4194: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4166: 4164: 4160: 4113: 4107: 4098: 4059: 4052: 3996: 3987: 3948: 3941: 3880: 3876: 3823: 3819: 3804: 3790: 3783: 3730: 3723: 3684: 3673: 3663: 3661: 3618: 3609: 3548: 3535: 3488: 3481: 3416: 3412: 3402: 3400: 3385: 3378: 3368: 3366: 3351: 3344: 3334: 3332: 3328: 3273: 3267: 3258: 3218: 3209: 3144: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3083: 3073: 3071: 3056: 3047: 3037: 3035: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3007: 3005: 2992:mars.nasa.gov. 2990: 2986: 2938: 2934: 2924: 2922: 2913: 2912: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2868: 2866: 2853: 2852: 2843: 2828: 2806: 2743: 2703: 2684: 2678: 2656: 2621: 2611: 2609: 2596: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2554: 2528:Climate of Mars 2518: 2513: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2489: 2488: 2487: 2475: 2470: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2446: 2441: 2432: 2431: 2430: 2428:Charitum Montes 2425: 2420: 2411: 2410: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2390: 2389: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2369: 2368: 2367: 2358: 2353: 2331: 2317: 2305: 2302:) and oxygen (O 2301: 2297: 2273: 2269: 2256: 2244:Main articles: 2242: 2220:and helicopter 2208:and the lander 2176:astrobiological 2119: 2113: 2104: 2085: 2062: 2049: 1990: 1982: 1980:Methane on Mars 1976: 1971: 1938: 1917: 1915: 1890: 1884: 1875: 1869: 1843: 1832: 1814: 1808: 1796: 1784: 1766: 1679: 1669: 1640: 1630: 1625: 1617: 1599: 1587: 1559: 1555: 1539: 1535: 1527: 1480: 1473: 1469: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1441:in March 2013. 1429: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1405: 1394:astrobiologists 1390: 1388:Methane on Mars 1384: 1367:Utopia Planitia 1315: 1305: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1230: 1219: 1215: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1171: 1145: 1140: 1133: 1125: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1047: 1043: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1022: 1018: 1009: 989: 974: 966: 952: 936: 925: 916: 908: 904: 896: 891: 885: 880: 875: 874: 873: 870:UV spectrograph 852: 847: 827: 824: 823: 821: 813: 810: 809: 804: 801: 800: 798: 790: 787: 786: 784: 779: 775: 771: 766: 754: 750: 745: 741: 738: 734: 729: 724: 722:Nitrogen escape 717: 703: 699: 695: 691: 682: 675: 672: 671: 669: 664: 646: 642: 638: 630: 627: 626: 624: 620: 617: 613: 608: 604: 599: 591: 587: 583: 578: 576:Hydrogen escape 565: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 513:faint young Sun 499: 493: 489: 468: 453: 417: 401: 385: 369: 353: 337: 321: 306: 300: 293: 284:Isotopic ratio 276: 267: 257: 166:carbon monoxide 116:Carbon monoxide 41: 23: 21:Climate of Mars 17: 12: 11: 5: 13883: 13873: 13872: 13867: 13862: 13845: 13844: 13841: 13838: 13837: 13835: 13834: 13829: 13824: 13819: 13813: 13811: 13807: 13806: 13804: 13803: 13796: 13789: 13781: 13779: 13773: 13772: 13770: 13769: 13762: 13755: 13750: 13745: 13740: 13735: 13730: 13725: 13720: 13714: 13712: 13706: 13705: 13703: 13702: 13695: 13688: 13681: 13675: 13673: 13667: 13666: 13664: 13663: 13656: 13649: 13642: 13635: 13628: 13621: 13614: 13608: 13606: 13600: 13599: 13592: 13590: 13588: 13587: 13579: 13577: 13571: 13570: 13563: 13562: 13555: 13548: 13540: 13531: 13530: 13528: 13527: 13514: 13502: 13499: 13498: 13496: 13495: 13494: 13493: 13488: 13478: 13473: 13468: 13463: 13462: 13461: 13456: 13451: 13441: 13440: 13439: 13428: 13426: 13422: 13421: 13418: 13417: 13415: 13414: 13409: 13404: 13402:Mars Institute 13399: 13394: 13387: 13379: 13377: 13373: 13372: 13370: 13369: 13363: 13361: 13355: 13354: 13352: 13351: 13346: 13341: 13336: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13305: 13303: 13296: 13290: 13289: 13286: 13285: 13283: 13282: 13276: 13274: 13270: 13269: 13267: 13266: 13260: 13258: 13254: 13253: 13251: 13250: 13249: 13248: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13228: 13223: 13218: 13208: 13207: 13206: 13189: 13183: 13181: 13175: 13174: 13172: 13171: 13170: 13169: 13164: 13156: 13155: 13154: 13149: 13141: 13135: 13133: 13127: 13126: 13124: 13123: 13122: 13121: 13116: 13106: 13105: 13104: 13099: 13088: 13086: 13077: 13071: 13070: 13067: 13066: 13064: 13063: 13058: 13053: 13048: 13043: 13037: 13035: 13029: 13028: 13026: 13025: 13020: 13015: 13010: 13005: 13000: 12995: 12990: 12985: 12980: 12978:Seasonal flows 12975: 12973:Rootless cones 12970: 12965: 12960: 12959: 12958: 12948: 12943: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12927: 12926: 12921: 12911: 12906: 12901: 12896: 12891: 12886: 12881: 12876: 12871: 12866: 12861: 12856: 12851: 12846: 12841: 12836: 12831: 12825: 12823: 12817: 12816: 12814: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12801:Valley network 12798: 12793: 12788: 12786:Observed rocks 12783: 12782: 12781: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12756: 12751: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12720: 12718: 12710: 12709: 12707: 12706: 12701: 12699:Ultimi Scopuli 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12679:Terra Cimmeria 12676: 12671: 12666: 12661: 12656: 12651: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12620: 12618: 12612: 12611: 12609: 12608: 12603: 12598: 12593: 12587: 12585: 12576: 12570: 12569: 12564: 12561: 12560: 12553: 12552: 12545: 12538: 12530: 12524: 12523: 12518: 12500:Mars Weather: 12498: 12493: 12479: 12478:External links 12476: 12475: 12474: 12453: 12440: 12426: 12423: 12420: 12419: 12405: 12375: 12344: 12313: 12272: 12233: 12203: 12189:10.1086/180416 12154: 12141:10.1086/147736 12107: 12101:10.1086/142949 12066: 12031: 12025:10.1086/120876 11987: 11960: 11924: 11859: 11822:(1): 175–202. 11799: 11726: 11665: 11631: 11562: 11505: 11460:(13): L13202. 11443: 11406: 11375: 11314: 11285:(10): L10203. 11265: 11224: 11163: 11132: 11099: 11066: 11023: 10990: 10963: 10935: 10907: 10840: 10813: 10782: 10752: 10722: 10693: 10667: 10622:(E3): E03005. 10599: 10569: 10522:(5): 427–430. 10499: 10469: 10438: 10405: 10348: 10319:(E7): E07002. 10294: 10261: 10228: 10195: 10162: 10129: 10070: 10012:(12): 125901. 9986: 9937: 9864: 9850:2027.42/137189 9805: 9744: 9679: 9648: 9587: 9560:(1): 148–165. 9541: 9511: 9481: 9432: 9380: 9363:marsed.asu.edu 9350: 9319: 9288: 9274:2027.42/136242 9229: 9215:2027.42/110830 9200:(2): 311–342. 9183: 9133:(E1): E01004. 9109: 9048: 9019: 8993: 8932: 8870: 8821: 8786:(1): 191–219. 8770: 8716: 8690: 8663:(2): 395–407. 8647: 8604: 8542: 8528: 8484: 8465:(1): 144–152. 8449: 8418: 8391:(2): 487–492. 8375: 8340:(5): 326–332. 8323: 8266: 8180: 8153:(2): 137–148. 8137: 8088: 8023: 7988: 7969:(2): 537–547. 7950: 7881: 7832: 7801: 7765: 7730:(9): 652–657. 7713: 7677: 7638: 7608: 7561: 7518: 7456: 7429:(2): 183–191. 7413: 7361:(E9): E09S05. 7338: 7297: 7251: 7188: 7159:(E9): E09S06. 7139: 7112:(1): 153–170. 7096: 7066: 7051:. 6 May 2016. 7040: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6959: 6926: 6895: 6838: 6796: 6758: 6746: 6697: 6655: 6644: 6575: 6508: 6478: 6439: 6404:(5): 321–325. 6384: 6316: 6258: 6211: 6172: 6123: 6104:(3): 197–200. 6084: 6037: 5972: 5942: 5909: 5866: 5839: 5794:(2): 394–399. 5777: 5758:(1): 296–301. 5741: 5684: 5617: 5553: 5488: 5457: 5422:(2): 126–132. 5402: 5329: 5272: 5223: 5204:(2): 598–613. 5188: 5145: 5115: 5056: 5019:(E8): E08005. 4999: 4943: 4939: 4930: 4874: 4870: 4861: 4810: 4761: 4726:(2): 215–226. 4710: 4651: 4590: 4533: 4476: 4417: 4380:(3): 532–549. 4364: 4313: 4277: 4259:. p. 26. 4238: 4204: 4174: 4096: 4050: 3985: 3939: 3874: 3817: 3802: 3781: 3721: 3671: 3632:(2): 493–503. 3607: 3533: 3479: 3410: 3376: 3342: 3256: 3207: 3154:(10): 106901. 3123: 3092: 3081: 3045: 3015: 2984: 2932: 2906: 2876: 2841: 2826: 2741: 2682: 2676: 2619: 2588: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2581: 2580: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2509: 2493: 2490: 2472: 2471: 2464: 2463: 2462: 2443: 2442: 2435: 2434: 2433: 2422: 2421: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2401: 2400: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2380: 2379: 2372: 2371: 2370: 2355: 2354: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2330: 2327: 2315: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2271: 2267: 2264:carbon dioxide 2241: 2238: 2191:Viking program 2115:Main article: 2112: 2109: 2103: 2100: 2084: 2081: 2069:microorganisms 2060: 2047: 2040:of water, and 1988: 1978:Main article: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1955:speed of sound 1914: 1911: 1883: 1880: 1868: 1865: 1842: 1839: 1810:Main article: 1807: 1804: 1668: 1665: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1585: 1570: 1569: 1557: 1553: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1525: 1522: 1479: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1427: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1408:Sulfur dioxide 1404: 1403:Sulfur dioxide 1401: 1386:Main article: 1383: 1380: 1304: 1301: 1282: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1263:O + OH ⟶ H + O 1260: 1256: 1252: 1228: 1217: 1213: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1194: 1170: 1167: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1131: 1123: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1066: 1057: 1053: 1045: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1020: 1007: 987: 972: 964: 950: 934: 923: 914: 906: 902: 894: 884: 883:Carbon dioxide 881: 879: 876: 849: 848: 841: 840: 839: 834: 833: 819: 796: 777: 773: 769: 765: 762: 758: 757: 752: 748: 736: 727: 723: 720: 715: 708: 707: 685: 684: 680: 667: 665:CO + e ⟶ C + O 650: 649: 636: 615: 606: 602: 598: 595: 589: 585: 581: 577: 574: 564: 561: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 497: 482:impact erosion 466: 451: 430: 429: 426: 423: 420: 414: 413: 410: 407: 404: 398: 397: 394: 393:298.56 ± 0.31 391: 388: 382: 381: 378: 377:5.305 ± 0.008 375: 372: 366: 365: 362: 359: 356: 350: 349: 346: 343: 340: 334: 333: 330: 327: 324: 318: 317: 314: 311: 308: 304: 297: 296: 291: 288: 285: 275: 272: 256: 253: 146:carbon dioxide 132: 131: 128: 122: 121: 118: 112: 111: 108: 102: 101: 98: 92: 91: 88: 82: 81: 78: 76:Carbon dioxide 72: 71: 67: 66: 63: 59: 58: 55: 48: 47: 43: 42: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13882: 13871: 13868: 13866: 13863: 13861: 13858: 13857: 13855: 13839: 13833: 13830: 13828: 13825: 13823: 13820: 13818: 13815: 13814: 13812: 13808: 13802: 13801: 13797: 13795: 13794: 13790: 13788: 13787: 13783: 13782: 13780: 13778: 13774: 13768: 13767: 13763: 13761: 13760: 13756: 13754: 13751: 13749: 13746: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13734: 13731: 13729: 13726: 13724: 13721: 13719: 13716: 13715: 13713: 13711: 13707: 13701: 13700: 13696: 13694: 13693: 13689: 13687: 13686: 13682: 13680: 13677: 13676: 13674: 13672: 13671:Dwarf planets 13668: 13662: 13661: 13657: 13655: 13654: 13650: 13648: 13647: 13643: 13641: 13640: 13636: 13634: 13633: 13629: 13627: 13626: 13622: 13620: 13619: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13609: 13607: 13605: 13601: 13596: 13586: 13585: 13581: 13580: 13578: 13576: 13572: 13568: 13561: 13556: 13554: 13549: 13547: 13542: 13541: 13538: 13526: 13515: 13513: 13504: 13503: 13500: 13492: 13489: 13487: 13484: 13483: 13482: 13479: 13477: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13460: 13457: 13455: 13452: 13450: 13447: 13446: 13445: 13442: 13438: 13435: 13434: 13433: 13430: 13429: 13427: 13423: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13395: 13393: 13392: 13388: 13386: 13385: 13381: 13380: 13378: 13374: 13368: 13365: 13364: 13362: 13360: 13356: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13334:Human mission 13332: 13330: 13329:Sample return 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13306: 13304: 13300: 13297: 13295: 13291: 13281: 13278: 13277: 13275: 13271: 13265: 13262: 13261: 13259: 13255: 13246: 13239: 13236: 13229: 13226: 13219: 13217: 13214: 13213: 13212: 13209: 13204: 13195: 13194: 13193: 13192:Mars-crossers 13190: 13188: 13185: 13184: 13182: 13180: 13176: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13159: 13157: 13153: 13150: 13148: 13145: 13144: 13142: 13140: 13137: 13136: 13134: 13132: 13128: 13120: 13117: 13115: 13112: 13111: 13110: 13107: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13094: 13093: 13090: 13089: 13087: 13085: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13072: 13062: 13059: 13057: 13054: 13052: 13049: 13047: 13044: 13042: 13039: 13038: 13036: 13034: 13030: 13024: 13021: 13019: 13016: 13014: 13011: 13009: 13008:Tharsis bulge 13006: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12986: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12976: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12957: 12954: 12953: 12952: 12949: 12947: 12946:Ore resources 12944: 12942: 12939: 12937: 12934: 12932: 12929: 12925: 12922: 12920: 12917: 12916: 12915: 12912: 12910: 12907: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12895: 12892: 12890: 12887: 12885: 12882: 12880: 12877: 12875: 12872: 12870: 12867: 12865: 12862: 12860: 12857: 12855: 12852: 12850: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12840: 12839:Chaos terrain 12837: 12835: 12832: 12830: 12829:Brain terrain 12827: 12826: 12824: 12822: 12818: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12802: 12799: 12797: 12794: 12792: 12789: 12787: 12784: 12780: 12777: 12776: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12760: 12757: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12744:Chaos terrain 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12729: 12725: 12722: 12721: 12719: 12717: 12711: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12659:Planum Boreum 12657: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12649:Olympia Undae 12647: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12639:Eridania Lake 12637: 12635: 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12621: 12619: 12617: 12613: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 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8701:. JPL. NASA. 8700: 8694: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8651: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8631: 8627: 8623: 8619: 8615: 8608: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8572: 8568: 8564: 8560: 8556: 8549: 8547: 8539: 8532: 8523: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8494: 8488: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8453: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8426:Hecht, Jeff. 8422: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8386: 8379: 8371: 8367: 8363: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8327: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8270: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8196: 8189: 8187: 8185: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8141: 8133: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8092: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8034: 8027: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7992: 7984: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7957: 7955: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7912: 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2920: 2916: 2910: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2880: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2827:9780521844123 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2679: 2677:9780123822253 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2510: 2507: 2496: 2486:(July, 1997). 2485: 2481: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2457: 2453: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2429: 2424: 2418: 2408: 2403: 2397: 2387: 2382: 2376: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2351: 2342: 2341: 2335: 2329:Image gallery 2326: 2324: 2319: 2313: 2309: 2293: 2289: 2286:and the NASA 2285: 2284:Robert Zubrin 2281: 2277: 2265: 2261: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2237: 2235: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2224: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2212: 2207: 2206: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2118: 2108: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2092: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2016: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1986: 1981: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1950: 1945: 1936: 1935: 1931:Mars sounds ( 1910: 1908: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1879: 1874: 1867:Thermal tides 1861: 1856: 1852: 1849: 1838: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1818: 1813: 1800: 1794: 1793: 1788: 1782: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1747:solar-powered 1744: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1715: 1707: 1699: 1691: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1646: 1645:optical depth 1639: 1635: 1615: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1567: 1563: 1551: 1546: 1542: 1531: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1484: 1475: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1433: 1425: 1409: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1389: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1329: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1309:Water on Mars 1300: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1286: 1269: 1261: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1237:atomic oxygen 1234: 1225: 1223: 1211: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1180: 1175: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1149: 1135: 1129: 1120: 1097: 1085: 1072: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1051: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1013: 1005: 1000: 998: 993: 980: 976: 970: 969:mixing ratios 961: 956: 948: 944: 940: 932: 927: 921: 912: 900: 890: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 845: 838: 820: 797: 783: 782: 781: 764:Oxygen escape 761: 749: 733: 732: 731: 719: 713: 690: 689: 688: 668: 663: 662: 661: 659: 655: 637: 612: 611: 610: 597:Carbon escape 594: 573: 570: 560: 518: 514: 509: 507: 501: 487: 483: 478: 476: 472: 463: 459: 455: 449: 445: 441: 436: 427: 424: 421: 416: 415: 411: 408: 406:(4.4–6) × 10 405: 400: 399: 395: 392: 389: 384: 383: 379: 376: 373: 368: 367: 363: 360: 357: 352: 351: 347: 344: 341: 336: 335: 331: 328: 325: 320: 319: 315: 312: 310:9.3 ± 1.7 10 309: 299: 298: 292: 289: 286: 283: 282: 271: 266: 265:Water on Mars 262: 252: 250: 246: 241: 237: 232: 230: 226: 222: 217: 213: 209: 207: 202: 198: 193: 191: 185: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 152:(2.85%), and 151: 147: 143: 139: 129: 127: 123: 119: 117: 113: 109: 107: 103: 99: 97: 93: 89: 87: 83: 79: 77: 73: 68: 64: 60: 56: 54: 49: 44: 40: 34: 29: 22: 13798: 13791: 13784: 13764: 13757: 13697: 13690: 13683: 13658: 13651: 13644: 13637: 13631: 13630: 13623: 13616: 13582: 13471:Life on Mars 13466:Flag of Mars 13407:Mars Society 13389: 13382: 13349:Terraforming 13344:Colonization 13114:Swift crater 12956:polar wander 12684:Terra Sabaea 12624:Arabia Terra 12582: 12514: 12508: 12503:Perseverance 12502: 12466:. 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Retrieved 7317:Mars Express 7312: 7267: 7263: 7205: 7201: 7191: 7156: 7152: 7142: 7109: 7105: 7099: 7087:. Retrieved 7078: 7069: 7057:. Retrieved 7043: 7031:. Retrieved 6988: 6984: 6962: 6950:. Retrieved 6939: 6929: 6917:. Retrieved 6898: 6855: 6851: 6841: 6814: 6810: 6799: 6769:(1): 10–22. 6766: 6762: 6732:10150/624978 6714: 6710: 6665: 6661: 6647: 6588: 6584: 6578: 6525: 6521: 6511: 6499:. Retrieved 6481: 6456: 6452: 6442: 6401: 6397: 6387: 6339:(E3): 5341. 6336: 6332: 6278: 6274: 6228: 6224: 6214: 6189: 6185: 6175: 6140: 6136: 6126: 6101: 6097: 6087: 6057:(B6): 2923. 6054: 6050: 6040: 6028:. Retrieved 5992: 5988: 5975: 5963:. Retrieved 5955:www.msss.com 5954: 5945: 5933:. Retrieved 5922: 5912: 5882:(1): 28–39. 5879: 5875: 5869: 5852: 5848: 5842: 5791: 5787: 5780: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5701: 5697: 5687: 5675:. Retrieved 5642: 5638: 5569: 5565: 5544:. Retrieved 5509: 5505: 5491: 5479:. Retrieved 5470: 5460: 5419: 5415: 5393:. 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Retrieved 2601: 2592: 2539:Life on Mars 2520:Space portal 2477: 2458:(May, 2005). 2456:Gusev crater 2449: 2386:Solis Planum 2365:Olympus Mons 2338: 2323:Perseverance 2320: 2308:electrolysis 2282:proposal of 2257: 2231: 2221: 2217:Perseverance 2215: 2209: 2203: 2188: 2180:life on Mars 2167:spectrometer 2164: 2120: 2105: 2091:Mars Express 2089: 2086: 2031: 2025: 2014: 2012: 1993: 1983: 1949:Perseverance 1948: 1941: 1934:Perseverance 1933: 1903: 1876: 1844: 1835: 1826: 1790: 1760: 1750: 1732: 1716: 1712: 1650: 1641: 1634:mineral dust 1571: 1510:scale height 1489: 1465: 1459: 1448: 1436: 1406: 1398: 1391: 1353: 1347: 1340: 1333: 1328:Mars Express 1327: 1324: 1296:Mars Express 1294: 1291:spectrometer 1287: 1283: 1245: 1241: 1226: 1199: 1176: 1172: 1141: 1121: 1106: 1091:+ O ⟶ OH + O 1065:CO + OH ⟶ CO 1044:, all the CO 1039: 1003: 1001: 985: 928: 892: 835: 794:+ e ⟶ CO + O 767: 759: 725: 709: 686: 651: 600: 579: 569:Jeans escape 566: 510: 502: 479: 456: 437: 433: 294:Mars / Earth 268: 249:life on Mars 245:biosignature 233: 210: 194: 186: 137: 135: 13793:HD 209458 b 13567:Atmospheres 13294:Exploration 13216:5261 Eureka 12884:Groundwater 12849:Composition 12674:Tempe Terra 12664:Quadrangles 12591:Circulation 12352:NASA, JPL. 12010:(38): 273. 11941:: 233–273. 11681:: 103–109. 11525:(17): n/a. 11125:16 December 11092:16 December 11016:20 December 9953:. Planets. 9883:. Planets. 9524:sci.esa.int 9494:sci.esa.int 8841:(24): n/a. 7357:. Planets. 7313:sci.esa.int 7155:. Planets. 7089:15 November 6858:: 259–261. 6231:: 150–160. 6143:: 591–609. 5995:: 553–569. 5855:(1): 9–25. 5704:: 259–261. 5546:24 November 4954:: 337–349. 4069:(1): 2–79. 3335:24 November 3229:: 514–536. 2949:: 146–157. 2545:Mars MetNet 2484:Ares Vallis 2407:Tempe Terra 2280:Mars Direct 2276:rocket fuel 2172:Mariner 4's 2073:methanogens 1944:sound waves 1806:Dust devils 1761:Opportunity 1751:Opportunity 1667:Dust storms 1661:Gale crater 1501:aerobraking 1461:Noble gases 1341:Opportunity 1303:Water vapor 1190:Gale crater 953:ice in the 943:sublimation 831:+ e ⟶ O + O 679:+ e ⟶ C + O 462:noble gases 390:1900 ± 300 326:85.1 ± 0.3 221:Mars rovers 216:dust storms 212:Dust devils 174:noble gases 158:water vapor 126:Water vapor 70:Composition 13854:Categories 13777:Exoplanets 12951:Polar caps 12931:Mud cracks 12914:Meteorites 12899:Lava tubes 12834:Carbonates 12769:Labyrinthi 12644:Iani Chaos 12583:Atmosphere 12468:8 December 11688:1905.11138 10821:rburnham. 10694:0816512574 9767:1905.01073 9699:: 96–111. 7033:6 February 5935:15 October 5631:Fox, J. L. 5579:1911.01107 5572:: 93–105. 5498:Fox, J. L. 4961:1507.02569 4496:(2): n/a. 2925:17 January 2612:2 December 2584:References 2479:Pathfinder 2310:, using a 2262:could use 2071:, such as 2038:radiolysis 1907:Arsia Mons 1898:Arsia Mons 1886:See also: 1871:See also: 1823:dust devil 1739:dust storm 1632:See also: 1614:solar wind 1582:turbopause 1545:extreme UV 1514:lapse rate 1307:See also: 1012:photolyzed 955:polar caps 947:deposition 931:adsorption 887:See also: 517:Carl Sagan 435:the past. 374:4.2 ± 0.1 358:476 ± 4.0 259:See also: 231:on Earth. 225:both moons 13800:Kepler-7b 13786:GJ 1132 b 13743:Enceladus 13476:Sub-Earth 13459:Mythology 13412:Mars race 13179:Asteroids 13075:Astronomy 13046:Hesperian 13041:Amazonian 13013:Volcanism 12988:Spherules 12909:Marsquake 12864:Dichotomy 12779:by height 12774:Mountains 12574:Geography 12509:Curiosity 12436:Space.com 12255:0362-4331 12198:0004-637X 12149:0004-637X 12047:: 48–61. 11976:: 220.1. 11955:186212257 11904:2156-2202 11854:134203070 11846:0084-6597 11771:0022-4928 11721:166228217 11713:0019-1035 11648:Space.com 11624:30 August 11614:118861678 11606:0004-637X 11589:1111.0685 11582:(1): 15. 11557:134066523 11549:1944-8007 11492:1944-8007 11389:Space.com 10902:247865804 10711:cite book 10644:2156-2202 10546:0091-7613 10392:1944-9208 10343:2156-2202 10177:Space.com 10034:0034-4885 9981:2169-9100 9917:215820851 9909:2156-2202 9859:1944-8007 9800:125311345 9792:0019-1035 9760:: 43–57. 9731:0019-1035 9706:1403.4234 9643:118336315 9635:0019-1035 9610:1409.4841 9603:: 65–95. 9582:0019-1035 9476:2169-9100 9427:128907168 9419:1752-0894 9283:2169-9402 9155:0148-0227 9096:1752-0894 9071:1312.6859 9037:cite book 9029:956434982 8980:8755-1209 8911:1476-4687 8816:102489157 8808:0084-6597 8685:0019-1035 8642:2156-2202 8583:0036-8075 8413:0019-1035 8370:134110253 8362:1752-0908 8310:0036-8075 8230:0036-8075 8175:0032-0633 8132:0004-6361 8067:0036-8075 7929:0036-8075 7760:135198120 7752:1752-0908 7603:0019-1035 7581:: 50–64. 7556:2156-2202 7513:206519222 7497:0036-8075 7451:0273-1177 7406:30 August 7385:2156-2202 7292:1752-0908 7246:205214046 7230:1476-4687 7183:2156-2202 7134:0019-1035 7023:119271891 6998:1007.1301 6941:Space.com 6791:0019-1035 6692:0022-4928 6623:0036-8075 6552:0027-8424 6434:135136911 6426:1752-0894 6379:129616949 6371:0148-0227 6303:0028-0836 6192:: 37–49. 6167:125851495 6079:0148-0227 6030:30 August 6017:0019-1035 5904:0019-1035 5834:118646223 5826:0019-1035 5801:1106.3926 5667:2156-2202 5612:122599784 5604:0032-0633 5536:2156-2202 5452:134961099 5444:2397-3366 5395:6 January 5382:119084288 5374:2169-9402 5316:2156-2202 5267:0022-4928 5183:2156-2202 5094:0036-8075 5043:0148-0227 4994:118359789 4986:0019-1035 4925:118520121 4917:1752-0908 4892:1405.6701 4848:1476-4687 4805:2156-2202 4748:0019-1035 4689:1476-4687 4646:134561764 4638:1944-8007 4577:0036-8075 4528:129208608 4520:1944-8007 4471:205230813 4455:1476-4687 4412:0019-1035 4300:: 11–16. 4146:0012-821X 4091:0019-1035 4045:206548973 4029:0036-8075 3980:0016-7037 3916:1944-8007 3812:435778559 3768:0012-821X 3743:1405.6336 3716:1811-5209 3654:0019-1035 3584:1531-1074 3458:0036-8075 3322:106411228 3306:1476-4687 3251:0019-1035 3202:206021236 3186:0034-4885 3161:1201.4353 2979:125410604 2971:0019-1035 2836:956434982 2736:0032-0633 2714:: 44–54. 2228:Mars 2020 2223:Ingenuity 2205:Curiosity 2184:Mars jars 2026:Curiosity 2015:Curiosity 2000:soundings 1828:Curiosity 1720:saltation 1594:exosphere 1530:mesopause 1493:soundings 1437:Curiosity 1235:detected 746:N + N + e 65:2.5x10 kg 13810:See also 13738:Callisto 13733:Ganymede 13692:Makemake 13512:Category 13376:Advocacy 13359:Missions 13302:Concepts 13131:Transits 13102:Monolith 13051:Noachian 13023:Yardangs 12919:on Earth 12879:Glaciers 12724:"Canals" 12716:features 12714:Physical 12392:Archived 12362:Archived 12331:Archived 12259:Archived 12220:Archived 12216:NASA/JPL 12174:: L187. 11908:Archived 11783:Archived 11779:30893675 11652:Archived 11618:Archived 11500:14707525 11427:Archived 11393:Archived 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7083:Archived 7079:BBC News 7059:18 March 7053:Archived 7027:Archived 6946:Archived 6913:Archived 6890:31118538 6741:13748950 6658:on Mars" 6639:30958948 6631:17788809 6570:19487662 6495:Archived 6253:92991001 6021:Archived 5959:Archived 5929:Archived 5736:31118538 5671:Archived 5633:(1993). 5540:Archived 5475:Archived 5386:Archived 5132:Archived 5128:phys.org 5102:18096802 4756:11539473 4697:11536608 4585:28360326 4463:23051754 4359:34066697 4351:17793081 4261:Archived 4225:Archived 4191:Archived 4187:NASA/JPL 4158:Archived 4037:23869014 3934:25821261 3869:26074632 3776:41366698 3688:Elements 3658:Archived 3602:30234380 3528:29880682 3474:13533388 3466:15514118 3397:Archived 3393:ABC News 3363:Archived 3326:Archived 3314:30971829 3194:22982806 3110:Archived 3068:Archived 3032:Archived 3028:phys.org 3002:Archived 2919:Archived 2863:Archived 2606:Archived 2492:See also 2312:zirconia 2158:allowed 1821:A small 1432:Rocknest 1375:Viking 2 1255:⟶ OH + O 1164:on Mars. 1138:Nitrogen 1078:+ M ⟶ HO 960:adhesion 939:regolith 866:hydrogen 442:and O / 342:173 ± 9 313:1.56 10 170:hydrogen 150:nitrogen 86:Nitrogen 51:Average 13660:Neptune 13639:Jupiter 13612:Mercury 13604:Planets 13444:Fiction 13425:Related 13319:Landing 13314:Orbiter 13273:General 13242:2007 NS 13232:1999 UJ 13222:1998 VF 13211:Trojans 13198:2007 WD 13187:Impacts 13167:Mercury 13033:History 12993:Surface 12924:on Mars 12889:Gullies 12874:Geysers 12821:Geology 12811:Gravity 12806:Valleys 12759:Gullies 12749:Craters 12739:Catenae 12734:Canyons 12689:Tharsis 12634:Cydonia 12616:Regions 12606:Methane 12596:Climate 12515:InSight 12368:13 June 12337:13 June 12294:Bibcode 12265:24 July 12176:Bibcode 12129:Bibcode 12088:Bibcode 12049:Bibcode 12012:Bibcode 11978:Bibcode 11917:30 July 11884:Bibcode 11824:Bibcode 11792:24 June 11751:Bibcode 11693:Bibcode 11527:Bibcode 11462:Bibcode 11436:27 June 11399:27 June 11361:3382529 11338:Bibcode 11287:Bibcode 11258:24 July 11187:Bibcode 11178:Science 11041:Bibcode 11033:Science 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