1362:" of a surface). Kirchhoff's law is rigorously applicable with regard to the spectral directional definitions of emissivity and absorptivity. The relationship explains why emissivities cannot exceed 1, since the largest absorptivity—corresponding to complete absorption of all incident light by a truly black object—is also 1. Mirror-like, metallic surfaces that reflect light will thus have low emissivities, since the reflected light isn't absorbed. A polished silver surface has an emissivity of about 0.02 near room temperature. Black soot absorbs thermal radiation very well; it has an emissivity as large as 0.97, and hence soot is a fair approximation to an ideal black body.
194:
1423:
1028:. The color photographs are taken using an infrared camera; the black and white photographs underneath are taken with an ordinary camera. All faces of the cube are at the same temperature of about 55 °C (131 °F). The face of the cube that has been painted (black or white paint has negligible impact) has a large emissivity, which is indicated by the reddish color in the infrared photograph. The polished face of the cube has a low emissivity indicated by the blue color, and the reflected image of the warm hand is clear.
110:
1496:
20:
936:
1010:. The apparatus compares the thermal radiation from a surface to be tested with the thermal radiation from a nearly ideal, black sample. The detectors are essentially black absorbers with very sensitive thermometers that record the detector's temperature rise when exposed to thermal radiation. For measuring room temperature emissivities, the detectors must absorb thermal radiation completely at infrared
1021:
538:
746:
1483:=0.65-0.99, with lowest values typically limited to the most barren desert areas. Emissivities of most surface regions are above 0.9 due to the dominant influence of water; including oceans, land vegetation, and snow/ice. Globally averaged estimates for the hemispheric emissivity of Earth's surface are in the vicinity of ε
3368:≈ 2.90×10 metre-kelvins. Room temperature is about 293 kelvins. Sunlight itself is thermal radiation originating from the hot surface of the Sun. The Sun's surface temperature of about 5800 kelvins corresponds well to the peak wavelength of sunlight, which is at the green wavelength of about 0.5×10 metres. See
384:
1635:
reports an outgoing thermal radiation flux (OLR) of 239 (237–242) W m and a surface thermal radiation flux (SLR) of 398 (395–400) W m, where the parenthesized amounts indicate the 5-95% confidence intervals as of 2015. These values indicate that the atmosphere (with clouds included) reduces
4362:
An open community-focused website & directory with resources related to spectral emissivity and emittance. On this site, the focus is on available data, references and links to resources related to spectral emissivity as it is measured & used in thermal radiation thermometry and thermography
1409:
Emittance of a surface can be measured directly or indirectly from the emitted energy from that surface. In the direct radiometric method, the emitted energy from the sample is measured directly using a spectroscope such as
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In the indirect calorimetric
1365:
With the exception of bare, polished metals, the appearance of a surface to the eye is not a good guide to emissivities near room temperature. For example, white paint absorbs very little visible light. However, at an infrared wavelength of 10×10 metre, paint absorbs light very well, and has a high
1499:
A typical spectrum of infrared radiation transmittance through Earth's atmosphere. A 'window' can be seen between 8 and 14 μm that enables direct transmission of the most intense thermal emissions from Earth's surface. The remaining portion of the upwelling energy, as well as downwelling
1374:
Emittance (or emissive power) is the total amount of thermal energy emitted per unit area per unit time for all possible wavelengths. Emissivity of a body at a given temperature is the ratio of the total emissive power of a body to the total emissive power of a perfectly black body at that
931:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon _{\nu ,\Omega }&={\frac {L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\nu }}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\nu }^{\circ }}},\\\varepsilon _{\lambda ,\Omega }&={\frac {L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\lambda }}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\lambda }^{\circ }}},\end{aligned}}}
100:
Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air, but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation. This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows, which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0. "Low-E windows" with transparent
1438:
The emissivity of a planet or other astronomical body is determined by the composition and structure of its outer skin. In this context, the "skin" of a planet generally includes both its semi-transparent atmosphere and its non-gaseous surface. The resulting
124:
is absorbed inside each tube by a selective surface. The surface absorbs sunlight nearly completely, but has a low thermal emissivity so that it loses very little heat. Ordinary black surfaces also absorb sunlight efficiently, but they emit thermal radiation
3208:
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global
184:
The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale. The temperature of a planet's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight, heat emitted from its core, and thermal radiation emitted back into space.
1543:
in accordance with extreme yet realistic local conditions. At the upper limit, dense low cloud structures (consisting of liquid/ice aerosols and saturated water vapor) close the infrared transmission windows, yielding near to black body conditions with
682:
533:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon _{\nu }&={\frac {M_{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }}{M_{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }^{\circ }}},\\\varepsilon _{\lambda }&={\frac {M_{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }}{M_{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }^{\circ }}},\end{aligned}}}
201:
picture of a cold beer can shows vastly different (and incorrect) temperature values depending on the surface material. Reflections (like on the blank end of the can and the countertop) make accurate measurements of reflective surfaces
1379:, the total energy radiated increases with temperature while the peak of the emission spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths. The energy emitted at shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly with temperature. For example, an ideal
1455:. Emissivities for the atmosphere and surface components are often quantified separately, and validated against satellite- and terrestrial-based observations as well as laboratory measurements. These emissivities serve as input
217:
are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation; no actual contact with the object is needed. The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that's being
320:
1600:
For many practical applications it may not be possible, economical or necessary to know all emissivity values locally. "Effective" or "bulk" values for an atmosphere or an entire planet may be used. These can be based upon
1706:
1450:
For Earth, equilibrium skin temperatures range near the freezing point of water, 260±50 K (-13±50 °C, 8±90 °F). The most energetic emissions are thus within a band spanning about 4-50 μm as governed by
171:
Daytime passive radiative coolers use the extremely cold temperature of outer space (~2.7 K) to emit heat and lower ambient temperatures while requiring zero energy input. These surfaces minimize the absorption of
72:
The surface of a perfect black body (with an emissivity of 1) emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square metre (W/m) at a room temperature of 25 °C (298 K; 77 °F).
1410:
method, the emitted energy from the sample is measured indirectly using a calorimeter. In addition to these two commonly applied methods, inexpensive emission measurement technique based on the principle of
1331:. This means that the absorptivity at the wavelengths typical of thermal radiation doesn't depend on the thickness of the material. Very thin materials emit less thermal radiation than thicker materials.
1829:
1747:
751:
389:
1924:
57:
The emissivity of a surface depends on its chemical composition and geometrical structure. Quantitatively, it is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an
609:
1508:. Clouds, carbon dioxide, and other components make substantial additional contributions, especially where there are gaps in the water vapor absorption spectrum. Nitrogen (
3447:"IP" refers to inch and pound units; a version of the handbook with metric units is also available. Emissivity is a simple number, and doesn't depend on the system of units.
1532:) - the primary atmospheric components - interact less significantly with thermal radiation in the infrared band. Direct measurement of Earths atmospheric emissivities (ε
105:
coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows. In winter, these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window.
3885:
Mendoza, Victor M..; Vallanueva, Elba E.; Garduno, Rene; Sanchez-Meneses, Oscar (31 January 2017). "Atmospheric emissivity with clear sky computed by E-Trans/HITRAN".
986:
Hemispherical emissivity can also be expressed as a weighted average of the directional spectral emissivities as described in textbooks on "radiative heat transfer".
4372:
Resources, Tools and Basic
Information for Engineering and Design of Technical Applications. This site offers an extensive list of other material not covered above.
1366:
emissivity. Similarly, pure water absorbs very little visible light, but water is nonetheless a strong infrared absorber and has a correspondingly high emissivity.
1843:
The concepts of emissivity and absorptivity, as properties of matter and radiation, appeared in the late-eighteenth thru mid-nineteenth century writings of
1574:
when atmospheric humidity is low. Researchers have also evaluated the contribution of differing cloud types to atmospheric absorptivity and emissivity.
266:
3462:
54:
radiation, which is not visible to human eyes. A portion of the thermal radiation from very hot objects (see photograph) is easily visible to the eye.
1931:
3685:"Radiation heat transfer during hypersonic flight: A review of emissivity measurement and enhancement approaches of ultra-high temperature ceramics"
1639:
1548:≈1. At a lower limit, clear sky (cloud-free) conditions promote the largest opening of transmission windows. The more uniform concentration of
4231:"Ableitung des Stefan'schen Gesetzes, betreffend die Abhängigkeit der Wärmestrahlung von der Temperatur aus der electromagnetischen Lichttheorie"
155:
aircraft, high-emissivity coatings (HECs), with emissivity values near 0.9, are applied on the surface of insulating ceramics. This facilitates
3321:
1636:
Earth's overall emissivity, relative to its surface emissions, by a factor of 239/398 ≈ 0.60. In other words, emissions to space are given by
3771:
4233:[Derivation of Stefan's law, concerning the dependency of heat radiation on temperature, from the electromagnetic theory of light].
1891:
applied the recent theoretical developments to his 1896 investigation of Earth's surface temperatures as calculated from the planet's
176:
to lessen heat gain in order to maximize the emission of LWIR thermal radiation. It has been proposed as a solution to global warming.
1017:
Emissivity measurements for many surfaces are compiled in many handbooks and texts. Some of these are listed in the following table.
3843:"Cloud Effective Emissivity Retrievals Using Combined Ground-Based Infrared Cloud Measuring Instrument and Ceilometer Observations"
3514:
Höpfner, M.; Milz, M.; Buehler, S.; Orphall, J.; Stiller, G. (24 May 2012). "The natural greenhouse effect of atmospheric oxygen (O
1864:
1752:
1349:
3573:
2985:
1426:
A typical spectrum of Earth's total outgoing (upwelling) thermal radiation flux under clear-sky conditions, as simulated with
139:
that have very low emissivities. These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation.
4077:
3440:
3221:
2886:
2833:
117:
242:, which considers emissions as totaled over all wavelengths, directions, and polarizations, given a particular temperature.
3377:
1711:
1582:
1358:'s 1859 law of thermal radiation) that equates the emissivity of a surface with its absorption of incident radiation (the "
1577:
These days, the detailed processes and complex properties of radiation transport through the atmosphere are evaluated by
3598:
1536:) are more challenging than for land surfaces due in part to the atmosphere's multi-layered and more dynamic structure.
1383:
in thermal equilibrium at 1,273 K (1,000 °C; 1,832 °F), will emit 97% of its energy at wavelengths below
3755:
3054:
3025:
1456:
1447:
between all other incoming plus internal sources of energy versus the outgoing flow regulates planetary temperatures.
3662:
3416:
3385:
3290:
3265:
2806:
2714:
166:
1500:
radiation back to the surface, undergoes absorption and emission by the various atmospheric components as indicated.
4106:
1917:
1887:, was thus implied and utilized in subsequent evaluations of the radiative behavior of grey bodies. For example,
4188:"Ueber das Verhältniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für Wärme and Licht"
4353:
4062:
4037:
4021:
3996:
3954:
3929:
135:
Similarly, solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation. Advanced solar collectors incorporate
2849:
Narimanov, Evgenii E.; Smolyaninov, Igor I. (2012). "Beyond Stefan–Boltzmann Law: Thermal Hyper-Conductivity".
1393:
The term emissivity is generally used to describe a simple, homogeneous surface such as silver. Similar terms,
4192:
3815:
677:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\Omega }={\frac {L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega }}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega }^{\circ }}},}
69:
is used if one is concerned with particular wavelengths of thermal radiation.) The ratio varies from 0 to 1.
3458:
1844:
1334:
Most emissitivies in the chart above were recorded at room temperature, 300 K (27 °C; 80 °F).
4385:
4115:
4230:
4170:
3076:
1552:
in combination with water vapor pressures of 0.25-20 mbar then yield minimum values in the range of ε
1014:
near 10×10 metre. Visible light has a wavelength range of about 0.4–0.7×10 metre from violet to deep red.
159:
and protection of the underlying structure and is an alternative to ablative coatings, used in single-use
3624:"ASTM C835 - 06(2013)e1: Standard Test Method for Total Hemispherical Emittance of Surfaces up to 1400°C"
3077:"Improved oxidation resistance of high emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramic for reusable space systems"
2729:
1471:) have been inferred with satellite-based instruments by directly observing surface thermal emissions at
1440:
584:° is the spectral radiant exitance in wavelength of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
566:° is the spectral radiant exitance in frequency of a black body at the same temperature as that surface;
4367:
3342:
2744:
1614:
1443:
to space typically function as the primary cooling mechanism for these otherwise isolated bodies. The
1411:
1401:, are used to describe thermal radiation measurements on complex surfaces such as insulation products.
4081:
3225:
2996:
2794:
1626:
1578:
1444:
47:
2869:
2764:
2734:
1549:
179:
62:
3341:
For a truly black object, the spectrum of its thermal radiation peaks at the wavelength given by
2647:
2612:
2572:
2542:
2258:, divided by the spectral radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "
1848:
1261:
982:° is the spectral radiance in wavelength of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
130:
964:° is the spectral radiance in frequency of a black body at the same temperature as that surface;
4395:
3974:
3819:
3456:
The visible color of an anodized aluminum surface does not strongly affect its emissivity. See
2864:
1880:
232:
4130:
3648:
3042:
2798:
3402:
3371:
3251:
3011:
1892:
1832:
1279:
193:
3435:. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. 2009.
76:
Objects have emissivities less than 1.0, and emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates.
4321:
4242:
4201:
4049:
4008:
3941:
3894:
3854:
3724:
3531:
3485:
3408:
3148:
3137:"Global Radiative Sky Cooling Potential Adjusted for Population Density and Cooling Demand"
3098:
2933:
2911:
2709:
1884:
1606:
1422:
1556:=0.55-0.8 (with ε=0.35-0.75 for a simulated water-vapor-only atmosphere). Carbon dioxide (
8:
4390:
2993:
Windows and
Building Envelope Research and Development: Roadmap for Emerging Technologies
1860:
1504:
Water also dominates the planet's atmospheric emissivity and absorptivity in the form of
1286:
113:
4325:
4246:
4205:
4118:
of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press).
4053:
4012:
3945:
3898:
3858:
3535:
3489:
3152:
3102:
2937:
2208:, divided by the radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "
4312:
4105:(2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (eds.).
3627:
3555:
3314:"Thermal insulation — Heat transfer by radiation — Physical quantities and definitions"
3199:
3114:
3088:
2967:
2923:
2892:
2854:
1476:
3476:
Trogler, William C. (1995). "The
Environmental Chemistry of Trace Atmospheric Gases".
1903:, thus clarifying the emissivity and absorptivity concepts at individual wavelengths.
4078:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Single-Layer Atmosphere Model"
3910:
3751:
3706:
3658:
3580:
3559:
3547:
3436:
3412:
3381:
3286:
3261:
3203:
3178:"Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications"
3118:
3050:
3021:
2959:
2882:
2829:
2802:
2789:
The Nature of
Science: An A-Z Guide to the Laws and Principles Governing Our Universe
2787:
1359:
156:
136:
95:
43:
31:
3970:
2971:
2896:
4329:
4283:
4250:
4209:
4057:
4016:
3949:
3906:
3902:
3862:
3696:
3654:
3539:
3493:
3189:
3156:
3106:
2949:
2941:
2874:
1888:
1876:
1856:
1355:
1272:
1083:
1025:
999:
554:
336:
315:{\displaystyle \varepsilon ={\frac {M_{\mathrm {e} }}{M_{\mathrm {e} }^{\circ }}},}
4153:
3588:
Table of emissivities provided by a company; no source for these data is provided.
348:° is the radiant exitance of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
147:
For the protection of structures from high surface temperatures, such as reusable
4272:"On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground"
3110:
2823:
2719:
1900:
1852:
1452:
1376:
173:
160:
66:
3772:"ASTER global emissivity database: 100 times more detailed than its predecessor"
109:
2945:
1859:
published a mathematical description of their relationship under conditions of
1602:
1558:
1043:
102:
4288:
2173:, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "
2133:, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "
1701:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OLR} =\epsilon _{\mathrm {eff} }\,\sigma \,T_{se}^{4}}
1324:
These emissivities are the total hemispherical emissivities from the surfaces.
4379:
4334:
4307:
4255:
4214:
4187:
3914:
3710:
3602:
3551:
2878:
2499:
2468:
2432:
2406:
1328:
3601:. evitherm Society - Virtual Institute for Thermal Metrology. Archived from
1879:
from fundamental statistical principles. Emissivity, defined as a further
1609:
utilized by a particular model. For example, an effective global value of ε
2963:
1872:
1868:
1431:
214:
198:
80:
3313:
3161:
3136:
1605:
observations (from the ground or outer space) or defined according to the
710:° is the radiance of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
3623:
3543:
2739:
2724:
2360:
2329:
2293:
2267:
2217:
2182:
2142:
2112:
1505:
1495:
142:
3176:
Chen, Meijie; Pang, Dan; Chen, Xingyu; Yan, Hongjie; Yang, Yuan (2022).
2954:
42:
of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as
4303:
3884:
3867:
3842:
3701:
3684:
3194:
3177:
2259:
2209:
2174:
2134:
1896:
1594:
1386:
1275:
1011:
1003:
228:
227:
In its most general form, emissivity can be specified for a particular
152:
148:
58:
23:
19:
3497:
1867:). By 1884 the emissive power of a perfect blackbody was inferred by
1136:
3257:
3017:
2853:. OSA Technical Digest. Optical Society of America. pp. QM2E.1.
1380:
1168:
1053:
1007:
210:
4357:
4271:
3683:
Saad, Abdullah A.; Martinez, Carlos; Trice, Rodney W. (2023-02-13).
3650:
Green
Building: Principles and Practices in Residential Construction
3793:
3093:
1103:
1057:
952:
698:
121:
51:
2928:
2859:
83:, and other nanostructures may have an emissivity greater than 1.
1586:
1427:
1213:
4155:
An
Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat
3841:
Liu, Lei; Zhang, Ting; Wu, Yi; Niu, Zhencong; Wang, Qi (2018).
2780:
2704:
1590:
1224:
1178:
1125:
1114:
575:
is the spectral radiant exitance in wavelength of that surface;
50:
that most commonly includes both visible radiation (light) and
1749:
is the effective emissivity of Earth as viewed from space and
1539:
Upper and lower limits have been measured and calculated for ε
1020:
4038:"Simple approximation of infrared emissivity of water clouds"
1472:
1308:
1093:
4102:
4063:
10.1175/1520-0469(1982)039<0171:SAFIEO>2.0.CO;2
4022:
10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<0287:OOCIEE>2.0.CO;2
3955:
10.1175/1520-0450(1972)011<0349:EAEUCS>2.0.CO;2
1824:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {se} }\equiv \left^{1/4}\approx }
1632:
1327:
The values of the emissivities apply to materials that are
1251:
1157:
1002:
in conjunction with a thermal radiation detector such as a
27:
3816:"Remote Sensing: Absorption Bands and Atmospheric Windows"
3689:
International
Journal of Ceramic Engineering & Science
3135:
Aili, Ablimit; Yin, Xiaobo; Yang, Ronggui (October 2021).
2692:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
2642:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
2607:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
2567:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
1613:≈0.78 has been estimated from application of an idealized
238:
However, the most commonly used form of emissivity is the
189:
is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere.
4308:"Über das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspektrum"
3513:
1620:
1459:
within some simpler meteorlogic and climatologic models.
1147:
4356:. Southampton, PA: Temperatures.com, Inc. Archived from
1570:) and other greenhouse gases contribute about ε=0.2 to ε
79:
However, wavelength- and subwavelength-scale particles,
3750:(2 ed.). Madison, Wisc.: Sundog Publ. p. 68.
973:
is the spectral radiance in wavelength of that surface;
16:
Capacity of an object to radiate electromagnetic energy
245:
Some specific forms of emissivity are detailed below.
3997:"Observations of cloud infrared effective emissivity"
2825:
Absorption and scattering of light by small particles
2767:
is that the rate of emission of thermal radiation is
1755:
1742:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{\mathrm {eff} }\approx 0.6}
1714:
1642:
749:
612:
387:
269:
91:
Emissivities are important in a variety of contexts:
3930:"Effective atmospheric emissivity under clear skies"
2848:
352:
1597:are thereby simulated through both space and time.
4368:"Emissivity Coefficients of some common Materials"
2786:
1823:
1741:
1700:
989:
930:
714:
676:
532:
314:
3682:
2909:
1906:
1434:are also shown for a range of Earth temperatures.
186:
4377:
4269:
3373:The Earth's Atmosphere: Its Physics and Dynamics
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
4108:Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis
4035:
3433:2009 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals - IP Edition
3253:Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, Fourth Edition
3175:
1417:
362:spectral hemispherical emissivity in wavelength
4036:Chylek, Petr; Ramaswamy, V. (1 January 1982).
2912:"Heat radiation from long cylindrical objects"
2573:Spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient
358:Spectral hemispherical emissivity in frequency
30:when it is hot enough to emit plainly visible
4276:Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
3968:
3840:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3646:
3299:
2910:Golyk, V. A.; Krüger, M.; Kardar, M. (2012).
2822:Bohren, Craig F.; Huffman, Donald R. (1998).
2821:
1925:
1875:'s experimental measurements, and derived by
1338:
998:can be measured using simple devices such as
724:spectral directional emissivity in wavelength
4101:
3927:
3280:
2851:Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics 2012
2648:Spectral directional attenuation coefficient
2537:, divided by that received by that surface.
2494:, divided by that received by that surface.
2463:, divided by that received by that surface.
2427:, divided by that received by that surface.
2401:, divided by that received by that surface.
2355:, divided by that received by that surface.
2324:, divided by that received by that surface.
2288:, divided by that received by that surface.
1831:289 K (16 °C; 61 °F) is the
1627:Climate model § Zero-dimensional models
1615:single-layer-atmosphere energy-balance model
1479:spanning 8-13 μm. Values range about ε
720:Spectral directional emissivity in frequency
3928:Staley, D.O.; Jurica, G.M. (1 March 1972).
3134:
3040:
3009:
1404:
248:
222:
4095:
3774:. NASA Earth Observatory. 17 November 2014
3671:
3509:
3507:
2775:= 5.67×10 W/m·K, and the temperature
1932:
1918:
4333:
4287:
4254:
4228:
4213:
4185:
4114:. Contribution of Working Group I to the
4061:
4020:
3953:
3880:
3878:
3866:
3727:. NASA Earth Observatory. 14 January 2009
3700:
3404:Thermal Radiative Transfer and Properties
3245:
3243:
3241:
3193:
3160:
3092:
3041:Fricke, Jochen; Borst, Walter L. (2013).
3010:Fricke, Jochen; Borst, Walter L. (2013).
2953:
2927:
2868:
2858:
2107:at the same temperature as that surface.
2057:at the same temperature as that surface.
2022:at the same temperature as that surface.
1986:at the same temperature as that surface.
1679:
1675:
588:
86:
3469:
3400:
3281:Siegel, Robert; Howell, John R. (1992).
2986:"The Low-E Window R&D Success Story"
2903:
1494:
1421:
1019:
192:
108:
61:at the same temperature as given by the
18:
4168:
4128:
3748:A first course in atmospheric radiation
3504:
3475:
197:Due to differences in emissivity, this
4378:
4302:
4151:
3875:
3794:"Joint Emissivity Database Initiative"
3249:
3238:
3130:
3128:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3043:"9. Solar Space and Hot Water Heating"
3034:
2978:
2784:
1901:generalized law of blackbody radiation
1621:Effective emissivity due to atmosphere
3745:
3566:
3378:Springer Science & Business Media
3003:
2815:
2543:Hemispherical attenuation coefficient
1354:There is a fundamental relationship (
1037:
3369:
3285:(3 ed.). Taylor & Francis.
3274:
3074:
2433:Spectral hemispherical transmittance
1865:Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
1350:Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
4354:"Spectral emissivity and emittance"
3995:Cox, Stephen K. (1 February 1976).
3994:
3934:Applied Meteorology and Climatology
3725:"Climate and Earth's Energy Budget"
3647:Kruger, Abe; Seville, Carl (2012).
3461:. Electro Optical Industries, Inc.
3214:
3125:
3075:Shao, Gaofeng; et al. (2019).
3063:
2613:Directional attenuation coefficient
1189:Nitrogen or Oxygen gas layer, pure
13:
4346:
3169:
2500:Spectral directional transmittance
2294:Spectral hemispherical reflectance
2143:Spectral hemispherical absorptance
1787:
1784:
1781:
1765:
1762:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1650:
1647:
1644:
903:
896:
879:
872:
852:
816:
809:
792:
785:
765:
659:
652:
641:
634:
618:
504:
486:
435:
417:
296:
284:
14:
4407:
2715:Passive daytime radiative cooling
1992:Spectral hemispherical emissivity
1550:long-lived trace greenhouse gases
353:Spectral hemispherical emissivity
167:Passive daytime radiative cooling
4131:"Mémoire sur l'équilibre du feu"
3796:. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
3465:from the original on 2012-09-19.
2525:
2482:
2451:
2415:
2389:
2361:Spectral directional reflectance
2343:
2312:
2276:
2246:
2218:Spectral directional absorptance
2196:
2161:
2121:
2091:
2041:
2010:
1974:
4296:
4263:
4222:
4179:
4162:
4145:
4122:
4070:
4029:
3988:
3962:
3921:
3834:
3808:
3786:
3764:
3739:
3717:
3640:
3616:
3591:
3450:
3425:
3394:
3364:is in kelvins and the constant
3335:
3283:Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer
3047:Essentials of Energy Technology
3013:Essentials of Energy Technology
2063:Spectral directional emissivity
2053:, divided by that emitted by a
1467:Earth's surface emissivities (ε
990:Emissivities of common surfaces
740:, respectively, are defined as
715:Spectral directional emissivity
378:, respectively, are defined as
118:evacuated glass tube collectors
4172:An Elementary Treatise on Heat
4129:Prévost, Pierre (April 1791).
3969:Graham, Steve (1 March 1999).
3907:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.01.048
2842:
2757:
1958:
1907:Other radiometric coefficients
1343:
240:hemispherical total emissivity
1:
4235:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
4193:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
3478:Journal of Chemical Education
2750:
1490:
955:in frequency of that surface;
557:in frequency of that surface;
4135:Observations Sur la Physique
3524:Geophysical Research Letters
3111:10.1016/j.corsci.2018.11.006
1895:with all of space. By 1900
1593:. Emission, absorption, and
1418:Emissivities of planet Earth
1369:
1067:Aluminium, smooth, polished
1024:Photographs of an aluminium
7:
3574:"Table of Total Emissivity"
3401:Brewster, M. Quinn (1992).
2999:. February 2014. p. 5.
2828:. Wiley. pp. 123–126.
2698:
2407:Hemispherical transmittance
1075:Aluminium, rough, oxidized
10:
4412:
4229:Boltzmann, Ludwig (1884).
4186:Kirchhoff, Gustav (1860).
4175:. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
3049:. Wiley-VCH. p. 249.
2946:10.1103/PhysRevE.85.046603
1838:
1624:
1579:general circulation models
1475:through a less obstructed
1462:
1347:
1339:Closely related properties
4370:. engineeringtoolbox.com.
4289:10.1080/14786449608620846
4270:Svante Arrhenius (1896).
4169:Stewart, Balfour (1866).
4082:American Chemical Society
3459:"Emissivity of Materials"
3226:American Chemical Society
2997:U.S. Department of Energy
2795:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
2785:Trefil, James S. (2003).
2469:Directional transmittance
2268:Hemispherical reflectance
2113:Hemispherical absorptance
1949:
1946:
1943:
1583:radiation transport codes
48:electromagnetic radiation
4335:10.1002/andp.19013090310
4256:10.1002/andp.18842580616
4215:10.1002/andp.18601850205
3746:Petty, Grant W. (2006).
3370:Saha, Kshudiram (2008).
3360:, where the temperature
2879:10.1364/QELS.2012.QM2E.1
1966:Hemispherical emissivity
1405:Measurement of Emittance
1205:Paper, roofing or white
254:Hemispherical emissivity
249:Hemispherical emissivity
223:Mathematical definitions
207:Temperature measurements
4158:. Edinburgh: J. Mawman.
4116:Sixth Assessment Report
3887:Atmospheric Environment
3250:Siegel, Robert (2001).
2745:Wien's displacement law
2730:Sakuma–Hattori equation
2330:Directional reflectance
2183:Directional absorptance
2103:, divided by that of a
2018:, divided by that of a
2014:Spectral exitance of a
1982:, divided by that of a
1913:Radiometry coefficients
1375:temperature. Following
1262:Polytetrafluoroethylene
1197:Paint, including white
46:. Thermal radiation is
3975:NASA Earth Observatory
3971:"Clouds and Radiation"
3820:NASA Earth Observatory
2595:Spectral radiant flux
2028:Directional emissivity
1978:Radiant exitance of a
1899:empirically derived a
1881:proportionality factor
1825:
1743:
1702:
1585:and databases such as
1501:
1435:
1029:
932:
726:of a surface, denoted
678:
596:of a surface, denoted
594:Directional emissivity
589:Directional emissivity
534:
364:of a surface, denoted
316:
256:of a surface, denoted
203:
187:Emissivity of a planet
180:Planetary temperatures
126:
87:Practical applications
35:
4152:Leslie, John (1804).
3599:"Influencing factors"
3409:John Wiley & Sons
3222:"Climate Sensitivity"
3162:10.3390/atmos12111379
1893:radiative equilibrium
1855:and others. In 1860,
1833:effective temperature
1826:
1744:
1703:
1498:
1425:
1023:
933:
679:
535:
317:
196:
131:Solar heat collectors
112:
65:. (A comparison with
22:
4042:Atmospheric Sciences
4001:Atmospheric Sciences
3544:10.1029/2012GL051409
2765:Stefan–Boltzmann law
2735:Stefan–Boltzmann law
2710:Black-body radiation
1885:Stefan-Boltzmann law
1753:
1712:
1640:
747:
610:
385:
267:
63:Stefan–Boltzmann law
4386:Physical quantities
4326:1901AnP...309..553P
4247:1884AnP...258..291B
4206:1860AnP...185..275K
4054:1982JAtS...39..171C
4013:1976JAtS...33..287C
3946:1972JApMe..11..349S
3899:2017AtmEn.155..174M
3859:2018RemS...10.2033L
3822:. 17 September 1999
3536:2012GeoRL..3910706H
3490:1995JChEd..72..973T
3153:2021Atmos..12.1379A
3103:2019Corro.146..233S
2938:2012PhRvE..85d6603G
2260:spectral absorbance
2175:spectral absorbance
1940:
1861:thermal equilibrium
1697:
1441:radiative emissions
1412:two-color pyrometry
918:
831:
668:
520:
451:
306:
114:Solar water heating
59:ideal black surface
4363:(thermal imaging).
4313:Annalen der Physik
3868:10.3390/rs10122033
3702:10.1002/ces2.10171
3628:ASTM International
3195:10.1002/eom2.12153
2680:Spectral radiance
2529:Spectral radiance
2393:Spectral radiance
2250:Spectral radiance
2095:Spectral radiance
1911:
1821:
1739:
1698:
1680:
1502:
1477:atmospheric window
1436:
1139:, smooth uncoated
1030:
928:
926:
890:
803:
674:
646:
530:
528:
498:
429:
312:
290:
204:
137:selective surfaces
127:
36:
4360:on 24 April 2017.
3518:) and nitrogen (N
3498:10.1021/ed072p973
3442:978-1-933742-56-4
3081:Corrosion Science
2888:978-1-55752-943-5
2835:978-0-471-29340-8
2696:
2695:
1399:thermal emittance
1318:
1317:
1235:Silver, oxidized
919:
832:
669:
521:
452:
307:
231:, direction, and
157:radiative cooling
143:Thermal shielding
96:Insulated windows
44:thermal radiation
32:thermal radiation
4403:
4371:
4361:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4282:(251): 237–276.
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4226:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4166:
4160:
4159:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4113:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4033:
4027:
4026:
4024:
3992:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3981:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3882:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3838:
3832:
3831:
3829:
3827:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3704:
3680:
3669:
3668:
3655:Cengage Learning
3644:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3611:
3610:
3595:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3579:. Archived from
3578:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3511:
3502:
3501:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3454:
3448:
3446:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3339:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3310:
3297:
3296:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3247:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3197:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3132:
3123:
3122:
3096:
3072:
3061:
3060:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2957:
2931:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2872:
2862:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2792:
2761:
2674:
2662:
2624:
2589:
2582:
2549:
2523:
2511:
2480:
2449:
2442:
2413:
2387:
2375:
2341:
2310:
2303:
2274:
2244:
2232:
2194:
2159:
2152:
2119:
2089:
2077:
2039:
2008:
2001:
1972:
1960:
1941:
1934:
1927:
1920:
1910:
1889:Svante Arrhenius
1877:Ludwig Boltzmann
1857:Gustav Kirchhoff
1835:of the surface.
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1790:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1696:
1691:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1653:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1389:
1356:Gustav Kirchhoff
1273:Transition metal
1032:
1031:
951:is the spectral
937:
935:
934:
929:
927:
920:
917:
912:
899:
889:
888:
875:
865:
856:
855:
833:
830:
825:
812:
802:
801:
788:
778:
769:
768:
701:of that surface;
683:
681:
680:
675:
670:
667:
662:
655:
645:
644:
637:
627:
622:
621:
603:, is defined as
555:radiant exitance
553:is the spectral
539:
537:
536:
531:
529:
522:
519:
514:
507:
497:
496:
489:
479:
470:
469:
453:
450:
445:
438:
428:
427:
420:
410:
401:
400:
339:of that surface;
337:radiant exitance
321:
319:
318:
313:
308:
305:
300:
299:
289:
288:
287:
277:
260:, is defined as
215:infrared cameras
161:reentry capsules
116:system based on
4411:
4410:
4406:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4401:
4400:
4376:
4375:
4366:
4352:
4349:
4347:Further reading
4344:
4343:
4301:
4297:
4268:
4264:
4227:
4223:
4184:
4180:
4167:
4163:
4150:
4146:
4127:
4123:
4111:
4100:
4096:
4086:
4084:
4076:
4075:
4071:
4034:
4030:
3993:
3989:
3979:
3977:
3967:
3963:
3926:
3922:
3883:
3876:
3839:
3835:
3825:
3823:
3814:
3813:
3809:
3799:
3797:
3792:
3791:
3787:
3777:
3775:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3744:
3740:
3730:
3728:
3723:
3722:
3718:
3681:
3672:
3665:
3657:. p. 198.
3645:
3641:
3632:
3630:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3608:
3606:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3583:
3576:
3572:
3571:
3567:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3505:
3474:
3470:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3443:
3431:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3399:
3395:
3388:
3351:
3340:
3336:
3327:
3325:
3324:catalogue. 1989
3312:
3311:
3300:
3293:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3248:
3239:
3230:
3228:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3174:
3170:
3133:
3126:
3073:
3064:
3057:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3008:
3004:
2988:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2908:
2904:
2889:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2720:Radiant barrier
2701:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2652:
2623:
2617:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2547:
2522:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2504:
2479:
2473:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2411:
2386:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2365:
2340:
2334:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2272:
2243:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2222:
2193:
2187:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2117:
2088:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2067:
2038:
2032:
2007:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1970:
1939:
1938:
1909:
1853:Balfour Stewart
1841:
1808:
1804:
1791:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1774:
1761:
1760:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1692:
1684:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1623:
1612:
1607:simplifications
1573:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1547:
1542:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1493:
1486:
1482:
1470:
1465:
1420:
1407:
1384:
1372:
1352:
1346:
1341:
1329:optically thick
1290:
1283:
992:
981:
972:
963:
950:
925:
924:
913:
895:
894:
871:
870:
866:
864:
857:
845:
841:
838:
837:
826:
808:
807:
784:
783:
779:
777:
770:
758:
754:
750:
748:
745:
744:
739:
732:
717:
709:
696:
663:
651:
650:
633:
632:
628:
626:
617:
613:
611:
608:
607:
602:
591:
583:
574:
565:
552:
527:
526:
515:
503:
502:
485:
484:
480:
478:
471:
465:
461:
458:
457:
446:
434:
433:
416:
415:
411:
409:
402:
396:
392:
388:
386:
383:
382:
377:
370:
355:
347:
334:
301:
295:
294:
283:
282:
278:
276:
268:
265:
264:
251:
225:
174:solar radiation
89:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4409:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4374:
4373:
4364:
4348:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4320:(3): 553–563.
4295:
4262:
4241:(6): 291–294.
4221:
4200:(2): 275–301.
4178:
4161:
4144:
4121:
4094:
4069:
4048:(1): 171–177.
4028:
4007:(2): 287–289.
3987:
3961:
3940:(2): 349–356.
3920:
3874:
3853:(2033): 2033.
3847:Remote Sensing
3833:
3807:
3785:
3763:
3757:978-0972903318
3756:
3738:
3716:
3670:
3663:
3639:
3615:
3590:
3586:on 2009-07-11.
3565:
3519:
3515:
3503:
3468:
3449:
3441:
3424:
3417:
3411:. p. 56.
3393:
3386:
3380:. p. 84.
3349:
3334:
3298:
3291:
3273:
3266:
3260:. p. 41.
3237:
3213:
3168:
3124:
3062:
3056:978-3527334162
3055:
3033:
3027:978-3527334162
3026:
3020:. p. 37.
3002:
2977:
2902:
2887:
2870:10.1.1.764.846
2841:
2834:
2814:
2807:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2700:
2697:
2694:
2693:
2678:
2675:
2668:
2656:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2628:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2527:
2524:
2517:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2484:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2455:Spectral flux
2453:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2417:
2414:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2391:
2388:
2381:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2316:Spectral flux
2314:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2248:
2245:
2238:
2226:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2198:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2165:Spectral flux
2163:
2160:
2156:
2149:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2123:
2120:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2093:
2090:
2083:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2012:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1937:
1936:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1845:Pierre Prévost
1840:
1837:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1695:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1622:
1619:
1610:
1571:
1563:
1553:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1526:
1520:) and oxygen (
1514:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1419:
1416:
1406:
1403:
1371:
1368:
1348:Main article:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1325:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1288:
1281:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1182:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1122:
1121:
1118:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1100:
1099:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1044:Aluminium foil
1040:
1039:
1036:
991:
988:
984:
983:
979:
974:
970:
965:
961:
956:
948:
939:
938:
923:
916:
911:
908:
905:
902:
898:
893:
887:
884:
881:
878:
874:
869:
863:
860:
858:
854:
851:
848:
844:
840:
839:
836:
829:
824:
821:
818:
815:
811:
806:
800:
797:
794:
791:
787:
782:
776:
773:
771:
767:
764:
761:
757:
753:
752:
737:
730:
716:
713:
712:
711:
707:
702:
694:
685:
684:
673:
666:
661:
658:
654:
649:
643:
640:
636:
631:
625:
620:
616:
600:
590:
587:
586:
585:
581:
576:
572:
567:
563:
558:
550:
541:
540:
525:
518:
513:
510:
506:
501:
495:
492:
488:
483:
477:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
459:
456:
449:
444:
441:
437:
432:
426:
423:
419:
414:
408:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
390:
375:
368:
354:
351:
350:
349:
345:
340:
332:
323:
322:
311:
304:
298:
293:
286:
281:
275:
272:
250:
247:
224:
221:
220:
219:
208:
191:
190:
182:
177:
169:
164:
145:
140:
133:
107:
106:
103:low-emissivity
98:
88:
85:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4408:
4397:
4396:Heat transfer
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4369:
4365:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4350:
4336:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4290:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4257:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4237:(in German).
4236:
4232:
4225:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4194:
4189:
4182:
4174:
4173:
4165:
4157:
4156:
4148:
4141:(1): 314–323.
4140:
4137:(in French).
4136:
4132:
4125:
4117:
4110:
4109:
4104:
4098:
4083:
4079:
4073:
4064:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4032:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3991:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3879:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3837:
3821:
3817:
3811:
3795:
3789:
3773:
3767:
3759:
3753:
3749:
3742:
3726:
3720:
3712:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3666:
3664:9781111135959
3660:
3656:
3652:
3651:
3643:
3629:
3625:
3619:
3605:on 2014-01-12
3604:
3600:
3594:
3582:
3575:
3569:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3510:
3508:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3444:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3420:
3418:9780471539827
3414:
3410:
3406:
3405:
3397:
3389:
3387:9783540784272
3383:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3344:
3338:
3323:
3319:
3318:ISO 9288:2022
3315:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3294:
3292:0-89116-271-2
3288:
3284:
3277:
3269:
3267:9781560328391
3263:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3172:
3163:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3131:
3129:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3058:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3037:
3029:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2922:(4): 046603.
2921:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2818:
2810:
2808:9780618319381
2804:
2800:
2796:
2791:
2790:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2626:
2620:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2555:Radiant flux
2554:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2516:
2507:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2476:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2419:Radiant flux
2418:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2337:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2280:Radiant flux
2279:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2242:
2237:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2190:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2125:Radiant flux
2124:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2082:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2035:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1942:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1834:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1776:
1771:
1757:
1736:
1733:
1716:
1693:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1658:
1654:
1634:
1628:
1618:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1568:
1551:
1537:
1507:
1497:
1488:
1478:
1474:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1433:
1432:Planck curves
1429:
1424:
1415:
1413:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1367:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1284:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1034:
1033:
1027:
1026:Leslie's cube
1022:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:Leslie's cube
997:
994:Emissivities
987:
978:
975:
969:
966:
960:
957:
954:
947:
944:
943:
942:
921:
914:
909:
906:
900:
891:
885:
882:
876:
867:
861:
859:
849:
846:
842:
834:
827:
822:
819:
813:
804:
798:
795:
789:
780:
774:
772:
762:
759:
755:
743:
742:
741:
736:
729:
725:
721:
706:
703:
700:
693:
690:
689:
688:
671:
664:
656:
647:
638:
629:
623:
614:
606:
605:
604:
599:
595:
580:
577:
571:
568:
562:
559:
556:
549:
546:
545:
544:
523:
516:
511:
508:
499:
493:
490:
481:
475:
473:
466:
462:
454:
447:
442:
439:
430:
424:
421:
412:
406:
404:
397:
393:
381:
380:
379:
374:
367:
363:
359:
344:
341:
338:
331:
328:
327:
326:
309:
302:
291:
279:
273:
270:
263:
262:
261:
259:
255:
246:
243:
241:
236:
234:
230:
216:
212:
209:
206:
205:
200:
195:
188:
183:
181:
178:
175:
170:
168:
165:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
144:
141:
138:
134:
132:
129:
128:
123:
119:
115:
111:
104:
99:
97:
94:
93:
92:
84:
82:
81:metamaterials
77:
74:
70:
68:
64:
60:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
33:
29:
25:
21:
4358:the original
4317:
4311:
4298:
4279:
4275:
4265:
4238:
4234:
4224:
4197:
4191:
4181:
4171:
4164:
4154:
4147:
4138:
4134:
4124:
4107:
4097:
4085:. Retrieved
4072:
4045:
4041:
4031:
4004:
4000:
3990:
3978:. Retrieved
3964:
3937:
3933:
3923:
3890:
3886:
3850:
3846:
3836:
3824:. Retrieved
3810:
3798:. Retrieved
3788:
3776:. Retrieved
3766:
3747:
3741:
3729:. Retrieved
3719:
3692:
3688:
3649:
3642:
3631:. Retrieved
3618:
3607:. Retrieved
3603:the original
3593:
3581:the original
3568:
3527:
3523:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3452:
3432:
3427:
3403:
3396:
3372:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3337:
3326:. Retrieved
3317:
3282:
3276:
3252:
3229:. Retrieved
3216:
3207:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3147:(11): 1379.
3144:
3140:
3084:
3080:
3046:
3036:
3012:
3005:
2992:
2980:
2955:1721.1/71630
2919:
2916:Phys. Rev. E
2915:
2905:
2850:
2844:
2824:
2817:
2788:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2759:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2670:
2665:
2658:
2653:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2618:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2534:
2530:
2519:
2514:
2505:
2491:
2487:
2474:
2460:
2456:
2424:
2420:
2398:
2394:
2383:
2378:
2371:
2366:
2352:
2348:
2335:
2321:
2317:
2285:
2281:
2255:
2251:
2240:
2235:
2228:
2223:
2205:
2201:
2188:
2170:
2166:
2130:
2126:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2033:
2027:
2019:
2015:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1965:
1873:John Tyndall
1869:Josef Stefan
1842:
1630:
1599:
1576:
1538:
1503:
1466:
1453:Planck's law
1449:
1437:
1408:
1398:
1394:
1392:
1377:Planck's law
1373:
1364:
1360:absorptivity
1353:
1319:
1243:Skin, human
1016:
995:
993:
985:
976:
967:
958:
945:
940:
734:
727:
723:
719:
718:
704:
691:
686:
597:
593:
592:
578:
569:
560:
547:
542:
372:
365:
361:
357:
356:
342:
329:
324:
257:
253:
252:
244:
239:
237:
233:polarization
226:
90:
78:
75:
71:
67:Planck's law
56:
39:
37:
4304:Planck, Max
3893:: 174–188.
3484:(11): 973.
3087:: 233–246.
2740:View factor
2725:Reflectance
2531:transmitted
2488:transmitted
2457:transmitted
2421:transmitted
1849:John Leslie
1506:water vapor
1344:Absorptance
1300:Vegetation
1276:disilicides
1246:0.97–0.999
1227:, polished
1181:, polished
1160:, polished
1128:, oxidized
1117:, polished
1038:Emissivity
1012:wavelengths
202:impossible.
24:Blacksmiths
4391:Radiometry
4380:Categories
4087:1 December
3980:28 October
3826:28 October
3800:10 October
3778:10 October
3731:10 October
3633:2014-08-09
3609:2014-07-19
3530:(L10706).
3343:Wien's Law
3328:2015-03-15
3231:2014-07-21
3141:Atmosphere
3094:1902.03943
2797:. p.
2751:References
2210:absorbance
2135:absorbance
2105:black body
2055:black body
2020:black body
1984:black body
1897:Max Planck
1625:See also:
1617:to Earth.
1595:scattering
1491:Atmosphere
1457:parameters
1303:0.92-0.96
1295:0.86–0.93
1208:0.88–0.86
1184:0.89–0.92
1152:0.97-0.99
1004:thermopile
229:wavelength
211:Pyrometers
153:hypersonic
149:spacecraft
125:copiously.
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3915:1352-2310
3711:2578-3270
3560:128823108
3552:1944-8007
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3119:118927116
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799:ν
793:Ω
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3463:Archived
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2964:22680594
2897:36550833
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2632:absorbed
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2557:absorbed
2252:absorbed
2202:absorbed
2167:absorbed
2127:absorbed
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4202:Bibcode
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4050:Bibcode
4009:Bibcode
3942:Bibcode
3895:Bibcode
3855:Bibcode
3532:Bibcode
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1587:MODTRAN
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1463:Surface
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1428:MODTRAN
1320:Notes:
1311:, pure
1214:Plaster
1084:Asphalt
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335:is the
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2779:is in
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2690:volume
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2605:volume
2565:volume
1950:Notes
1871:using
1863:(i.e.
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1278:(e.g.
1225:Silver
1179:Marble
1126:Copper
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941:where
687:where
543:where
325:where
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3115:S2CID
3089:arXiv
2989:(PDF)
2968:S2CID
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1137:Glass
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1109:0.91
1098:0.90
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