504:. Hydrocarbon generation in the Angola Basin is still an ongoing process that began in the late Cretaceous after the deposition of the thick salt beds. The salt is an important feature in preserving hydrocarbons as it seals in the reservoir and prevents it from escaping into the open water. Successful hydrocarbon collection within the Angola margin is associated with pockmarks within the topography that are formed as gas or subsurface water travels upwards through the water column. In December 2000 a research expedition collected gas hydrate specimens from one of the world's largest pockmarks located in the Congo-Angola Basin. The depression was 800 meters in diameter and located 3160 meters below sea level and developed as a result of several smaller pockmarks collapsing into each other. The majority of the hydrocarbons found were gas hydrates composed of 100%
492:
these structures are named the
Flamingo, Ametista, and Benguela Platforms which comprises the Atlantic hinge zone. These are areas where the signature salt layer is very thin or absent from the stratigraphic record. The basin's topographic features are mainly affected by salt tectonics, since the salt in most areas was originally over one kilometer thick. There are two main types of salt structures found in the inner Kwanza Basin: narrow salt walls which developed from salt-cored folds, and broad salt walls that formed likely due to major uplift in the area. Many of the salt features dissolved over time which led to the development of sedimentary troughs in the Cenozoic, although fewer troughs did develop as a result of extension.
55:
138:
471:
249:
62:
479:
Cretaceous and contains some of the Aptain salt layer. This fan is one of the largest marine fans in the world as it covers 300,000 square kilometers leading from the mouth of the river into the
Atlantic Ocean. Since the fan is mainly composed of turbidite deposits composed for large amounts of sandstone and fine grained muds, it is likely an area that is currently generating
207:, clines, turtle features, and salt walls that show several deformation phases as the salt squeezes upwards when it is deposited upon. Many of the salt forms are associated with early Cretaceous folding and uplift as well as lateral shortening. One of the signature features in the Angola Basin are deep
261:
The formation of the Angola Basin can be divided into three phases of rifting which took place from approximately 145-113 million years ago from the
Jurassic to the Cretaceous. Initial rifting is defined by widespread crustal thinning, normal faulting, and the subsidence of grabens that formed in the
491:
The Kwanza Basin lies in the lower region of the Angola Basin and can be divided into the inner and outer Kwanza Basins, with the inner basin lying closer to the continent of Africa and the outer basin surrounding the inner basin. Basement structures separate the inner and outer areas of the basin;
424:
where the river enters the ocean, and this fan is still one of the basin's most predominant features. The
Oligocene is also characterized by an erosional event that lasted 10-20 million years that is thought to be controlled by upheavals or depressions of crust over a broad area that are caused by
285:
rock. There are two main theories for the environment which called for salt deposition. The first is that the environment was a shallow marine area which after anomalous subsidence events causes rapid salt accumulation. The second hypothesis claims that salt filled a topographic depression much
273:
deposited upon the preexisting bedrock. The large amounts of salt in most of the basin make it difficult to determine structures and sedimentary deposits beneath it since seismic does not penetrate through it. Though the salt layer creates some ambiguity most agree that the bedrock is composed of
478:
The Lower Congo Basin lies in the northern region of the Angola Basin and is largely identified by a sedimentary fan that is fueled by the Congo River and is part of the Ogooue Delta. While the fan is dated to the
Oligocene, initial sediment deposition which the fan developed on began in the
1342:
Charlou, J.L.; Donval, J.P.; Fouquet, Y.; Ondreas, H.; Knoery, J.; Cochonat, P.; Levache, D.; Poirier, Y.; Jean-Baptiste, P.; Fourre, E.; Chazallon, B. (May 2004). "Physical and chemical characterization of gas hydrates and associated methane plumes in the Congo-Angola Basin".
448:
dissolve, is at a minimum depth of 5400 m, over 1000 meters more than the average depth. This is due to the Walvis Ridge preventing cold
Antarctic bottom waters from circulating the basin allowing for the sedimentation of carbonate materials, including microorganisms such as
185:
deposition, so spreading rates should increase during times of high sediment deposition and decrease or halt when there is little to no sediment deposition. As a result, any accommodation space created as the margin continues to spread should be filled with sediments.
235:. It is considered one of the most extreme forms of extension, and it highly influenced by gravity spreading and increased sediment loading, major factors which act upon the Angola Basin. In the basin this tectonic mechanism is attributed to three periods of high
262:
upper crust. This was followed by a second rifting phase which was dominated by lithospheric thinning. The final phase of rifting led to the breakup of the lithosphere, initiated seafloor spreading that still acts today, and resulted in the development of
120:
basins. It is often separated into two units: the Lower Congo Basin, which lies in the northern region and the Kwanza Basin which is in the southern part of the Angola margin. The Angola Basin is famous for its "Aptian Salt Basins," a thick layer of
239:
that occurred at approximately 96, 28, and 10 million years ago, and the most recent high strain activity is still ongoing. These high strain rates lasted anywhere from 15 to 36 million years while rafting itself lasted from 7-10 million years.
161:, however the order of events in this area are difficult to distinguish in such a clear-cut manner. This is due to the fact that areas of the basin are superimposed upon one another, which some interpret to show pulses of deformation and
325:
continents, the Angola Basin opened up further, allowing for better ocean circulation which balanced out the extreme hypersaline conditions to allow for life to develop in the area. Towards the end of the
Cretaceous the
198:
is thought to be extension governed by gravity. As gravity spreading acts upon the salt layers it causes upslope extension and downslope contraction, which also explains many of the folds and features of the basin.
1013:
von
Nicolai, C.; Scheck-Wenderoth, M.; Warsitzka, M.; Schodt, N.; Andersen, J. (September 2013). "The deep structure of the South Atlantic Kwanza Basin - Insights from 3D structural and gravimetric modelling".
457:. The Angola Basin is currently well circulated by warm and cold surface currents and undercurrents and is mostly influenced by the Benguela Current, the Equatorial Countercurrents, and the Angola Current.
194:
The evaporite layer present within the basin is responsible for many topographic features that developed since its deposition as salt movement deforms the surrounding bedrock. The driving force behind
177:
spreading where energy is released when the center of gravity lowers as crustal material thins. This spreading mechanism requires at least some deformation as opposed to the breakup of rigid blocks.
290:. Despite which theory may be correct, it is generally agreed that the basin must have been very restricted from the ocean which allowed the evaporite deposits to be nearly three kilometers thick.
833:
Oluboyo, A.P.; Gawthorpe, R.L.; Bakke, K.; Hadler-Jacobsen, F. (August 2014). "Salt tectonic controls on deep-water turbidite systems: Miocene, southwestern Lower Congo Basin, offshore Angola".
1054:
Crosby, A.G.; White, N.J.; Edwards, G.R.H.; Thompson, M.; Corfield, R.; Mackay, L. (February 2011). "Evolution of deep-water rifted margins: Testing depth dependent extensional models".
1220:
Schneider, R.R.; Muller, P.J.; Ruhland, G. (April 1995). "Late
Quaternary surface circulation in the East Equatorial South-Atlantic - Evidence from alkenone sea-surface temperatures".
1106:"Evidence of a large upper-Cretaceous depocentre across the Continent-Ocean boundary of the Congo-Angola Basin. Implications for palaeo-drainage and potential ultra-deep source rocks"
603:
Peron-Pinvidic, Gwenn; Manatschal, Gianreto; Osmundsen, Per Terje (May 2013). "Structural comparison of archetypal
Atlantic rifted margins: A review of observations and concepts".
305:
making it inhospitable for normal marine life, although there may have been a small but stable amount of input of terrestrial fresh water. The source of this freshwater as well as
758:
Valle, Paul J.; Gjelberg, John G.; Helland-Hansen, William (September 2001). "Tectonostratigraphic development in the eastern Lower Congo Basin, offshore Angola, West Africa".
1395:
559:
Beglinger, Suzanne; Doust, Harry; Cloetingh, Sierd (February 2012). "Relating petroleum system and play development to basin evolution: West African South Atlantic basins".
1571:
924:
Hudec, H.R.; Jackson, M.P.A (October 2002). "Structural segmentation, inversion, and salt tectonics on a passive margin: Evolution of the Inner Kwanza Basin, Angola".
252:
Overview of the rifting in the Cretaceous, approximately 120 million years ago, and placement of salt deposits and the Walvis Ridge adapted from Naafs and Pancost 2014
1295:"The long-term evolution of the Congo deep-sea fan: A basin-wide view of the interaction between a giant submarine fan and a mature passive margin (ZaiAngo project)"
1860:
483:
and probably has been for the past 30 million years. This feature is highly dominated by gravity flows where sediment and fluid flow down slope due to gravity.
1850:
1536:
1820:
1546:
1712:
474:
Cross section of the Angola Basin submarine fan from the southwest oceanwards end to the northeart onshore end adapted from Jiang, Wang, and Zheng 2014
100:
that began spreading in the south and then continued upwards throughout the basin. This basin formed during the initial breakup of the supercontinent
1566:
1388:
1151:
Sval'nov, V.N.; Dmitrenko, O.B.; Kazarina, G.Kh.; Berezhnaya, E.D. (July 2014). "Sedimentation in the Angola and Cape basins during the Quaternary".
440:
trail that extends several hundred kilometers off the coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean, in addition to the Congo River. During this time the
1692:
1835:
1775:
802:"The engines of gravity-driven movement on passive margins: Quantifying the relative contribution of spreading vs. gravity sliding mechanisms"
1800:
1790:
1717:
1381:
647:
Naafs, B.D.A.; Pancost, R.D. (November 2014). "Environmental conditions in the South Atlantic (Angola Basin) during the Early Cretaceous".
113:
297:
layer approximately 112 million years ago. The carbonate formation occurred due to large-scale anoxic events which created organic-rich
1258:
Jiang, Zhenglong; Wang, Rong; Zheng, Wenbo (July 2014). "Genetic stratigraphy of a part of the Miocene Congo Fan, West Africa".
2113:
1727:
75:
21:
54:
1948:
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Post-rift deformation is predominantly caused by raft tectonics, a term that is associated with salt detachment when
314:
945:
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that developed as salt dissolved, creating space for sediment fill. The troughs range from the beginning of the
2128:
959:
Duval, Bernard; Cramez, Carlos; Jackson, M.P.A. (August 1992). "Raft Tectonics in the Kwanza Basin, Angola".
2123:
561:
441:
1195:"Walvis Ridge MV1203 Expedition: Understanding 130 Million Years of Hotspot Volcanism in the SE Atlantic"
2118:
1541:
1918:
1293:
Anka, Zahie; Seranne, Michel; Lopez, Michel; Scheck-Wenderoth, Magdalena; Savoye, Bruna (May 2009).
981:
524:
1105:
236:
1938:
1908:
1639:
976:
868:
Brun, Jean-Pierre; Fort, Xavier (April 2004). "Compressional salt tectonics (Angolan margin)".
158:
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are widely separated so that the footwall and hanging wall are not in contact, creating large
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1933:
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154:
16:
Basin located in the West African South Atlantic Margin which extends from Cameroon to Angola
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1604:
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1352:
1309:
1267:
1229:
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1120:
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1023:
968:
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693:"Superposed deformation straddling the continental-oceanic transition in deep-water Angola"
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612:
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1331:
125:
that has influenced topography of the basin since its deposition and acts as an important
8:
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2028:
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The basin houses economically important hydrocarbon reservoirs that serve as a source of
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203:
profiles taken from offshore Angola show many different salt structures such as
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2023:
1998:
1978:
1880:
1855:
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1624:
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1589:
195:
109:
97:
1172:
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2018:
1973:
1913:
1870:
1865:
1657:
1503:
1431:
1419:
318:
263:
36:
23:
861:
1830:
1815:
1805:
1722:
1707:
1702:
1672:
1478:
1441:
1425:
480:
454:
450:
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306:
88:
is located along the West African South Atlantic Margin which extends from
1012:
1928:
1845:
1785:
1770:
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1662:
1075:
421:
331:
327:
302:
282:
279:
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1765:
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1241:
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728:
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417:
335:
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287:
1139:
1090:
832:
137:
1780:
686:
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678:
470:
416:
The Congo River created a much larger impact upon the basin in the
182:
89:
602:
505:
248:
216:
204:
174:
101:
1292:
675:
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1104:
Anka, Zahie; Seranne, Michel; di Primio, Rolando (March 2010).
322:
275:
232:
212:
93:
79:
Location of the Angola Basin off the southwest coast of Africa
298:
420:. The sedimentary fill from the Congo River created a large
1649:
1341:
946:
10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1222:ssiast>2.0.co;2
757:
270:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1045:
2003:
432:
to present day much of the sediment is influenced by the
317:. As the rift continued to spread apart Pangaea into the
1213:
952:
1403:
1253:
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1042:
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After the salt layer was deposited it was covered by a
1219:
826:
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1103:
589:
958:
642:
640:
638:
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634:
173:The Angola Basin is also highly characterized by
2105:
525:"Marine Regions Gazeteer: Angola Basin (Basin)"
338:which replaced most of the carbonate deposits.
1257:
631:
141:Gravity spreading mechanism based on Peel 2014
1389:
1286:
795:
793:
791:
789:
691:Cramez, C.; Jackson, M.P.A. (December 2000).
690:
517:
1187:
923:
646:
1396:
1382:
786:
554:
552:
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548:
546:
165:that occur at irregular times and places.
980:
817:
727:
112:and causing the formation of the Angola,
867:
469:
425:mantle convection and hotspot activity.
278:which are likely a result of rifting or
247:
136:
543:
2106:
926:Geological Society of America Bulletin
219:depending on the time of dissolution.
132:
1377:
1728:West and Central African Rift System
799:
465:
168:
61:
1404:Major African geological formations
243:
13:
531:. Marineregions.org. 23 April 2016
14:
2140:
1260:Journal of African Earth Sciences
334:sediments, characterized by many
301:. During this time the basin was
222:
189:
149:are described as having landward
1280:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.03.005
669:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2014.08.005
313:which is located in present-day
60:
53:
1153:Lithology and Mineral Resources
1133:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.08.015
800:Peel, Frank J. (October 2014).
625:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.02.002
583:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.08.008
495:
486:
340:
1:
1365:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2003.12.033
1201:. National Science Foundation
780:10.1016/s0264-8172(01)00036-8
720:10.1016/s0264-8172(00)00053-2
511:
330:began to fill the basin with
181:is also temporally linked to
2114:Sedimentary basins of Africa
1113:Marine and Petroleum Geology
991:10.1016/0264-8172(92)90050-o
961:Marine and Petroleum Geology
760:Marine and Petroleum Geology
700:Marine and Petroleum Geology
605:Marine and Petroleum Geology
562:Marine and Petroleum Geology
460:
442:carbonate compensation depth
96:. It is characterized as a
7:
1322:10.1016/j.tecto.2008.04.009
1036:10.1016/j.tecto.2013.06.016
890:10.1016/j.tecto.2003.11.014
819:10.1016/j.tecto.2014.06.023
411:
256:
10:
2145:
1542:Central African Shear Zone
428:From the beginning of the
342:Angola Basin Stratigraphy
2042:
1919:Central Pangean Mountains
1879:
1741:
1648:
1580:
1572:Western Meseta Shear Zone
1522:
1460:
1409:
1173:10.1134/s0024490214030067
390:
529:Marine Regions Gazeteer
1939:Eastern Rift mountains
1861:Tanzania Coastal Basin
1640:Terra Australis Orogen
475:
253:
142:
37:15.276528°S 3.345333°E
1954:Great Karas Mountains
1934:Eastern Arc Mountains
1474:Arabian-Nubian Shield
473:
453:and other calcareous
444:, the depth at which
251:
140:
2129:Oil fields of Africa
1851:Somali Coastal Basin
1562:Mwembeshi Shear Zone
1076:10.1029/2010tc002687
649:Organic Geochemistry
375:Siltstone/Sandstone
364:Siltstone/Sandstone
309:was likely from the
147:divergent boundaries
76:class=notpageimage|
42:-15.276528; 3.345333
2124:Geography of Africa
2029:Teffedest Mountains
1944:Ethiopian Highlands
1635:Pan-African orogens
1605:East African Orogen
1537:Broodkop Shear Zone
1509:West African Craton
1452:Victoria Microplate
1357:2004ChGeo.205..405C
1314:2009Tectp.470...42A
1272:2014JAfES..95..138J
1234:1995PalOc..10..197S
1165:2014LitMR..49..281S
1125:2010MarPG..27..601A
1068:2011Tecto..30.1004C
1028:2013Tectp.604..139V
973:1992MarPG...9..389D
938:2002GSAB..114.1222H
882:2004Tectp.382..129B
772:2001MarPG..18..909V
712:2000MarPG..17.1095C
661:2014OrGeo..76..184N
617:2013MarPG..43...21P
575:2012MarPG..30....1B
350:Time Interval (Ma)
343:
311:Kouilou-Niari River
269:After the rifting,
229:normal fault blocks
133:Tectonic mechanisms
127:petroleum reservoir
33: /
2093:List of inselbergs
2063:Jugurtha Tableland
2014:Sankwala Mountains
2009:Rwenzori Mountains
1826:Ouled Abdoun Basin
1821:Orange River Basin
1743:Sedimentary basins
1552:Foumban Shear Zone
1494:Saharan Metacraton
476:
341:
336:turbidite deposits
254:
215:to the end of the
143:
2119:Geology of Angola
2101:
2100:
2034:Tibesti Mountains
1994:Mitumba Mountains
1984:Mandara Mountains
1969:Imatong Mountains
1924:Chaillu Mountains
1904:Bambouk Mountains
1841:Rio del Rey Basin
1811:Niger Delta Basin
1796:Iullemmeden Basin
1688:Gulf of Suez Rift
1683:East African Rift
1668:Bahr el Arab rift
1615:Gondwanide Orogen
1547:Chuan Shear Zones
1242:10.1029/94pa03308
932:(10): 1222–1244.
847:10.1111/bre.12051
706:(10): 1095–1109.
466:Lower Congo Basin
409:
408:
179:Gravity spreading
169:Gravity spreading
104:during the early
2136:
1989:Marrah Mountains
1964:Hoggar Mountains
1959:Guinea Highlands
1949:Great Escarpment
1713:Sangha Aulacogen
1630:Mauritanide Belt
1557:Kandi Fault Zone
1532:Aswa Dislocation
1447:Seychelles Plate
1437:Madagascar Plate
1398:
1391:
1384:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1368:
1351:(3–4): 405–425.
1345:Chemical Geology
1339:
1326:
1325:
1299:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1255:
1246:
1245:
1222:Paleoceanography
1217:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1148:
1137:
1136:
1110:
1101:
1088:
1087:
1051:
1040:
1039:
1010:
995:
994:
984:
956:
950:
949:
921:
894:
893:
876:(3–4): 129–150.
865:
859:
858:
830:
824:
823:
821:
797:
784:
783:
755:
734:
733:
731:
697:
688:
673:
672:
644:
629:
628:
600:
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586:
556:
541:
540:
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536:
521:
344:
244:Geologic history
64:
63:
57:
48:
47:
45:
44:
43:
38:
34:
31:
30:
29:
26:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2058:Mount Gorongosa
2038:
1899:Aurès Mountains
1894:Atlas Mountains
1881:Mountain ranges
1875:
1761:Blue Nile Basin
1737:
1733:White Nile rift
1644:
1610:Eburnean Orogen
1576:
1567:Todi Shear Zone
1518:
1514:Zimbabwe Craton
1499:Tanzania Craton
1489:Kalahari Craton
1484:Kaapvaal Craton
1456:
1405:
1402:
1372:
1340:
1329:
1297:
1291:
1287:
1256:
1249:
1218:
1214:
1204:
1202:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1149:
1140:
1108:
1102:
1091:
1052:
1043:
1011:
998:
957:
953:
922:
897:
866:
862:
831:
827:
798:
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737:
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689:
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645:
632:
601:
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557:
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532:
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522:
518:
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489:
468:
463:
414:
259:
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192:
171:
135:
108:, creating the
82:
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80:
78:
72:
71:
70:
69:
65:
41:
39:
35:
32:
27:
24:
22:
20:
19:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2142:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2078:Mont Niénokoué
2075:
2073:Mulanje Massif
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2024:Serra da Chela
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1999:Nuba Mountains
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1979:Loma Mountains
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1909:Blue Mountains
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1885:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1856:Taoudeni Basin
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1747:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1693:Lamu Embayment
1690:
1685:
1680:
1678:Blue Nile rift
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1654:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1643:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1620:Kibaran Orogen
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1595:Cape Fold Belt
1592:
1586:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1528:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1468:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1428:
1424:Minor plates:
1422:
1418:Major plates:
1415:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1393:
1386:
1378:
1371:
1370:
1327:
1308:(1–2): 42–56.
1302:Tectonophysics
1285:
1247:
1228:(2): 197–219.
1212:
1186:
1159:(4): 281–291.
1138:
1119:(3): 601–611.
1089:
1041:
1016:Tectonophysics
996:
982:10.1.1.454.653
967:(4): 389–404.
951:
895:
870:Tectonophysics
860:
841:(4): 597–620.
835:Basin Research
825:
806:Tectonophysics
785:
766:(8): 909–927.
735:
674:
630:
588:
542:
515:
513:
510:
497:
494:
488:
485:
467:
464:
462:
459:
413:
410:
407:
406:
403:
399:
398:
395:
392:
388:
387:
384:
381:
377:
376:
373:
370:
366:
365:
362:
359:
355:
354:
353:Sediment Type
351:
348:
319:South American
307:clastic debris
286:further below
258:
255:
245:
242:
224:
223:Raft tectonics
221:
196:salt tectonics
191:
190:Salt tectonics
188:
170:
167:
134:
131:
110:Atlantic Ocean
98:passive margin
74:
73:
67:
66:
59:
58:
52:
51:
50:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2141:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2019:Serra da Leba
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2004:Rif Mountains
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1974:Jebel Uweinat
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1914:Cameroon line
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1889:Aïr Mountains
1887:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1872:
1871:Turkana Basin
1869:
1867:
1866:Tindouf Basin
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1836:Reggane Basin
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1658:Afar Triangle
1656:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1625:Kuunga Orogen
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1600:Damara Orogen
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1590:Alpine Orogen
1588:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1504:Tuareg Shield
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1432:Lwandle Plate
1430:Microplates:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1421:
1420:African Plate
1417:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1387:
1385:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1252:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1062:(1): TC1004.
1061:
1057:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
992:
988:
983:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
955:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
920:
918:
916:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
864:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
829:
820:
815:
811:
807:
803:
796:
794:
792:
790:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
730:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
694:
687:
685:
683:
681:
679:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
643:
641:
639:
637:
635:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
599:
597:
595:
593:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
563:
555:
553:
551:
549:
547:
530:
526:
520:
516:
509:
507:
503:
493:
484:
482:
472:
458:
456:
452:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
423:
419:
404:
401:
400:
396:
393:
389:
385:
382:
379:
378:
374:
371:
368:
367:
363:
360:
357:
356:
352:
349:
346:
345:
339:
337:
333:
329:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
291:
289:
284:
281:
277:
272:
267:
265:
264:oceanic crust
250:
241:
238:
234:
230:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
187:
184:
180:
176:
166:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
139:
130:
128:
124:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
77:
56:
49:
46:
2046:(aka koppie)
1831:Owambo Basin
1816:Ogaden Basin
1806:Murzuq Basin
1776:Douala Basin
1751:Angola Basin
1750:
1723:Urema Valley
1708:Red Sea Rift
1703:Muglad Basin
1673:Benue Trough
1479:Congo Craton
1442:Rovuma Plate
1426:Somali Plate
1348:
1344:
1305:
1301:
1288:
1263:
1259:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1203:. Retrieved
1199:earthref.org
1198:
1189:
1156:
1152:
1116:
1112:
1059:
1055:
1019:
1015:
964:
960:
954:
929:
925:
873:
869:
863:
838:
834:
828:
809:
805:
763:
759:
703:
699:
652:
648:
608:
604:
566:
560:
533:. Retrieved
528:
519:
499:
496:Hydrocarbons
490:
487:Kwanza Basin
481:hydrocarbons
477:
455:microfossils
451:foraminifera
434:Walvis Ridge
427:
422:deep-sea fan
415:
292:
268:
260:
226:
193:
172:
144:
86:Angola Basin
85:
83:
68:Angola Basin
25:15°16′35.5″S
18:
1929:Drakensberg
1846:Sirte Basin
1801:Kufra Basin
1791:Gabon Basin
1786:Karoo Basin
1771:Congo Basin
1718:Atbara rift
1698:Melut Basin
1663:Anza trough
1524:Shear zones
1266:: 138–144.
1205:22 February
1022:: 139–152.
812:: 126–142.
655:: 184–193.
569:(1): 1–25.
535:22 February
405:Evaporites
397:Carbonates
391:Cretaceous
361:15-present
358:Quaternary
332:terrigenous
328:Congo River
303:hypersaline
283:crystalline
280:Precambrian
159:translation
155:contraction
40: /
28:3°20′43.2″E
2108:Categories
2068:Mount Mabu
2053:Anti-Atlas
2044:Inselbergs
1766:Chad Basin
512:References
446:carbonates
430:Quaternary
380:Paleogene
153:, seaward
145:Typically
123:evaporites
106:Cretaceous
2088:Zuma Rock
2083:Wase Rock
1181:129245018
1084:129330693
1056:Tectonics
977:CiteSeerX
855:129863835
729:10284/200
611:: 21–47.
502:petroleum
461:Subbasins
418:Oligocene
295:carbonate
288:sea level
274:volcanic
151:extension
118:Argentine
1781:El Djouf
412:Cenozoic
402:117-112
394:112-100
369:Neogene
257:Mesozoic
183:sediment
90:Cameroon
1582:Orogens
1466:shields
1462:Cratons
1353:Bibcode
1310:Bibcode
1268:Bibcode
1230:Bibcode
1161:Bibcode
1121:Bibcode
1064:Bibcode
1024:Bibcode
969:Bibcode
934:Bibcode
878:Bibcode
768:Bibcode
708:Bibcode
657:Bibcode
613:Bibcode
571:Bibcode
506:methane
438:hotspot
383:100-34
347:Period
323:African
276:basalts
233:grabens
217:Miocene
209:troughs
205:diapirs
201:Seismic
175:gravity
102:Pangaea
1756:Aoukar
1411:Plates
1179:
1082:
979:
853:
386:Shale
372:34-15
299:shales
237:strain
213:Eocene
163:uplift
157:, and
116:, and
94:Angola
1650:Rifts
1298:(PDF)
1177:S2CID
1109:(PDF)
1080:S2CID
851:S2CID
696:(PDF)
315:Congo
1464:and
1207:2015
537:2017
436:, a
321:and
271:salt
114:Cape
84:The
1361:doi
1349:205
1318:doi
1306:470
1276:doi
1238:doi
1169:doi
1129:doi
1072:doi
1032:doi
1020:604
987:doi
942:doi
930:114
886:doi
874:382
843:doi
814:doi
810:633
776:doi
724:hdl
716:doi
665:doi
621:doi
579:doi
92:to
2110::
1359:.
1347:.
1330:^
1316:.
1304:.
1300:.
1274:.
1264:95
1262:.
1250:^
1236:.
1226:10
1224:.
1197:.
1175:.
1167:.
1157:49
1155:.
1141:^
1127:.
1117:27
1115:.
1111:.
1092:^
1078:.
1070:.
1060:30
1058:.
1044:^
1030:.
1018:.
999:^
985:.
975:.
963:.
940:.
928:.
898:^
884:.
872:.
849:.
839:26
837:.
808:.
804:.
788:^
774:.
764:18
762:.
738:^
722:.
714:.
704:17
702:.
698:.
677:^
663:.
653:76
651:.
633:^
619:.
609:43
607:.
591:^
577:.
567:30
565:.
545:^
527:.
508:.
266:.
129:.
1397:e
1390:t
1383:v
1367:.
1363::
1355::
1324:.
1320::
1312::
1282:.
1278::
1270::
1244:.
1240::
1232::
1209:.
1183:.
1171::
1163::
1135:.
1131::
1123::
1086:.
1074::
1066::
1038:.
1034::
1026::
993:.
989::
971::
965:9
948:.
944::
936::
892:.
888::
880::
857:.
845::
822:.
816::
782:.
778::
770::
732:.
726::
718::
710::
671:.
667::
659::
627:.
623::
615::
585:.
581::
573::
539:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
