67:
1151:
3116:
3127:
1116:
201:. Various colour-effective temperature relations exist in the literature. Their relations also have smaller dependencies on other stellar parameters, such as the stellar metallicity and surface gravity. The effective temperature of a star indicates the amount of heat that the star radiates per unit of surface area. From the hottest surfaces to the coolest is the sequence of
1382:
PrÅ”a, Andrej; Harmanec, Petr; Torres, Guillermo; Mamajek, Eric; Asplund, Martin; Capitaine, Nicole; Christensen-Dalsgaard, JĆørgen; Depagne, Ćric; Haberreiter, Margit; Hekker, Saskia; Hilton, James; Kopp, Greg; Kostov, Veselin; Kurtz, Donald W.; Laskar, Jacques; Mason, Brian D.; Milone, Eugene F.;
985:
186:. Stars have a decreasing temperature gradient, going from their central core up to the atmosphere. The "core temperature" of the Sunāthe temperature at the centre of the Sun where nuclear reactions take placeāis estimated to be 15,000,000 K.
1087:
and clouds) absorbing thermal radiation and reducing emissions to space, i.e., reducing the planet's emissivity of thermal radiation from its surface into space. Substituting the surface temperature into the equation and solving for Īµ gives an
750:
857:
546:
224:, either of which generates far greater energy but passes it through a surface so large that the star radiates little per unit of surface area. A star near the middle of the spectrum, such as the modest
384:
152:. The definition of the stellar radius is obviously not straightforward. More rigorously the effective temperature corresponds to the temperature at the radius that is defined by a certain value of the
465:
868:
2967:
1155:
1074:
at its mean orbital radius of 1.5Ć10 km. The calculation with Īµ=1 and remaining physical constants then gives an Earth effective temperature of 254 K (ā19 Ā°C).
284:
Assuming the star radiates isotropically and that the planet is a long way from the star, the power absorbed by the planet is given by treating the planet as a disc of radius
54:), the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature. The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties, such as the
569:
602:(Osiris) is 1,130 K, but the effective temperature is 1,359 K. The internal heating within Jupiter raises the effective temperature to about 152 K.
292:(the distance of the planet from the star). The calculation assumes the planet reflects some of the incoming radiation by incorporating a parameter called the
610:
The surface temperature of a planet can be estimated by modifying the effective-temperature calculation to account for emissivity and temperature variation.
1040:
Also note here that this equation does not take into account any effects from internal heating of the planet, which can arise directly from sources such as
232:
radiates more energy per unit of surface area than the feeble red dwarf stars or the bloated supergiants, but much less than such a white or blue star as
296:(a). An albedo of 1 means that all the radiation is reflected, an albedo of 0 means all of it is absorbed. The expression for absorbed power is then:
651:. An albedo of 1 means that all the radiation is reflected, an albedo of 0 means all of it is absorbed. The expression for absorbed power is then:
1077:
The actual temperature of Earth's surface is an average 288 K (15 Ā°C) as of 2020. The difference between the two values is called the
755:
The next assumption we can make is that although the entire planet is not at the same temperature, it will radiate as if it had a temperature
657:
1518:
790:
1596:
582:(Bellerophon) is 1,258 K. A better estimate of effective temperature for some planets, such as Jupiter, would need to include the
1604:
1057:
160:. The effective temperature and the bolometric luminosity are the two fundamental physical parameters needed to place a star on the
476:
302:
1540:
2999:
1214:
1190:
263:, it can be calculated by equating the power received by the planet to the known power emitted by a blackbody of temperature
639:
is the radius of the planet. This area intercepts some of the power which is spread over the surface of a sphere of radius
403:
3172:
2974:
2293:
3167:
1366:
1335:
1240:
254:
193:
of a star indicates its temperature from the very coolāby stellar standardsāred M stars that radiate heavily in the
1566:
1358:
175:
2686:
161:
1092:
of about 0.61 for a 288 K Earth. Furthermore, these values calculate an outgoing thermal radiation flux of
980:{\displaystyle T={\sqrt{{\frac {A_{\rm {abs}}}{A_{\rm {rad}}}}{\frac {L(1-a)}{4\pi \sigma \varepsilon D^{2}}}}}}
3177:
3152:
2979:
2616:
2600:
1635:
1030:, the point on the planet directly below the sun and gives the maximum temperature of the planet ā a factor of
1089:
3026:
2893:
3009:
2960:
2935:
2228:
1575:
571:
is the StefanāBoltzmann constant. Note that the planet's radius has cancelled out of the final expression.
780:
ranges from 1 to 0 with 1 meaning the planet is a perfect blackbody and emits all the incident power. The
2950:
2930:
2313:
3162:
3157:
3014:
2945:
2915:
1261:
1232:
1026:
for a slowly rotating body, or a tidally locked body on the sunlit side. This ratio would be 1 for the
1452:"The GALAH survey: effective temperature calibration from the InfraRed Flux Method in the Gaia system"
35:. Effective temperature is often used as an estimate of a body's surface temperature when the body's
3021:
2898:
2875:
2457:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
164:. Both effective temperature and bolometric luminosity depend on the chemical composition of a star.
32:
78:) is the temperature a black body of the same size must have to yield the same total emissive power.
2164:
2038:
1673:
1383:
Montgomery, Michele; Richards, Mercedes; Schmutz, Werner; Schou, Jesper; Stewart, Susan G. (2016).
1207:
Meteorology For
Scientists and Engineers. A technical companion book with Ahrens' Meteorology Today
781:
394:
104:
643:. We also allow the planet to reflect some of the incoming radiation by incorporating a parameter
470:
Equating these two expressions and rearranging gives an expression for the effective temperature:
2940:
2691:
2490:
2400:
2360:
2342:
2268:
1839:
1765:
1311:
153:
1510:
862:
Equating these two expressions and rearranging gives an expression for the surface temperature:
3101:
3081:
2853:
2848:
2746:
2641:
2590:
2395:
2385:
2058:
1856:
1824:
1715:
1698:
1129:
595:
202:
1176:
16:
Temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation
2955:
2925:
2920:
2910:
2838:
1792:
1327:
1316:
1144:
554:
2073:
1352:
1296:
288:, which intercepts some of the power which is spread over the surface of a sphere of radius
3096:
2994:
2984:
2833:
2801:
2595:
2390:
2375:
1688:
1601:
1473:
1406:
1292:
1265:
8:
2556:
2539:
2210:
2112:
1935:
2696:
1578:
of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press).
1477:
1410:
1269:
3091:
3052:
3004:
2989:
2903:
2843:
2766:
2676:
2646:
2636:
2580:
2502:
2193:
1829:
1628:
1565:(2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (eds.).
1463:
1432:
1396:
157:
123:
1100:(with Īµā1 at the surface). Both fluxes are near the confidence ranges reported by the
3042:
2467:
2440:
2420:
2220:
2004:
1992:
1819:
1799:
1753:
1735:
1703:
1500:
Swihart, Thomas. "Quantitative
Astronomy". Prentice Hall, 1992, Chapter 5, Section 1.
1419:
1384:
1362:
1331:
1283:
Baschek (June 1991). "The parameters R and Teff in stellar models and observations".
1236:
1210:
1186:
1138:
1079:
1041:
768:
which is again some fraction of the total area of the planet. There is also a factor
389:
The next assumption we can make is that the entire planet is at the same temperature
55:
2527:
1591:
1436:
1385:"Nominal Values for Selected Solar and Planetary Quantities: IAU 2015 Resolution B3"
212:, a star of feeble energy production and a small surface or a bloated giant or even
2870:
2823:
2773:
2761:
2739:
2734:
2661:
2621:
2568:
2350:
2273:
2248:
2142:
2063:
1787:
1748:
1481:
1424:
1414:
1063:
583:
3057:
2860:
2729:
2573:
2544:
2485:
2480:
2355:
2083:
2048:
1982:
1928:
1923:
1868:
1678:
1608:
66:
3119:
2885:
2724:
2551:
2522:
2497:
2430:
2119:
1987:
1873:
1775:
1665:
1655:
1258:
Introduction to
Stellar Astrophysics, Volume 3, Stellar structure and evolution
1084:
1027:
995:
229:
149:
1096:(with Īµ=0.61 as viewed from space) versus a surface thermal radiation flux of
3146:
3071:
2865:
2828:
2796:
2671:
2380:
2203:
2174:
2152:
1770:
1743:
1720:
1621:
1486:
1451:
1037:(1.414) greater than the effective temperature of a rapidly rotating planet.
1003:
3131:
2806:
2756:
2751:
2651:
2534:
2517:
2475:
2445:
2435:
2370:
2253:
2198:
2179:
2159:
2137:
2129:
1972:
1965:
1804:
1725:
1708:
1045:
3047:
2719:
2711:
2701:
2681:
2656:
2585:
2507:
2263:
2238:
2233:
2147:
2107:
2068:
2033:
2016:
2011:
1683:
1121:
599:
579:
198:
190:
24:
1150:
1132: ā temperature associated with the measured intensity and frequency
50:
in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity (less than that of a
2631:
2328:
2301:
2278:
2258:
2243:
2095:
1999:
1977:
1955:
1950:
1814:
1428:
990:
Note the ratio of the two areas. Common assumptions for this ratio are
773:
745:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {LA_{\rm {abs}}(1-a)}{4\pi D^{2}}}}
591:
275:
221:
213:
87:
51:
47:
40:
36:
28:
2818:
2666:
2450:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2365:
2318:
2308:
2102:
2078:
2053:
1960:
1911:
1844:
1834:
1809:
1782:
1758:
1693:
1323:
1182:
209:
2811:
2512:
2186:
1945:
1918:
1468:
1401:
852:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=A_{\rm {rad}}\varepsilon \sigma T^{4}}
194:
1083:. The greenhouse effect results from materials in the atmosphere (
3086:
2561:
2323:
2090:
2043:
2026:
2021:
1940:
1141: ā Property of light sources related to black-body radiation
575:
217:
3076:
3064:
2283:
2169:
648:
613:
The area of the planet that absorbs the power from the star is
587:
293:
260:
170:
75:
1058:
StefanāBoltzmann law Ā§ Effective temperature of the Earth
541:{\displaystyle T={\sqrt{\frac {L(1-a)}{16\pi \sigma D^{2}}}}}
237:
2425:
1644:
1562:
1174:
1101:
379:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {Lr^{2}(1-a)}{4D^{2}}}}
233:
83:
3126:
1115:
784:
gives an expression for the power radiated by the planet:
397:
gives an expression for the power radiated by the planet:
2791:
1381:
225:
197:
to the very hot blue O stars that radiate largely in the
71:
1613:
871:
793:
660:
586:
as a power input. The actual temperature depends on
557:
479:
406:
305:
1134:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1111:
460:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=4\pi r^{2}\sigma T^{4}}
1044:and also be produced from frictions resulting from
393:, and that the planet radiates as a blackbody. The
259:To find the effective (blackbody) temperature of a
1315:
979:
851:
744:
605:
563:
540:
459:
378:
622:which is some fraction of the total surface area
3144:
1592:Effective temperature scale for solar type stars
1568:Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis
178:for use as a unit of measure of temperature is
167:The effective temperature of the Sun is around
1051:
103:) as the star and is defined according to the
1629:
1561:
1255:
1636:
1622:
1449:
23:of a body such as a star or planet is the
1574:. Contribution of Working Group I to the
1485:
1467:
1418:
1400:
1168:
1062:Earth has an albedo of about 0.306 and a
31:that would emit the same total amount of
1344:
1229:The Stars: Their Structure and Evolution
270:Take the case of a planet at a distance
248:
65:
1282:
578:from this calculation is 88 K and
3145:
1226:
1617:
1350:
1318:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
594:effects. The actual temperature from
1541:"Climate Change: Global Temperature"
1521:from the original on 30 October 2010
1309:
1175:Archie E. Roy, David Clarke (2003).
776:and represents atmospheric effects.
1354:Life in the Solar System and Beyond
1303:
1249:
174:. The nominal value defined by the
13:
913:
910:
907:
895:
892:
889:
827:
824:
821:
806:
803:
800:
700:
697:
694:
673:
670:
667:
419:
416:
413:
318:
315:
312:
14:
3189:
1585:
255:Planetary equilibrium temperature
70:The effective temperature of the
3125:
3115:
3114:
1312:"Properties of the Solar System"
1149:
1114:
1010:for a rapidly rotating body and
176:International Astronomical Union
46:When the star's or planet's net
1555:
1533:
1503:
1494:
606:Surface temperature of a planet
126:) luminosity of a star is then
82:The effective temperature of a
1597:Surface Temperature of Planets
1443:
1375:
1351:Jones, Barrie William (2004).
1276:
1220:
1199:
1154:Learning materials related to
939:
927:
718:
706:
574:The effective temperature for
505:
493:
355:
343:
205:known as O, B, A, F, G, K, M.
1:
3027:Timeline of stellar astronomy
1602:Planet temperature calculator
1162:
90:with the same luminosity per
1310:Lide, David R., ed. (2004).
1256:Bƶhm-Vitense, Erika (1992).
7:
2687:HertzsprungāRussell diagram
1227:Tayler, Roger John (1994).
1209:, Brooks/Cole, Belmont CA,
1107:
1052:Earth effective temperature
208:A red star could be a tiny
162:HertzsprungāRussell diagram
10:
3194:
2601:KelvināHelmholtz mechanism
1420:10.3847/0004-6256/152/2/41
1285:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1262:Cambridge University Press
1233:Cambridge University Press
1055:
252:
3173:Electromagnetic radiation
3110:
3035:
2884:
2782:
2710:
2609:
2466:
2341:
2219:
2128:
1864:
1855:
1734:
1664:
1651:
1643:
1450:Casagrande, Luca (2021).
243:
122:. Notice that the total (
33:electromagnetic radiation
3168:Thermodynamic properties
2980:With multiple exoplanets
1389:The Astronomical Journal
86:is the temperature of a
39:curve (as a function of
1766:Asymptotic giant branch
1576:Sixth Assessment Report
1297:1991A&A...246..374B
564:{\displaystyle \sigma }
203:stellar classifications
156:(usually 1) within the
154:Rosseland optical depth
61:
3102:Tidal disruption event
2591:Circumstellar envelope
1825:Luminous blue variable
1487:10.1093/mnras/stab2304
1130:Brightness temperature
981:
853:
746:
596:spectroscopic analysis
565:
542:
461:
380:
79:
3178:Concepts in astronomy
3153:Astrophysics concepts
2627:Effective temperature
1156:Atmospheric retention
1145:List of hottest stars
982:
854:
747:
566:
543:
462:
381:
249:Blackbody temperature
69:
21:effective temperature
3097:Planet-hosting stars
2975:With resolved images
2946:Historical brightest
2876:Photometric-standard
2802:Solar radio emission
2596:Eddington luminosity
2376:Triple-alpha process
2314:ThorneāÅ»ytkow object
1689:Young stellar object
1090:effective emissivity
869:
791:
782:StefanāBoltzmann law
658:
555:
477:
404:
395:StefanāBoltzmann law
303:
105:StefanāBoltzmann law
2921:Highest temperature
2692:Colorācolor diagram
2557:Protoplanetary disk
2361:Protonāproton chain
2039:Chemically peculiar
1515:nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov
1478:2021MNRAS.507.2684C
1411:2016AJ....152...41P
1270:1992isa..book.....B
2926:Lowest temperature
2677:Photometric system
2647:Absolute magnitude
2581:Circumstellar dust
2194:Stellar black hole
1830:Stellar population
1716:HerbigāHaro object
1607:2012-11-27 at the
1511:"Earth Fact Sheet"
1205:Stull, R. (2000).
977:
849:
742:
561:
538:
457:
376:
274:from the star, of
158:stellar atmosphere
80:
3163:Planetary science
3158:Stellar astronomy
3140:
3139:
3043:Substellar object
3022:Planetary nebulae
2441:Luminous red nova
2351:Deuterium burning
2337:
2336:
1820:Instability strip
1800:Wolf-Rayet nebula
1754:Horizontal branch
1699:Pre-main-sequence
1322:(85th ed.).
1215:978-0-534-37214-9
1192:978-0-7503-0917-2
1139:Color temperature
1080:greenhouse effect
1042:radioactive decay
975:
967:
919:
740:
536:
530:
374:
56:greenhouse effect
3185:
3132:Stars portal
3130:
3129:
3118:
3117:
2774:Planetary system
2697:Strƶmgren sphere
2569:Asteroseismology
2290:Black hole star
1862:
1861:
1788:Planetary nebula
1749:Red-giant branch
1638:
1631:
1624:
1615:
1614:
1580:
1579:
1573:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1507:
1501:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1471:
1462:(2): 2684ā2696.
1447:
1441:
1440:
1422:
1404:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1321:
1307:
1301:
1300:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1224:
1218:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1172:
1153:
1135:
1124:
1119:
1118:
1099:
1095:
1085:greenhouse gases
1073:
1069:
1064:solar irradiance
1036:
1035:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1009:
1007:
1006:
1001:
998:
986:
984:
983:
978:
976:
974:
969:
968:
966:
965:
964:
942:
922:
920:
918:
917:
916:
900:
899:
898:
882:
879:
858:
856:
855:
850:
848:
847:
832:
831:
830:
811:
810:
809:
779:
771:
767:
758:
751:
749:
748:
743:
741:
739:
738:
737:
721:
705:
704:
703:
683:
678:
677:
676:
646:
642:
638:
634:
621:
584:internal heating
570:
568:
567:
562:
547:
545:
544:
539:
537:
535:
529:
528:
527:
508:
488:
487:
466:
464:
463:
458:
456:
455:
443:
442:
424:
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392:
385:
383:
382:
377:
375:
373:
372:
371:
358:
342:
341:
328:
323:
322:
321:
291:
287:
280:
273:
266:
185:
183:
173:
147:
141:
121:
110:
102:
98:
43:) is not known.
3193:
3192:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3124:
3106:
3031:
3000:Milky Way novae
2936:Smallest volume
2880:
2861:Radial velocity
2784:
2778:
2730:Common envelope
2706:
2605:
2574:Helioseismology
2545:Bipolar outflow
2486:Microturbulence
2481:Convection zone
2462:
2356:Lithium burning
2343:Nucleosynthesis
2333:
2215:
2124:
1851:
1730:
1679:Molecular cloud
1660:
1647:
1642:
1609:Wayback Machine
1588:
1583:
1571:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1544:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1524:
1522:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1448:
1444:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1308:
1304:
1281:
1277:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1225:
1221:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1133:
1120:
1113:
1110:
1097:
1093:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1054:
1033:
1031:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1002:
999:
994:
993:
991:
970:
960:
956:
943:
923:
921:
906:
905:
901:
888:
887:
883:
881:
880:
878:
870:
867:
866:
843:
839:
820:
819:
815:
799:
798:
794:
792:
789:
788:
777:
772:, which is the
769:
766:
760:
756:
733:
729:
722:
693:
692:
688:
684:
682:
666:
665:
661:
659:
656:
655:
644:
640:
636:
629:
623:
620:
614:
608:
556:
553:
552:
531:
523:
519:
509:
489:
486:
478:
475:
474:
451:
447:
438:
434:
412:
411:
407:
405:
402:
401:
390:
367:
363:
359:
337:
333:
329:
327:
311:
310:
306:
304:
301:
300:
289:
285:
278:
271:
264:
257:
251:
246:
181:
179:
168:
143:
140:
127:
120:
113:
108:
107:
101:
96:
95:
64:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3191:
3181:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3122:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2931:Largest volume
2928:
2923:
2918:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2788:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2749:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2716:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2642:Magnetic field
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2552:Accretion disk
2549:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2528:AlfvƩn surface
2525:
2523:Stellar corona
2520:
2515:
2510:
2500:
2498:Radiation zone
2495:
2494:
2493:
2488:
2478:
2472:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2296:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2196:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2167:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2120:Blue straggler
2117:
2116:
2115:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2036:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2009:
2008:
2007:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1975:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1878:Main sequence
1876:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1857:Classification
1853:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1842:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1793:Protoplanetary
1785:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1751:
1746:
1740:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1670:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1641:
1640:
1633:
1626:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1599:
1594:
1587:
1586:External links
1584:
1582:
1581:
1554:
1532:
1502:
1493:
1442:
1374:
1367:
1343:
1336:
1302:
1291:(2): 374ā382.
1275:
1264:. p. 14.
1248:
1241:
1235:. p. 16.
1219:
1198:
1191:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1158:at Wikiversity
1147:
1142:
1136:
1126:
1125:
1109:
1106:
1053:
1050:
1028:subsolar point
988:
987:
973:
963:
959:
955:
952:
949:
946:
941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
926:
915:
912:
909:
904:
897:
894:
891:
886:
877:
874:
860:
859:
846:
842:
838:
835:
829:
826:
823:
818:
814:
808:
805:
802:
797:
764:
753:
752:
736:
732:
728:
725:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
702:
699:
696:
691:
687:
681:
675:
672:
669:
664:
627:
618:
607:
604:
560:
549:
548:
534:
526:
522:
518:
515:
512:
507:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
485:
482:
468:
467:
454:
450:
446:
441:
437:
433:
430:
427:
421:
418:
415:
410:
387:
386:
370:
366:
362:
357:
354:
351:
348:
345:
340:
336:
332:
326:
320:
317:
314:
309:
253:Main article:
250:
247:
245:
242:
150:stellar radius
138:
118:
111:
99:
63:
60:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3190:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3121:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3092:Intergalactic
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3072:Galactic year
3070:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2951:Most luminous
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2866:Proper motion
2864:
2862:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:Constellation
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2797:Solar eclipse
2795:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2783:Earth-centric
2781:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2381:Alpha process
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2153:Helium planet
2151:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2143:Parker's star
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2074:Lambda Boƶtis
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2006:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1840:Superluminous
1838:
1837:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1744:Main sequence
1742:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1721:Hayashi track
1719:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1632:
1627:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1577:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1542:
1536:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1497:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1378:
1370:
1368:1-85233-101-1
1364:
1361:. p. 7.
1360:
1356:
1355:
1347:
1339:
1337:9780849304859
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1244:
1242:0-521-45885-4
1238:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1194:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1075:
1065:
1059:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1029:
1005:
997:
971:
961:
957:
953:
950:
947:
944:
936:
933:
930:
924:
902:
884:
875:
872:
865:
864:
863:
844:
840:
836:
833:
816:
812:
795:
787:
786:
785:
783:
775:
763:
759:over an area
734:
730:
726:
723:
715:
712:
709:
689:
685:
679:
662:
654:
653:
652:
650:
633:
626:
617:
611:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
572:
558:
532:
524:
520:
516:
513:
510:
502:
499:
496:
490:
483:
480:
473:
472:
471:
452:
448:
444:
439:
435:
431:
428:
425:
408:
400:
399:
398:
396:
368:
364:
360:
352:
349:
346:
338:
334:
330:
324:
307:
299:
298:
297:
295:
282:
277:
268:
262:
256:
241:
239:
235:
231:
228:or the giant
227:
223:
219:
216:star such as
215:
211:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
177:
172:
165:
163:
159:
155:
151:
146:
137:
134:
130:
125:
117:
106:
93:
89:
85:
77:
73:
68:
59:
57:
53:
49:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2995:White dwarfs
2985:Brown dwarfs
2968:Most distant
2916:Most massive
2894:Proper names
2854:Photographic
2807:Solar System
2785:observations
2712:Star systems
2626:
2535:Stellar wind
2518:Chromosphere
2491:Oscillations
2371:Helium flash
2221:Hypothetical
2199:X-ray binary
2138:Compact star
1973:Bright giant
1726:Henyey track
1704:Herbig Ae/Be
1567:
1557:
1545:. Retrieved
1535:
1523:. Retrieved
1514:
1505:
1496:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1392:
1388:
1377:
1353:
1346:
1317:
1305:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1257:
1251:
1228:
1222:
1206:
1201:
1177:
1170:
1078:
1076:
1061:
1046:tidal forces
1039:
989:
861:
761:
754:
631:
624:
615:
612:
609:
573:
550:
469:
388:
283:
269:
258:
207:
188:
166:
144:
135:
132:
128:
115:
92:surface area
91:
81:
45:
20:
18:
3048:Brown dwarf
2824:Circumpolar
2702:Kraft break
2682:Color index
2657:Metallicity
2617:Designation
2586:Cosmic dust
2508:Photosphere
2274:Dark-energy
2249:Electroweak
2234:Black dwarf
2165:Radio-quiet
2148:White dwarf
2034:White dwarf
1684:Bok globule
1429:1885/108637
1122:Star portal
647:called the
600:HD 209458 b
580:51 Pegasi b
199:ultraviolet
191:color index
169:5,778
25:temperature
3147:Categories
3010:Candidates
3005:Supernovae
2990:Red dwarfs
2849:Extinction
2637:Kinematics
2632:Luminosity
2610:Properties
2503:Atmosphere
2401:Si burning
2391:Ne burning
2329:White hole
2302:Quasi-star
2229:Blue dwarf
2084:Technetium
2000:Hypergiant
1978:Supergiant
1469:2011.02517
1402:1605.09788
1326:. p.
1163:References
1056:See also:
774:emissivity
592:atmosphere
276:luminosity
222:Betelgeuse
214:supergiant
184:0.8 K
124:bolometric
88:black body
52:black body
48:emissivity
41:wavelength
37:emissivity
29:black body
2941:Brightest
2839:Magnitude
2819:Pole star
2740:Symbiotic
2735:Eclipsing
2667:Starlight
2468:Structure
2458:Supernova
2451:Micronova
2446:Recurrent
2431:Symbiotic
2416:p-process
2411:r-process
2406:s-process
2396:O burning
2386:C burning
2366:CNO cycle
2309:Gravastar
1845:Hypernova
1835:Supernova
1810:Dredge-up
1783:Blue loop
1776:super-AGB
1759:Red clump
1736:Evolution
1694:Protostar
1674:Accretion
1666:Formation
1395:(2): 41.
1324:CRC Press
1217:, p. 400.
1183:CRC Press
1178:Astronomy
1068:L / 4 Ļ D
954:ε
951:σ
948:π
934:−
837:σ
834:ε
727:π
713:−
559:σ
517:σ
514:π
500:−
445:σ
432:π
350:−
210:red dwarf
3120:Category
3015:Remnants
2911:Extremes
2871:Parallax
2844:Apparent
2834:Asterism
2812:Sunlight
2762:Globular
2747:Multiple
2672:Variable
2662:Rotation
2622:Dynamics
2513:Starspot
2187:Magnetar
2130:Remnants
1946:Subgiant
1919:Subdwarf
1771:post-AGB
1605:Archived
1519:Archived
1437:55319250
1359:Springer
1108:See also
1072:1361 W m
635:, where
195:infrared
142:, where
3087:Gravity
3036:Related
2956:Nearest
2904:Chinese
2752:Cluster
2725:Contact
2562:Proplyd
2436:Remnant
2324:Blitzar
2298:Hawking
2254:Strange
2204:Burster
2160:Neutron
2113:Extreme
2064:He-weak
1709:T Tauri
1474:Bibcode
1407:Bibcode
1293:Bibcode
1266:Bibcode
1098:390 W m
1094:238 W m
1032:√
1024:
1012:
1008:
992:
576:Jupiter
230:Capella
218:Antares
148:is the
76:kelvins
3077:Galaxy
3065:Planet
3053:Desert
2961:bright
2899:Arabic
2720:Binary
2540:Bubble
2264:Planck
2239:Exotic
2175:Binary
2170:Pulsar
2108:Helium
2069:Barium
2012:Carbon
2005:Yellow
1993:Yellow
1966:Yellow
1805:PG1159
1547:6 July
1543:. NOAA
1435:
1365:
1334:
1239:
1213:
1189:
649:albedo
588:albedo
551:Where
294:albedo
261:planet
244:Planet
74:(5778
3082:Guest
2886:Lists
2767:Super
2421:Fusor
2294:Black
2279:Quark
2259:Preon
2244:Boson
2180:X-ray
2096:Shell
2049:Ap/Bp
1951:Giant
1869:Early
1815:OH/IR
1645:Stars
1572:(PDF)
1525:8 May
1464:arXiv
1456:MNRAS
1433:S2CID
1397:arXiv
1070:) of
628:total
238:Rigel
180:5,772
27:of a
2757:Open
2652:Mass
2476:Core
2426:Nova
2319:Iron
2269:Dark
2079:Lead
2059:HgMn
2054:CEMP
1983:Blue
1956:Blue
1874:Late
1656:List
1563:IPCC
1549:2023
1527:2018
1363:ISBN
1332:ISBN
1328:14-2
1237:ISBN
1211:ISBN
1187:ISBN
1102:IPCC
630:= 4Ļ
598:for
590:and
234:Vega
189:The
131:= 4Ļ
84:star
62:Star
19:The
3058:Sub
2792:Sun
2211:SGR
1988:Red
1961:Red
1482:doi
1460:507
1425:hdl
1415:doi
1393:152
1289:246
765:rad
619:abs
236:or
226:Sun
220:or
139:eff
119:eff
112:Bol
100:Bol
72:Sun
3149::
2091:Be
2044:Am
2027:CH
2022:CN
1941:OB
1936:WR
1517:.
1513:.
1480:.
1472:.
1458:.
1454:.
1431:.
1423:.
1413:.
1405:.
1391:.
1387:.
1357:.
1330:.
1314:.
1287:.
1260:.
1231:.
1185:.
1181:.
1104:.
1048:.
511:16
281:.
267:.
240:.
136:ĻT
116:ĻT
114:=
58:.
2284:Q
2103:B
2017:S
1929:B
1924:O
1912:M
1907:K
1902:G
1897:F
1892:A
1887:B
1882:O
1637:e
1630:t
1623:v
1551:.
1529:.
1490:.
1484::
1476::
1466::
1439:.
1427::
1417::
1409::
1399::
1371:.
1340:.
1299:.
1295::
1272:.
1268::
1245:.
1195:.
1066:(
1034:2
1021:2
1018:/
1015:1
1004:4
1000:/
996:1
972:4
962:2
958:D
945:4
940:)
937:a
931:1
928:(
925:L
914:d
911:a
908:r
903:A
896:s
893:b
890:a
885:A
876:=
873:T
845:4
841:T
828:d
825:a
822:r
817:A
813:=
807:d
804:a
801:r
796:P
778:Īµ
770:Īµ
762:A
757:T
735:2
731:D
724:4
719:)
716:a
710:1
707:(
701:s
698:b
695:a
690:A
686:L
680:=
674:s
671:b
668:a
663:P
645:a
641:D
637:r
632:r
625:A
616:A
533:4
525:2
521:D
506:)
503:a
497:1
494:(
491:L
484:=
481:T
453:4
449:T
440:2
436:r
429:4
426:=
420:d
417:a
414:r
409:P
391:T
369:2
365:D
361:4
356:)
353:a
347:1
344:(
339:2
335:r
331:L
325:=
319:s
316:b
313:a
308:P
290:D
286:r
279:L
272:D
265:T
182:Ā±
171:K
145:R
133:R
129:L
109:F
97:F
94:(
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