3659:
219:
3492:'). On Trajan's Column, Mauri horsemen, depicted with long hair in dreadlocks, are shown riding their small but resilient horses bare-back and unbridled, with a simple braided rope round their mount's neck for control. They wear no body or head armour, carrying only a small, round leather shield. Their weaponry cannot be discerned due to stone erosion, but is known from Livy to have consisted of several short javelins. Exceptionally fast and maneuverable, Numidian cavalry would harass the enemy by hit-and-run attacks, riding up and loosing volleys of javelins, then scattering faster than any opposing cavalry could pursue. They were superbly suited to scouting, harassment, ambush and pursuit. It is unclear what proportion of the Numidian cavalry were regular auxilia units as opposed to irregular
2336:
3319:
4422:
the later part of the period, recruitment in the region where the regiment was posted increased and became predominant from the
Flavian era onwards. The regiment would thus lose its original ethnic identity. The unit's name would thus become a mere curiosity devoid of meaning, although some of its members might inherit foreign names from their veteran ancestors. This view has to be qualified, however, as evidence from military diplomas and other inscriptions shows that some units continued to recruit in their original home areas e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain, where some units had an international membership. It also appears that the Danubian provinces (Raetia, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia) remained key recruiting grounds for units stationed all over the empire.
3350:
1707:
1254:, resorting to the compulsory purchase and emancipation of thousands of slaves to find enough troops, for the first time since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae over two centuries earlier. The Romans had now deployed no less than 15 legions and an equivalent number of auxilia. This amounts to a total of c. 150,000 men, including at least 50 auxiliary cohorts composed, exceptionally, of Roman citizens. These were men whose status or background was regarded by Augustus as unsuitable for recruitment into the legions: either natural-born citizens of the lowest category, including vagrants and convicted criminals, or the freed slaves (Roman law accorded citizenship to the freed slaves of Roman citizens). These special units were accorded the title
39:
1967:, which are attested under Trajan, immediately before Hadrian's rule, but not during or after it, probably continued in existence, giving a total of 381 units and 225,000 effectives. The discrepancy between the two scholars is due to: (i) Interpretation of units with the same name and number, but attested in different provinces in the same period. Spaul tends to take a more cautious approach and to assume such are the same unit moving base frequently, while Holder tends to regard them as separate units which acquired the same number due to duplicated (or even triplicated) seriation. (ii) Assumptions about how many
4825:, this was equivalent to ten years' gross salary for a common legionary after the pay increase of 84 AD. It would enable him to purchase a substantial plot of land. Again, there is no indication that auxiliaries were paid a discharge bonus. For auxiliaries, the discharge bonus was the grant of Roman citizenship, which carried important tax exemptions. However, Duncan-Jones argues that the fact that service in the auxilia was competitive with the legions (deduced from the many Roman citizens that joined the auxilia) that a discharge bonus may have been paid.
953:. During the early part of Augustus' rule (27 BC onwards), the corps of regular Auxilia was created. It was clearly inspired by the Latin forces of the pre-Social War Republic, as a corps of non-citizen troops parallel to the legions. But there were fundamental differences, the same as between Republican and Augustan legions. The Latin forces of the Republic were made up of part-time conscripts in units that would be raised and disbanded for and after particular campaigns. The Augustan Auxilia were mainly volunteer professionals serving in permanent units.
4999:
3341:(AD 101β106). Note full-body scalar armour, also armoured caparison for horses (including eye-guards). The Sarmatians' lances (as well as the Romans') have disappeared due to stone erosion, but a sword is still visible, as is a bow carried by one man. It was apparently in the period following this conflict (perhaps as a result of the lessons learnt from it) that the Romans first established their own regular units of cataphracts, and deployed them in the Danubian region. They were most likely equipped as the Sarmatians. Panel from
1803:) were transferred to Britain under Petillius Cerialis, who had suppressed the Civilis revolt and then embarked on the governorship of the island. The great majority of regiments probably founded in the 1st century were stationed away from their province of origin in the second e.g. of 13 British regiments recorded in the mid-2nd century, none were stationed in Britain. Furthermore, it appears that in the Flavian era native noblemen were no longer permitted to command auxiliary units from their own tribe.
1512:), which continued in service until 68 AD. The Batavi auxilia amounted to about 5,000 men, implying that during the entire Julio-Claudian period, over 50% of all Batavi males reaching military age (16 years) may have enlisted in the auxilia. Thus the Batavi, although just 0.05% of the total population of the empire of c. 70 million in 23 AD, supplied about 4% of the total auxilia i.e. 80 times their proportionate share. They were regarded by the Romans as the very best (
1676:, before he could overrun the Batavi's homeland. Tacitus' surviving narrative breaks off as he describes a meeting on an island in the Rhine delta between Civilis and Cerialis to discuss peace terms. We do not know the outcome of this meeting or Civilis' ultimate fate. But, in view of his former friendship with Vespasian, who had already offered him a pardon, and the fact that the Romans still needed the Batavi levies, it is likely that the terms were lenient by Roman standards.
467:
6142:
1185:, when they were deployed temporarily in theatre. This carried the obvious risk if their own tribe or ethnic group rebelled against Rome (or attacked the Roman frontier from outside the Empire), auxiliary troops could be tempted to make common cause with them. The Romans would then be faced by an enemy that included units fully equipped and trained by themselves, thus losing their usual tactical advantages over tribal foes.
5038:(it appears that legion cavalrymen used infantry ranks). He died at age 58, probably a few years after his discharge. Note the portrayal of his chain-mail armour, centurion's transverse-crested helmet and his horse, led by his equerry, probably a slave. This soldier's long career shows that many auxiliaries served longer than the minimum 25 years, and sometimes joined legions. Erected by his brother, Quintus. Dates from
1421:
1343:
6188:
907:
4283:
2240: β thus abolishing their second-class status. But there is no evidence that the citizens-only rule for legions was also abolished at this time. The legions simply gained a much wider recruitment base, as they were now able to recruit any male free resident of the empire. Auxiliary units were now recruited mainly from Roman citizens, but probably continued to recruit non-citizen
3102:('wings') contained the elite cavalry of the army. They were specially trained in elaborate manoeuvres, such as those displayed to the emperor Hadrian during a documented inspection in Numidia. They were best-suited for large-scale operations and battle, during which they acted as the primary cavalry escort for the legions, which had almost no cavalry of their own. Roman
1584:(69β70 AD). The governor of Germania Inferior, ordered to raise more troops, outraged the Batavi by attempting to conscript more Batavi than the maximum stipulated in their treaty. The brutality and corruption of the Roman recruiting-centurions (including incidents of sexual assault on Batavi young men) brought already deep discontent in the Batavi homeland to the boil.
1601:). But the uprising soon became a bid for independence. Civilis exploited the fact that some legions were absent from the Rhine area due to the civil war, and the rest under-strength. In addition, the Roman commanders and their rank-and-file soldiers were divided by loyalty to rival emperors. Civilis quickly won the support of the Batavi's neighbours and kinsmen, the
1567:, but the latter also disbanded the imperial bodyguard unit for their loyalty to Nero. This alienated several hundred crack Batavi troops, and indeed the whole Batavi nation who regarded it as a grave insult. At the same time, relations collapsed between the Batavi cohorts and the legion to which they had been attached since the invasion of Britain 25 years earlier (
1787:
provinces exclusively in the hands of auxiliary regiments recruited from the indigenous nation. During the Julio-Claudian period, auxiliary regiments had often been deployed away from their original home province. But in the
Flavian period (69β96), this appears to have become standard policy. Thus in AD 70, five reconstituted Batavi regiments (one
1379:, was of the higher senatorial rank), probably indicates that auxilia now enjoyed greater prestige. Indigenous chiefs continued to command some auxiliary regiments, and were probably granted equestrian rank for the purpose. It is also likely that auxiliary pay was standardised at this time, but we only have estimates for the Julio-Claudian period.
2270:(also smallpox) indicates a mortality of 15β30% in the empire as a whole. The armies would likely have suffered deaths at the top end of the range, due to their close concentration of individuals and frequent movements across the empire. This probably led to a steep decline in military numbers, which only recovered at the end of the century under
446:(satellite kings). During the late Republic, non-Italian units were led by their own native chiefs, and their internal organisation was left to their own commanders. The units varied widely in dress, equipment, and weapons. They were normally raised for specific campaigns and often disbanded soon afterwards, in a similar manner to the earlier
262:(343β290 BC). Despite its formidable strength, the legion had a number of deficiencies, especially a lack of cavalry. Around 200 BC, a legion of 4,200 infantry had a cavalry arm of only 300 horse (just 7% of the total force). This was because the class of citizens who could afford to pay for their own horse and equipment β the
4443:(barbarians, as the Romans called people living outside the empire's borders). Although there is little evidence of it before the 3rd century, the consensus is that auxilia recruited barbarians throughout their history. In the 3rd century, a few auxilia units of clearly barbarian origin start to appear in the record e.g.
3028:) show auxiliaries wearing chain-mail armor, which length and form varied over the first and second century. They wore helmets similar to those of the Legion. Yet they seem to be simplified versions that where further improved over the same timeframe. They were equipped with a sword, a dagger and one or more spears or
312:, 75% of its cavalry was provided by the Latin allies. The overall cavalry element, c. 12% of the total force (2,400 out of a normal consular army of approximately 20,000 total effectives), was greater than in most peninsular Italian forces, but well below the overall 21% cavalry component that was typical of the
5269:. Like officers senatorial rank, hereditary equestrians held civilian posts before and after their decade of military service, whereas non-hereditary officers tended to remain in the army, commanding various units in various provinces. By the 3rd century, most auxiliary prefects had exclusively military careers.
4426:
which were a kind of extended family to them, rather than join a much larger, unfamiliar legion. There are also instances of legionaries transferring to the auxilia (to a higher rank). The incidence of citizens in the auxilia would thus have grown steadily over time until, after the grant of citizenship to all
1758:, indicate that he had gained Roman citizenship, doubtless by serving the required 25 years in the auxilia. The names adopted would normally be those of the emperor ruling at the time of the citizenship award. In this case, they could refer to any of the three emperors of the Flavian dynasty (ruled 69β96),
3852:
Dacian wars. Their attire and weapons would have varied widely. The Column stereotypes them with the appearance of a single tribe, probably the most outlandish-looking, to differentiate them clearly from the regular auxilia. Judging by the frequency of their appearance in the Column's battle scenes, the
2284:
regiments, anywhere between a third and a half of recruits may have been barbarian. This is likely a much greater proportion of foreigners than joined the auxilia in the 1st and 2nd centuries. In the 3rd century, a small number of regular auxiliary units appear in the record that, for the first time,
1679:
Petilius
Cerialis took a number of reconstituted Batavi units with him to Britain, and the Batavi regiments continued to serve with special distinction in Britain and elsewhere for the rest of the 1st century and beyond. Even as late as 395, units with the Batavi name, although long since composed of
1635:
a Roman force that attempted to block their return to their homeland. By now, Civilis commanded at least 12 regiments (6,000 men) of Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops, as well as a much larger number of tribal levies. A number of German tribes from beyond the Rhine joined his cause. Several
1301:
Despite the gravity of this rebellion, the
Illyrians went on, alongside their neighbours the Thracians, to become the backbone of the Roman army. By the 2nd century, with roughly half the Roman army deployed on the Danube frontier, the auxilia and legions alike were dominated by Illyrian recruits. In
5208:
From a survey by
Devijver of persons whose origin can be determined, it appears that during the 1st century, the large majority (65%) of auxiliary prefects were of Italian origin. The Italian proportion dropped steadily, to 38% in the 2nd century, and 21% in the 3rd century. From the time of emperor
4421:
When it was first raised, an auxiliary regiment would have been recruited from the native tribe or people whose name it bore. In the early Julio-Claudian period, it seems that efforts were made to preserve the ethnic integrity of units, even when the regiment was posted in a faraway province. But in
4393:
During the
Principate, recruitment into the legions was restricted to Roman citizens only. This rule, which derived from the pre-Social War Republican army, was strictly enforced. The few exceptions recorded, such as during emergencies and for the illegitimate sons of legionaries, do not warrant the
1192:
is the classic example at an individual level: after several years of serving in Rome's forces as prefect of an auxiliary unit, he used the military training and experience he had gained to lead a confederacy of German tribes against Rome, culminating in the destruction of three Roman legions in the
4425:
It appears that Roman citizens were also regularly recruited to the auxilia. Most likely, the majority of citizen recruits to auxiliary regiments were the sons of auxiliary veterans who were enfranchised on their fathers' discharge. Many such may have preferred to join their fathers' old regiments,
1386:
for possible differences in armour). By 68 AD, there was little difference between most auxiliary infantry and their legionary counterparts in equipment, training and fighting capability. The main difference was that auxilia contained combat cavalry, both heavy and light, and other specialized
5111:
in modern armies. However, centurions' social role was much wider than a modern warrant officer. In addition to their military duties, centurions performed a wide range of administrative tasks, which was necessary in the absence of an adequate bureaucracy to support provincial governors. They were
1806:
After a prolonged period in a foreign province a regiment would become assimilated, since the majority of its new recruits would be drawn from the province in which it was stationed, or neighbouring provinces. Those same "British" units, mostly based on the Danube frontier, would by c. 150, after
1786:
The revolt of the Batavi appears to have led to a significant change in the Roman government's policy on deployment of
Auxilia. The revolt proved that in times of civil strife, when legions were far from their bases campaigning for rival claimants to the imperial throne, it was dangerous to leave
4417:
seems to have been practiced alongside voluntary recruitment, probably in the form of a fixed proportion of men reaching military age in each tribe being drafted. From the
Flavian era onwards, the auxilia were an all-volunteer force. Although recruits as young as 14 are recorded, the majority of
3851:
make their first official appearance on Trajan's Column, where they are portrayed in a standardised manner, with long hair and beards, barefoot, stripped to the waist, wearing long trousers held up by wide belts and wielding clubs. In reality, several different tribes supported the Romans in the
3645:
Three distinct types of archers are shown on Trajan's Column: (a) with scalar cuirass, conical steel helmet and cloak; (b) without armour, with cloth conical cap and long tunic; or (c) equipped in the same way as general auxiliary foot-soldiers (apart from carrying bows instead of javelins). The
4494:
infantryman 188. The same differentials (of about 20% between grades) seem to have existed at the time of
Domitian (r. 81β96). However, Goldsworthy points out that the common assumption that rates of pay were universal across provinces and units is unproven. Pay may have varied according to the
3612:
personnel were archers, or simply a higher proportion than in ordinary units. At the same time, ordinary regiments probably also possessed some archers, otherwise their capacity for independent operations would have been unduly constrained. Bas reliefs appear to show personnel in ordinary units
3110:
were normally armoured, with mail or scale body armour, a cavalry version of the infantry helmet (with more protective features, such as completely covered ears) and oval shield or hexagonal. Their weapons could be a lance, javelins, or bow and arrow but all Roman horseman had a sword (called a
1366:
date from the time of
Claudius. This was a folding bronze tablet engraved with the details of the soldier's service record, which he could use to prove his citizenship. Claudius also decreed that prefects of auxiliary regiments must all be of equestrian rank, thus excluding centurions from such
3884:
The evidence for auxiliary ranks and pay is scant: even less exists than the patchy evidence for their legionary counterparts. There seems to be some consensus, however, that the auxiliary was paid one third of what a legionary received: 300 sesterces a year (400 after the reign of the emperor
3781:
outside the normal auxilia organisation fighting alongside Roman troops. To an extent, these units were simply a continuation of the old client-king levies of the late Republic: ad hoc bodies of troops supplied by Rome's puppet petty-kings on the imperial borders for particular campaigns. Some
2018:
During the second half of the 2nd century, the Roman army underwent considerable further expansion, with the addition of five new legions (27,500 men) to a Principate peak of 33. A matching number of auxilia (i.e. c. 50 regiments, although only the names of around 25β30 have survived in the
1807:
almost a century away from their home island, be largely composed of Illyrian, Thracian and Dacian recruits. However, there is evidence that a few regiments at least continued to draw some recruits from their original home provinces in the 2nd century e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain.
5064:
is that such officers could be directly commissioned as well as promoted from the ranks. Many appear to have come from provincial aristocracies. Those rising from the ranks could be promotions from the legions as well as from the regiment's own ranks. In the Julio-Claudian period auxiliary
2482:
complains of contemporary young men joining the "auxilia" in preference to the "legions" to avoid the latter's tougher training and duties. But it is unclear what types of units he was referring to. It is possible that those older terms were still popularly used (misleadingly) to mean
360:, which outnumbered the Roman/Latin cavalry fielded by two to one. From then, Roman armies were always accompanied by large numbers of non-Italian cavalry: Numidian light cavalry and, later, Gallic heavy cavalry. For example, Caesar relied heavily on Gallic and German cavalry for his
319:
The Roman/Latin cavalry was sufficient while Rome was in conflict with other states in the mountainous Italian peninsula, which also disposed of limited cavalry resources. But, as Rome was confronted by external enemies that deployed far more powerful cavalry elements, such as the
2010:
Even according to the more conservative estimate, the auxilia were by this time significantly larger than the legions, which contained c. 155,000 effectives (28 legions of 5,500 men each) at this time, of which just 3,360 were cavalry. (For a detailed breakdown, see section 4:
1562:
on a fabricated accusation of sedition. The governor ordered his brother's execution, while Civilis, who as a Roman citizen had the right to appeal to the emperor, was sent to Rome in chains for judgement by Nero. He was released by Nero's overthrower and successor,
389:
recruited into the legions. Furthermore, Roman equestrians were no longer required to perform cavalry service after this time. The late Republican legion was thus probably bereft of cavalry (a tiny cavalry force of 120 men was probably added back to the legion under
1402:(46). The latter became as important as Illyria as a source of auxiliary recruits, especially cavalry and archers. Britain in mid-2nd century contained the largest number of auxiliary regiments in any single province: about 60 out of about 400 (15%). By the rule of
2277:
The recruitment shortfall caused by the crisis seems to have led to recruitment of barbarians to the auxilia on a much greater scale than previously. By the 4th century, it has been estimated that some 25% of regular army recruits were barbarian-born. In the elite
2254:. In 251β271, Gaul, the Alpine regions and Italy, the Balkans and the East were simultaneously overrun by Alamanni, Sarmatians, Goths and Persians respectively. At the same time, the Roman army was struggling with the effects of a devastating pandemic, probably of
948:
It appears that not all indigenous units were disbanded at the end of the civil war period (31 BC). Some of the more experienced units were kept in existence to complement the legions, and became the core of the standing auxiliary forces that developed in the
1663:
By this stage, Rome's entire position on the Rhine and even in Gaul was imperiled. Their civil war over, the Romans mustered a huge task force of eight legions (five dispatched from Italy, two from Spain and one from Britain) to deal with Civilis. Its commander
1550:, not his native one) was a hereditary prince of the Batavi and the prefect of a Batavi cohort. A veteran of 25 years' service, he had distinguished himself by service in Britain, where he and the eight Batavi cohorts had played a crucial role in both the
5209:
Claudius (r. 41β54) only Roman knights were eligible to hold command of an auxiliary regiment. This status could be obtained either by birth (i.e. if the person was the son of a hereditary Roman knight; or by attaining the property qualification (100,000
3251:), as expounded by G.L. Cheesman, was that they were just a mounted infantry with poor-quality horses. They would use their mounts simply to reach the battlefield and then would dismount to fight. This view is today discredited. Although it is clear that
6168:
The table shows that legions did not have a standard complement of auxiliary regiments and that there was no fixed ratio of auxiliary regiments to legions in each province. The ratio varied from six regiments per legion in Cappadocia to 40 per legion in
3624:, which boasted a long specialist tradition. During the late Republic (88β30 BC) and the Augustan period, Crete was gradually eclipsed by men from other, much more populous, regions subjugated by the Romans with strong archery traditions. These included
4746:
Gross salary was subject to deductions for food, clothing, boots and hay (probably for the company mules). It is unclear whether the cost of armour and weapons was also deducted, or borne by the army. Deductions left the soldier with a net salary of 78
3047:
There is no evidence that auxiliary infantry fought in a looser order than legionaries. It appears that in a set-piece battle line, auxiliary infantry would normally be stationed on the flanks, with legionary infantry holding the centre e.g. as in the
3701:
Independent slinger units are not attested in the epigraphic record of the Principate. However, slingers are portrayed on Trajan's Column. They are shown unarmoured, wearing a short tunic. They carry a cloth bag, slung in front, to hold their shot
2510:
The following table sets out the official, or establishment, strength of auxiliary units in the 2nd century. The real strength of a unit would fluctuate continually, but would likely have been somewhat less than the establishment most of the time.
1226:). By the start of the Common Era, they were an important recruitment base for the auxilia. But discontent was festering among the Illyrian tribes, largely due to what they saw as the rapacity of Roman tax officials. In AD 6, several regiments of
1166:
records that there were roughly the same numbers of auxiliaries in service as there were legionaries. Since at this time there were 25 legions of c. 5,000 men each, the Auxilia thus amounted to c. 125,000 men, implying c. 250 auxiliary regiments.
5112:
also relatively wealthy, due to their high salaries (see table above). However, most of the surviving evidence concerns legionary centurions and it is uncertain whether their auxiliary counterparts shared their high status and non-military role.
1828:). These were the mirror image of the double-strength first cohorts of legions also introduced at this time. Such units remained a minority of the Auxilia: in the mid-2nd century, they constituted 13% of units, containing 20% of total manpower.
1557:
By 69, however, Civilis, the Batavi regiments and the Batavi people had become utterly disaffected with Rome. After the Batavi regiments were withdrawn from Britain to Italy in 66, Civilis and his brother (also a prefect) were arrested by the
5238:
Equestrians by birth would normally begin their military careers at c. 30 years of age. An axillary had to do 25 years of service before joining the army. Commands were held in a set sequence, each held for 3β4 years: prefect of an auxiliary
4810:
may have been paid to auxiliaries also from the time of Hadrian onwards, on the grounds that the total amount of donative to the military increased sharply at that time. A very valuable benefit paid to legionaries was the discharge bonus
4314:'Alpine star' in Latin. These were either a regimental symbol, or a national symbol of the Montani. The crescent moon-and-star motif between the flowers may be either a regimental emblem or a religious symbol. Date: 1st century, probably
1249:
Augustus ordered Tiberius to break off operations in Germany and move his main army to Illyricum. When it became clear that even Tiberius' forces were insufficient, Augustus was obliged to raise a second task force under Tiberius' nephew
2207:, as originally they were probably detachments from the latter, acquiring independent status after long-term separation. As these units are mentioned in diplomas, they were presumably part of the regular auxiliary organisation. But
197:
to a standing corps with standardised structure, equipment and conditions of service. By the end of the period, there were no significant differences between legionaries and auxiliaries in terms of training and combat capability.
1127:(6 AD), becoming, with Illyricum, the Principate's most important source of auxiliary recruits for its entire duration. In the East, where the Syrians already provided the bulk of the Roman army's archers, Augustus annexed
2246:
from outside the Empire's borders. However, the citizens-only rule for legions appears to have been dropped some time during the 3rd century, as by the 4th-century Romans and barbarians are found serving together in all units.
1848:. By the mid-2nd century, there were 44 auxiliary regiments stationed there, about 10% of the total auxilia. In Britain, there were 60. Together, these two provinces contained about a quarter of the total auxiliary regiments.
5290:
in the British Army, who is currently paid about five times a private's salary). The reason for the huge gap between the top and the bottom of the pyramid is that Roman society was far more hierarchical than a modern one. A
3420:, Sarmatian) battle tactics. Parthian armies consisted largely of cavalry. Their standard tactic was to use light mounted archers to weaken and break up the Roman infantry line, and then to rout it with a charge by the
1151:) was highly prized and had alternately fought and assisted the Romans for well over two centuries: they now started to be recruited into the regular Auxilia. Even more Mauri units were formed after the annexation of
1361:
A minimum term of service of 25 years was established, at the end of which the retiring auxiliary soldier, and all his children, were awarded Roman citizenship. This is deduced from the fact that the first known
1285:
The Romans faced further reverses on the battlefield and a savage guerrilla war in the Bosnian mountains. It took them three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, which was described by the Roman historian
3758:
is 'numbers' and it was often used in the context of a generic title for any unit that was not of a standard size or structure. From the 2nd century onward they served as frontier guards, often supplied by the
8140:"Armed Forces - Defence Suppliers Directory - Defence And Security Consultancy - Military Books - Armed Forces of Europe - Royal Navy - British Army - Royal Air Force - RAF - Defence News - Defence Projects"
270: β was relatively small. In addition, the legion lacked missile forces such as slingers and archers. Until 200 BC, the bulk of a Roman army's cavalry was provided by Rome's regular Italian allies (
5491:
There is no evidence that auxiliary common soldiers received individual decorations, although auxiliary officers did. Instead, the whole regiment was honoured by a title reflecting the type of award e.g.
302:, was similar or slightly larger in infantry size (4β5,000 men) to a legion, but contained a more substantial cavalry contingent: 900 horse, three times the legionary contingent. Since a pre-Social War
205:
in the provinces. The regimental names of many auxiliary units persisted into the 4th century, but by then the units in question were different in size, structure, and quality from their predecessors.
6172:
Overall, cavalry represented about 20% (including the small contingents of legionary cavalry) of the total army effectives. But there were variations: in Mauretania the cavalry proportion was 28%.
4785:), did not pay rent (he was housed in fort barracks) and his food, clothing and equipment were already deducted. It should be borne in mind that most recruits came from peasant families living at
3698:'sling'). Because of this, it is uncertain whether most of the imperial army's slingers continued to be drawn from the Balearics themselves, or, like archers, derived mainly from other regions.
1181:
During the early Julio-Claudian period, many auxiliary regiments raised in frontier provinces were stationed in or near their home provinces, except during periods of major crises such as the
1524:) of their auxiliary, and indeed all, their forces. In Roman service, both their cavalry and infantry had perfected a technique for swimming across rivers wearing full armour and weapons.
1450:) after the Batavi revolt ended in 70 AD. The name is of Celtic origin, meaning 'new market', suggesting that the Germanic Batavi either displaced or subjugated an indigenous Gallic tribe
1382:
Auxiliary uniform, armour, weapons and equipment were probably standardised by the end of the Julio-Claudian period. Auxiliary equipment was broadly similar to that of the legions (see
5396:'of Roman citizens') title. In the latter case, all the regiment's members at the time, but not their successors, would be granted Roman citizenship. But the regiment would retain the
4464:
There existed a hierarchy of pay between types of auxiliary, with cavalry higher paid than infantry. One recent estimate is that in the time of Augustus, the annual pay structure was:
1851:
There is considerable scholarly dispute about the precise size of the auxilia during the imperial era, even during the corp's best-documented period, the rule of Trajan's successor,
989:
The evidence for the size of the Augustus' new units is not clear-cut, with our most precise evidence dating to the 2nd century, by which time the unit strengths may have changed.
5299:
was not just a senior officer. He was also a Roman citizen (which most of his men were not) and, as a member of the equestrian order, an aristocrat. The social gulf between the
3448:
From the Second Punic War until the 3rd century AD, the bulk of Rome's light cavalry (apart from mounted archers from Syria) was provided by the inhabitants of the provinces of
3408:, although it is unclear whether these terms were interchangeable or whether they denoted variations in equipment or role. Together with new units of light mounted archers, the
1294:
over two centuries earlier. Tiberius finally succeeded in quelling the revolt in 9 AD. This was apparently lucky timing for the Romans: that same year Arminius destroyed
3208:
in inscriptions, which is probably the original Augustan proportion. A study of units stationed in Syria in the mid-2nd century found that many units that did not carry the
1111:. Judging by the names of attested auxiliary regiments, these parts of the Iberian peninsula soon became a major source of recruits. Then the Danubian regions were annexed:
1424:
Rhine frontier of the Roman empire, 70 AD, showing the location of the Batavi in the Rhine delta region. Roman territory is shaded dark. Their homeland was called the
367:
As the role of native cavalry grew, that of Roman/Latin cavalry diminished. In the early 1st century BC, Roman cavalry was phased out altogether. After the Social War, the
3642:
units attested in the mid-2nd century, thirteen have Syrian names, seven Thracian, five from Anatolia, one from Crete and the remaining six of other or uncertain origin.
3782:
clearly remained in Roman service beyond the campaigns, keeping their own native leadership, attire and equipment and structure. These units were known to the Romans as
1079:
At the start of Augustus' sole rule (30 BC), the original core auxiliary units in the West were composed of warlike tribesmen from the Gallic provinces (especially
143:
thus represented three-fifths of Rome's regular land forces at that time. Like their legionary counterparts, auxiliary recruits were mostly volunteers, not conscripts.
10646:
162:
and constituted the vast majority of the population in the 1st and 2nd centuries (c. 90% in the early 1st century). In contrast to the legions, which only admitted
935:
201:
Auxiliary regiments were often stationed in provinces other than that in which they were originally raised, for reasons of security and to foster the process of
1212:
mountains and excellent soldier material. Their territory formed part of the strategic province of Illyricum, recently expanded to include the territory of the
8804:
1234:
in a war against the Germans. Instead, they mutinied at the assembly point, and defeated a Roman force sent against them. The Dalmatae were soon joined by the
3212:
title did in fact contain cavalrymen e.g. by discovery of a tombstone of a cavalryman attached to the cohort. This implies that by that time, at least 70% of
3038:, which can be used as a javelin as well as a thrusting spear. Based on archeological evidences auxiliaries probably had additional lighter javelins to their
4789:. To such persons, any disposable income would appear attractive. It could be spent on leisure activities, sent to relatives or simply saved for retirement.
1595:, whom Civilis had probably befriended when both were involved in the Roman invasion of Britain 25 years earlier (Vespasian was then commander of the legion
1264:
for short. After the Illyrian revolt, these cohorts remained in being and recruited non-citizens like other auxiliary units, but retained their prestigious
3014:
These all-infantry units were modeled on the cohorts of the legions, with the same officers and sub-units. They were typically considered to be more of a
397:
By the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans were remedying the legions' other deficiencies by using non-Italian specialised troops. Livy reports
3478:
4304:, the same ethnic name as the regiment's, meaning a native of the eastern Alps, most likely the origin of the deceased. Note (top corners) the Alpine
1242:. They lost, but inflicted heavy casualties. The rebels were now joined by a large number of other Illyrian tribes. The Dalmatae attacked the port of
5326:
The nomenclature of the great majority of regiments followed a standard configuration: unit type, followed by serial number, followed by name of the
1064:(prefect), who could be either a native nobleman, who would probably be granted Roman citizenship for the purpose (e.g. the famous German war leader
3578:'arrow'). These 32 units (of which four were double-strength) had a total official strength of 17,600 men. All three types of auxiliary regiment (
1446:, Neth.), a strategic prominence in an otherwise flat and waterlogged land that became the site of a Roman legionary fortress (housing the legion
8363:
5364:('1st Wing of Pannonii and Gauls'). A minority of regiments are named after an individual, mostly after the first prefect of the regiment, e.g.
5002:
Tombstone of Titus Calidius Severus, a Roman cavalryman. The career summary in the inscription shows that Severus joined the auxiliary regiment
1230:, a warlike Illyrian tribe, were ordered to report to a designated location to prepare to join Augustus' stepson and senior military commander
1162:
Recruitment was thus heavy throughout the Augustan period, with a steady increase in the number of units formed. By AD 23, the Roman historian
8691:
1810:
The Flavian period also saw the first formation of large, double-size units, both infantry and cavalry, of a nominal strength of 1,000 men (
9233:
4804:
to a common legionary) averaged once every 7.5 years in the early 1st century and every three years later. Duncan-Jones has suggested that
1334:. These were members of a military aristocracy, outstanding soldiers who saved the empire from collapse in the turbulent late 3rd century.
218:
6175:
The figures show the massive deployments in Britannia and Dacia. Together, these two provinces account for 27% of the total auxilia corps.
9275:
9263:
3158:. All of these peoples had long-established skills and experience of fighting from horseback β in contrast to the Romans themselves. The
968:(a tenth the size of legions), due to the much greater flexibility of the smaller unit size. Further, the regiments were of three types:
928:
713:
609:
5488:, a crown made of gold awarded to the first man to scale an enemy rampart. This was awarded rarely, as such a man hardly ever survived.
9322:
3895:
of 300 sesterces, although the various sources differ as to whether auxiliaries and sailors received the retirement bonus known as the
3658:
3194:
with a cavalry contingent attached. There is evidence that their numbers expanded with the passage of time. Only about 40% of attested
1135:: the former, a region in central Anatolia with a Celtic-speaking people, became an important source of recruits. In N. Africa, Egypt,
525:
2497:
respectively. In any event, his quote in no way describes accurately the Principate auxilia, many of which were of very high quality.
1627:(Rhine flotilla), largely manned by Batavi, was seized by Civilis. Most importantly, the eight Batavi cohorts stationed at Mainz with
1143:(25 BC) were added to the empire. Numidia (modern day Eastern Algeria) was home to the Numidians/Moors, the ancestors of today's
5180:' second-in-command, if this title was a regular rank and not simply an ad hoc appointment for a specific task. Also attached to the
3646:
first type were probably Syrian or Anatolian units; the third type probably Thracian. The standard bow used by Roman auxilia was the
1298:' three legions in Germany. The Roman high command had no doubt that Arminius would have formed a grand alliance with the Illyrians.
5386:
Regiments were often rewarded for meritorious service by the grant of an honorific title. The most sought-after was the prestigious
9238:
6211:
4296:, who died in his 25th year of service (i.e. in the final year of the minimum term for an auxiliary and just before qualifying for
1246:
and overran the Adriatic coast, defeating a Roman force and exposing the Roman heartland of Italy to the fear of a rebel invasion.
501:
17:
2384:(r. 312β337) it appears that military units were classified into three grades based on strategic role and to some extent quality:
10610:
9248:
4796:) handed to legionaries on the accession of a new emperor and other occasions. Although irregular, these payments (each worth 75
3511:('Dalmatian cavalry'). Little is known about these, but they were prominent in the 4th century, with several units listed in the
2019:
epigraphic record) were probably added, possibly reaching a peak of c. 440 regiments and around 250,000 effectives by the end of
667:
1213:
10555:
9243:
8977:
2250:
In the mid to late 3rd century, the army was afflicted by a combination of military disasters and of pestilence, the so-called
921:
587:
3072:, occupied the same position in the line. The flanks of the line required equal, if not greater, skill to hold as the centre.
2335:
10525:
9350:
8877:
8596:
8573:
8493:
8474:
8400:
8381:
8352:
8324:
8305:
7595:
7544:
6239:
5028:. He then switched to a legion (presumably after gaining Roman citizenship after 25 of his 34 years of service) and became a
5004:
4354:
or hob-nailed sandals worn by soldiers). Depending on the type of regiment they belonged to, they held the official ranks of
3024:, the most sophisticated legionary body armour, although scholars dispute this. Besides this possibility, monuments (like on
1480:. They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, boatmen and swimmers. In return for the unusual privilege of exemption from
1235:
405:
offering to supply Rome with archers and slingers in 217 BC. From 200 BC onwards, specialist troops were hired as
10615:
10490:
9643:
3750:(both names of forts). It is possible, however, that more than 20 such units served in Britain. The literal translation of
3133:
is shown by the fact that he received 20% more pay than his counterpart in an auxiliary cohort or a legionary infantryman.
1559:
3353:
Roman archers (top left) in action. Note conical helmets, indicating Syrian unit, and recurved bows. Trajan's Column, Rome
1706:
1025:(literally: 'leader of ten'). This title derives from the old Roman cavalry of the pre-Social War republic, in which each
9196:
3837:
1068:
gained Roman citizenship probably by serving as an auxiliary prefect before turning against Rome); or a Roman, either of
5504:(awarded bracelets). Some regiments would, in the course of time, accumulate a long list of titles and decorations e.g.
3361:, Cretan archers and Numidian light cavalry. These functions, plus some new ones, continued in the 2nd-century auxilia.
3349:
3318:
964:, which were like legions with a larger cavalry arm. However, Augustus organised the Auxilia into regiments the size of
258:
unit suitable for close-quarter engagements on more or less any terrain, which was probably adopted sometime during the
8867:
5482:, a crown made of oak leaves awarded for saving the life of a Roman citizen in battle. The most valuable award was the
4292:
1754:). He died at age 46 after 26 years' service, not having advanced beyond the lowest rank. Bassus' adopted Roman names,
1742:
1955:
NOTE: Manpower figures exclude officers (centurions and decurions), which would have numbered about 3,500 men overall.
10636:
10535:
9295:
8862:
8857:
8833:
8684:
8550:
6165:
The table shows the importance of auxiliary troops in the 2nd century, when they outnumbered legionaries by 1.5 to 1.
2291:
attested in 3rd-century Britain. This was probably an offshoot of the 5,500 surrendered Sarmatian horsemen posted on
475:
438:
The other main sources of non-Italian troops in the late Republic were subject provincials, allied cities and Rome's
31:
10550:
9223:
8872:
8799:
3271:
cavalrymen) in quality (hence their lower pay), the evidence is that they fought as cavalry in the same way as the
3228:. The addition of cavalry to a cohort obviously enabled it to carry out a wider range of independent operations. A
2479:
813:
491:
286:
3503:
In the 3rd century, new formations of light cavalry appear, apparently recruited from the Danubian provinces: the
1238:, another Illyrian tribe that supplied several auxiliary regiments. They gave battle to a second Roman force from
344:, were owed to his Spanish and Gallic heavy cavalry, which far outnumbered the Roman and Latin levies, and to his
8816:
8749:
6149:
Notes: (1) Table excludes about 2,000 officers (centurions and above). (2) Auxiliary cavalry nos. assumes 70% of
3836:
units was to use their specialist fighting skills. Many of these would have been troops of Numidian cavalry (see
3604:. Although these units evidently specialised in archery, it is uncertain from the available evidence whether all
569:
4755:. This sum was sufficient, on the basis of the food deduction, to amply feed an adult for a year. In 84 AD
3428:
concentrated on the weakest point. The only special heavy cavalry units to appear in the 2nd-century record are
9570:
9495:
9253:
3617:
2467:
infantry regiments, considered among the best units in the army, were probably formed from old-style auxiliary
1406:(54β68), auxiliary numbers may have reached, by one estimate, about 200,000 men, implying about 400 regiments.
1194:
683:
644:
595:
125:
contained the same number of infantry as the legions and, in addition, provided almost all of the Roman army's
5229:) who would normally be elevated to equestrian rank by the emperor after completing their single-year term as
2193:('detachment') appear in the diploma record. Their size is uncertain, but was likely smaller than the regular
10066:
5087:, though later citizens became predominant due to the spread of citizenship among military families. Because
799:
732:
520:
290:(literally 'wings', because they were generally posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle). An allied
5168:
does not appear to have enjoyed the support of purely staff officers. The possible exception is an attested
9906:
9510:
8962:
8677:
7955:
7400:
6206:
277:
272:
1268:
title. In addition, the regular forces were assisted by a large number of allied troops from neighbouring
10605:
10530:
10289:
9345:
9228:
8774:
2251:
1587:
Civilis now led his people in open revolt. Initially, he claimed he was supporting the bid for power of
10641:
10565:
10229:
10121:
9891:
9663:
9485:
9393:
9258:
9201:
8147:
6674:
1665:
1096:
618:
5378:) name was Sulpicius). The latter is also an example of a regiment that did not have a serial number.
10585:
9678:
9633:
9560:
9480:
9428:
9418:
9370:
8717:
4775:, i.e. more than two food allowances. It was entirely disposable, as the soldier was exempt from the
2386:
1682:
1613:
defected to Civilis. Then two legions sent against Civilis were defeated when their companion Batavi
1581:
1551:
1476:('Island of the Batavi', because surrounded by branches of the Rhine), part of the Roman province of
1295:
281:
233:
8411:
10186:
10096:
9605:
9585:
9580:
9565:
9518:
9458:
9413:
9215:
5263:. In Hadrian's time, a fourth command was added, for exceptionally able officers, of prefect of an
3547:
A substantial number of auxiliary regiments (32, or about 1 in 12 in the 2nd century) were denoted
3049:
2380:
appear to have been broken up into smaller units, many of which bore a variety of new names. Under
970:
828:
483:
38:
1390:
Claudius annexed to the empire three regions that became important sources of auxiliary recruits:
1354:
Significant development of the Auxilia appears to have taken place during the rule of the emperor
10595:
10575:
10515:
10505:
10495:
9901:
9590:
9490:
9470:
9385:
9375:
9080:
9020:
9000:
8712:
6216:
4786:
4397:
In the 1st century, the vast majority of auxiliary common soldiers were recruited from the Roman
3453:
3449:
3338:
2347:
2223:
1455:
1132:
248:
202:
51:
5424:(Marcus Ulpius Traianus r.98β117). Other titles were similar to those given to the legions e.g.
5280:
of an auxiliary regiment in the early 2nd century has been estimated at over 50 times that of a
3672:
From about 218 BC onwards, the Republican army's slingers were exclusively mercenaries from the
1770:, all of whom carried the same names. The arrangement of the scene, a rider spearing a man (the
10600:
10590:
10540:
10520:
10334:
10309:
10274:
10156:
9881:
9528:
9290:
8821:
4767:): a similar increase was presumably accorded to auxiliaries, boosting their net income to 140
3371:
2845:
2772:
2718:
2668:
2213:
was also a generic term used for barbarian units outside the regular auxilia. (see section 2.4
1779:
1592:
1363:
976:
965:
950:
695:
544:
184:
7587:
4946:
Besides combat effectives, regiments also contained specialists, the most senior of whom were
10570:
10500:
10324:
10076:
9876:
9871:
9668:
9575:
9500:
9463:
9448:
9423:
9403:
9305:
8659:
3686:(literally 'inhabitants of the Balearic Islands') became an alternative word for 'slingers' (
1636:
other German and Gallic units sent against him deserted, as the revolt spread to the rest of
1347:
1205:
1176:
794:
530:
222:
7579:
1778:), indicates that Bassus was a Thracian, as does his father's name. Date: late 1st century.
10580:
10545:
10234:
10101:
10001:
9926:
9791:
9754:
9130:
8794:
6234:
Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). Roman Auxiliary Forts 27 BC-AD 378. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
5034:
4935:('double-pay men'). These ranks are probably most closely resembled by the modern ranks of
4404:
2419:
The old Principate auxilia regiments provided the basis for units at all three grades. The
2299:
in c. 175. This unit may be an early example of a novel process whereby irregular units of
1855:(117β138). This is evident if one compares calculations by Spaul (2000) and Holder (2003):
1527:
1415:
784:
726:
398:
337:
10224:
2313:) were transformed into regular auxilia. This process intensified in the 4th century: the
1492:), they supplied a disproportionate number of recruits to the Julio-Claudian auxilia: one
1367:
commands. The fact that auxiliary commanders were now all of the same social rank as most
1197:
in 9 AD, and the abandonment of Augustus' strategy of annexing Germany as far as the
8:
10510:
10359:
10161:
10031:
9981:
9300:
8897:
8539:
Keppie, Lawrence (1996). "The army and the navy". In Bowman, Alan K; et al. (eds.).
7364:
6201:
6193:
5023:
1656:
1623:
911:
635:
116:
1576:
At this juncture, the Roman empire was convulsed by its first major civil war since the
10560:
10284:
10091:
9946:
9886:
9806:
9749:
9613:
8849:
8828:
8585:
8463:
7453:
4399:
3342:
3025:
2317:
1302:
the 3rd century, Illyrians largely replaced Italians in the senior officer echelons of
880:
263:
154:
67:
10199:
8545:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
8488:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
8300:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2262:, which began in 251 and was still raging in 270, when it claimed the life of emperor
1609:. First the rebel allies captured two Roman forts in their territory, and a cohort of
10194:
10046:
9801:
9761:
9739:
8947:
8592:
8569:
8562:
8546:
8489:
8470:
8431:
8396:
8377:
8348:
8320:
8301:
7591:
7580:
7540:
7117:
6235:
4998:
4964:('exempt soldiers' i.e. exempt from normal duties). Ranking specialists included the
4434:
in 212, auxiliary regiments became predominantly, if not exclusively, citizen units.
4319:
3056:. This was a tradition inherited from the Republic, when the precursors of auxiliary
3020:
2354:
In the 4th century, the Roman army underwent a radical restructuring. In the rule of
2292:
2263:
2259:
2020:
1547:
1477:
1088:
1084:
887:
753:
742:
328:, the Roman deficiency in cavalry numbers could be a serious liability, which in the
163:
159:
348:, light, fast cavalry which the Romans wholly lacked. The decisive Roman victory at
10259:
10219:
10151:
10086:
10011:
10006:
9778:
9701:
9648:
9443:
9438:
9327:
9186:
9135:
9095:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9045:
8967:
8914:
8907:
8892:
8887:
8811:
8739:
8423:
8369:
6486:
5143:
3873:
3764:
3677:
3673:
3506:
3489:
3461:
3358:
2736:
2462:
1597:
1577:
1569:
1269:
864:
853:
768:
487:
432:
402:
353:
341:
329:
8649:
4978:(veterinary doctor, in charge of the care of horses, pack animals and livestock),
3018:
than proper legionaries. Some auxiliaries may however have been equipped with the
1373:, (military tribunes, a legion's senior staff officers, all of whom only one, the
183:
employed them in increasing numbers to support its legions after 200 BC. The
10354:
10166:
10146:
10106:
10041:
9991:
9986:
9861:
9811:
9719:
9553:
9533:
9453:
8902:
8727:
8540:
7959:
7404:
7113:
6678:
5104:
3869:
3860:
were important contributors to the Roman operations in Dacia. Another example of
3396:
3034:
2413:
2324:
2296:
2267:
1711:
1650:
1327:
1209:
1182:
1155:(NW Algeria, Morocco), the rest of the Berber homeland, in 44 AD by emperor
1100:
982:
858:
836:
779:
435:
almost always accompanied Roman legions in campaigns all over the Mediterranean.
62:
4923:, together with some regimental specialists, were classified in two pay-scales:
1648:
tribes. He was able to destroy the two remaining legions in Germania Inferior, (
316:
army (80,000 cavalry out of 380,000 total effectives in the early 2nd century).
10409:
10051:
9786:
9734:
9706:
9653:
9638:
9618:
9433:
9408:
9365:
9355:
9181:
9155:
9085:
9070:
9035:
8995:
8756:
7835:
Based on data in Goldsworthy (2003) 95β5; Holder (1980) 86β96; Elton (1996) 123
5358:
tribes, most likely after the merger of two previously separate regiments e.g.
5108:
4839:
Below centurion/decurion rank, junior officers in the Roman army were known as
3898:
3015:
2232:
granted Roman citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Empire β the
1637:
1447:
1290:, writing in c. AD 100, as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the
1273:
1080:
873:
843:
804:
428:
349:
255:
180:
176:
87:
5223:); or by military promotion: the latter were the chief centurions of legions (
564:
10630:
9941:
9911:
9826:
9360:
9337:
9150:
9005:
8990:
8937:
8744:
8435:
8373:
5335:
4792:
There is no evidence that auxiliaries received the substantial cash bonuses (
4297:
3647:
3465:
3440:
stationed in Pannonia and Moesia Inferior, respectively, in the 2nd century.
2381:
2339:
1319:
1144:
1136:
848:
820:
748:
325:
130:
126:
3872:(r. 161β180) to garrison a fort on Hadrian's Wall after their defeat in the
3279:
and often alongside them. Their armour and weapons were the same as for the
1208:
proved. The central Illyrian tribes were tough and spartan shepherds of the
10419:
10279:
9724:
9673:
9628:
9623:
9475:
9285:
9171:
9115:
9110:
8882:
8766:
8700:
8296:
Campbell, Brian (2005). "The army". In Bowman, Alan K; et al. (eds.).
4973:
4776:
4408:
4286:
Tombstone of Marius son of Ructicnus. The inscription states that he was a
3091:
2399:
1573:). Their mutual hatred erupted in open fighting on at least two occasions.
1314:
of legions. Finally, from AD 268 to 379, virtually all emperors, including
1069:
303:
267:
259:
251:
225:
194:
134:
108:
8427:
5131:, but these are also believed to have amounted to several times that of a
1860:
Estimates of Roman auxilia numbers (units attested in the mid-2nd century)
1506:. They also provided most of Augustus' elite personal bodyguard unit (the
1204:
At a collective level, the risk was even greater, as the hugely dangerous
10214:
9836:
9658:
9548:
8942:
8484:
Hassall, Mark (2000). "The army". In Bowman, Alan K; et al. (eds.).
8224:
7788:
7532:
6761:
5470:
were worn round the neck, or on the cuirass. The highest awards were the
4931:
4053:
3326:
1999:
i.e., about 40% of recorded units. Holder estimates that at least 70% of
1845:
1737:
1602:
1467:
1463:
758:
649:
457:
361:
5313:
soldier was thus immense, and the pay differential reflected that fact.
3357:
In the Republican period, the standard trio of specialised auxilia were
1083:, which then included the regions later separated to form the provinces
10439:
10379:
10344:
10136:
10071:
10061:
9956:
9841:
9729:
9312:
9280:
9025:
8952:
8784:
8779:
8654:
7207:
Goldsworthy (2003) 58: 9 cohorts of 480 men each plus German bodyguards
7138:
28 legions of 5,500 each (double-strength 1st cohorts introduced under
5334:
tribe (or nation) from whom the regiment was originally raised, in the
4437:
Less clearcut is the question of whether the regular auxilia recruited
3775:
Throughout the Principate period, there is evidence of ethnic units of
3760:
3528:
3403:
3387:
3383:
3087:
2574:
2355:
2271:
2174:
1459:
1433:
1395:
1315:
1291:
1251:
1152:
789:
554:
510:
412:
313:
240:
237:
8669:
10469:
10464:
10424:
10349:
10319:
10299:
10176:
10116:
10026:
9976:
9971:
9896:
9856:
9744:
9714:
9523:
9398:
9191:
9075:
9050:
8929:
8233:
5406:
name of the emperor making the award (or founding the regiment) e.g.
5043:
5029:
4793:
4305:
3803:
3323:
3155:
2694:
2407:
2229:
2167:
2163:
NOTE: Regular land forces only. Excludes citizen-militias, barbarian
2026:
The likely growth of the Roman auxilia may be summarised as follows:
1841:
1759:
1588:
1391:
1287:
1108:
1073:
774:
406:
357:
3166:
were better paid and mounted than the more numerous horsemen of the
2404:, higher-grade interception forces based in frontier provinces; and
2285:
bear the names of barbarian tribes from outside the empire e.g. the
10429:
10414:
10404:
10389:
10304:
10294:
10264:
10254:
10249:
10239:
10141:
10056:
9936:
9921:
9851:
9831:
9821:
9816:
9796:
9595:
9176:
9140:
9030:
8957:
8789:
8269:
7139:
6141:
5350:('1st Cohort of Britons'). Some regiments combine the names of two
4940:
4936:
4884:
4756:
3886:
3629:
3417:
3151:
3147:
2255:
1767:
1747:
1641:
1443:
1355:
1331:
1323:
1231:
1227:
1189:
1156:
1120:
1104:
1092:
1065:
391:
333:
112:
8664:
7353:
Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire
5460:
were large medal-like bronze or silver discs worn on the cuirass;
1680:
recruits from all over the empire, were still classified as elite
1554:
in 43 AD and the subsequent subjugation of southern Britain.
10449:
10444:
10434:
10399:
10394:
10384:
10329:
10314:
10131:
10126:
10111:
10081:
10036:
10016:
9996:
9951:
9683:
9538:
9125:
9120:
9010:
8469:(1st United States ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
8260:
8251:
8242:
8003:
Based on figs in Goldsworthy (2003) 94; Duncan-Jones (1994) 33β41
6482:
5287:
4534:
3906:
The available data may be broken down and summarised as follows:
3668:) in action in the Dacian Wars. Detail from Trajan's Column, Rome
3473:
3469:
3391:
3053:
3029:
2583:
1852:
1837:
1751:
1645:
1369:
1163:
1140:
1128:
1116:
1020:
345:
4845:. An auxiliary cohort's ranks appear the same as in a legionary
107:) were introduced as non-citizen troops attached to the citizen
10459:
10339:
10269:
10209:
10204:
10171:
9931:
9916:
9866:
9846:
9268:
9145:
9040:
8215:
8139:
7952:
7498:
7397:
6671:
5421:
4990:(clerk in charge of all the regiment's records and paperwork).
4917:, responsible for horses and caparison. As in the legions, the
4350:
3625:
3533:('camel-mounted troops') is attested from the 2nd century, the
3114:
3105:
2982:
2343:
1673:
1610:
1606:
1399:
1342:
1243:
1239:
1217:
1124:
1112:
1012:
956:
The unit structure of the Auxilia also differed from the Latin
629:
229:
47:
43:
2327:, lists a large number of regular units with barbarian names.
1420:
172:
could be recruited from territories outside of Roman control.
10244:
9966:
9693:
8985:
5520:
Imperial auxilia: Summary of known deployments c. 130 AD
5217:, the equivalent of 400 years' gross salary for an auxiliary
5017:
4911:?), the decurion's second-in-command was probably known as a
4817:) paid on completion of the full 25 years' service. At 3,000
4326:
At the bottom end of the rank pyramid, rankers were known as
3820:
in the time of Trajan at about 11,000, divided into about 40
3795:
3633:
3621:
3143:
3122:
1763:
1669:
1564:
441:
418:
321:
187:
period (27 BCβ68 AD) saw the transformation of the
5442:
The Roman army awarded a variety of individual decorations (
5103:
often rose from the ranks, they have often been compared to
3868:
are the 5,500 captured Sarmatian cavalrymen sent by Emperor
2447:. But traces of other auxilia regiments can be found in the
1201:
river. (This strategy was never revived by later emperors).
54:(101β106 AD). They can be distinguished by the oval shield (
10454:
10021:
9961:
9543:
8919:
6364:
5467:
5373:
5115:
There is little evidence about the pay-scales of auxiliary
4282:
3456:, the Numidae or Mauri (from whom derives the English term
3052:(AD 60), the final defeat of the rebel Britons under queen
1775:
1632:
1403:
1216:, Celticised Illyrian tribes based on the west bank of the
1198:
276:), commonly known as the "Latin" allies, which made up the
6700:
6698:
3136:
The favored sources of recruitment for the cavalry of the
2981:
of the Principate auxilia. Against this is a statement by
2012:
60:) they were equipped with, in contrast to the rectangular
9015:
8116:
8114:
3680:
from prehistoric times. As a result, in classical Latin,
284:
of 91β88 BC. The Italian forces were organised into
247:
The mainstay of the Roman republic's war machine was the
7701:
7699:
7697:
4509:
Remuneration of Roman common foot soldiers (about AD 70)
3828:(units) of about 300 men each. The purpose of employing
2007:
contained cavalry contingents by the early 2nd century.
1816:), though they were actually mostly smaller (720 for an
1458:, a Germanic tribe, inhabited the region today known as
228:
crowned with the sculpture of a woman and a front-panel
213:
42:
Roman auxiliary infantry crossing a river, probably the
8176:
8174:
8095:
8093:
8083:
8081:
8029:
8027:
7972:
7970:
7062:
7060:
6695:
6415:
6413:
6411:
6409:
6407:
2516:
Roman auxiliary regiments: Type, structure and strength
8111:
7317:
7315:
7151:
Goldsworthy (2000) 152 (map): 33 legions of 5,500 each
6324:
6322:
6320:
4759:
increased basic legionary pay by 33% (from 225 to 300
2181:
During the 2nd century, some units with the new names
1486:(direct taxes on land and heads normally exacted from
1103:
were concluded, leading to the annexation of northern
458:
Foundation of the auxilia under Augustus (30 BCβ14 AD)
352:
in 202 BC, which ended the war, owed much to the
8412:"Auxiliaries and war-financing in the Roman republic"
7694:
306:
army always contained an equal number of legions and
8171:
8090:
8078:
8024:
7967:
7562:
7537:
Armies and Enemies of Imperial Rome 150 AD to 600 AD
7329:
7327:
7057:
6404:
6183:
5400:. title in perpetuity. Another common title was the
3382:
for short, were the heavily armoured cavalry of the
2358:(284β305), the traditional Principate formations of
1836:
In 106 AD, emperor Trajan finally defeated the
8587:
An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire
7937:
7861:
7859:
7373:
7312:
6595:
6593:
6317:
1432:by the Romans and corresponded roughly with modern
1337:
995:were likely modelled on legionary cohorts i.e. six
8584:
8561:
8462:
8336:The equestrian officers of the Roman imperial army
8059:
8057:
7722:
7720:
7485:
7483:
7481:
7095:
7093:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6511:
6509:
6507:
6505:
6292:
6290:
5507:cohors I Brittonum Ulpia torquata pia fidelis c.R.
5476:('crowns'), of which the most prestigious was the
3620:were virtually all mercenaries from the island of
1409:
1383:
10647:Military units and formations of the Roman Empire
8568:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
7979:
7324:
6280:
6278:
6276:
6274:
1322:, were Romanised Illyrians from the provinces of
1220:who were subjugated by Rome in 12β9 BC (the
10628:
7856:
7215:
7213:
6590:
5513:
5370:(presumably named after a prefect whose middle (
5316:
5255:in a legion and finally prefect of an auxiliary
5079:were a roughly equal split between citizens and
4828:
4394:suggestion that the rule was routinely ignored.
3650:, a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon.
2478:The late 4th-century writer on military affairs
1394:(43 AD), and the former client kingdoms of
332:(218β202 BC) resulted in crushing defeats.
8338:. Vol. 2. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
8054:
7717:
7478:
7090:
6647:
6502:
6287:
1959:In addition, Holder believes that a further 14
179:troops, especially cavalry, increased when the
8072:Birley (2002) 47β8; Vindolanda Tablets Online
6720:
6271:
5042:117, when XV Apollinaris was transferred from
4958:, the rest common soldiers with the status of
4881:(standard-bearer for the whole regiment, from
4418:recruits (66%) were from the 18β23 age group.
3616:From about 218 BC onwards, the archers of the
3313:
2969:, between 30 and 32 men. 30 was the size of a
2963:NOTE: Opinion is divided about the size of an
2441:that retained their 2nd-century names, mostly
373:were all granted Roman citizenship, the Latin
266:, the second rank in Roman society, after the
8685:
8334:Devijver, Hubert (1992). Speidel, M P (ed.).
8289:Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda
8189:Auxiliary unit figures from Holder (2003) 145
7210:
7116:(r. 161β80) and I, II and III Parthica under
4504:may be compared to a legionary's as follows:
4300:). His heir, who erected the stone, is named
3879:
3814:, 'treaty'). One estimate puts the number of
1350:from Cambridgeshire (England), 1st century AD
929:
27:Non-citizen troops in the Imperial Roman army
8523:Auxiliary Deployment in the Reign of Hadrian
8361:
8342:
7266:Assuming 33% drop in nos. due to war/disease
6145:Roman Empire during Hadrian's reign (AD 125)
3889:). Both auxiliaries and seamen received the
3437:ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum cataphractaria
3304:. Non-combat roles such as despatch riders (
2266:. The evidence for an earlier pandemic, the
1831:
1017:(squadrons) of 30 (or 32) men, each under a
1001:of about 80 men each (total about 480 men).
158:, free provincial subjects who did not hold
8451:
8442:
5550:
5535:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5483:
5477:
5471:
5461:
5455:
5449:
5443:
5425:
5414:
5407:
5401:
5391:
5371:
5365:
5359:
5352:
5345:
5339:
5328:
5308:
5301:
5293:
5286:(common soldier). (This compares to a full
5281:
5274:
5264:
5257:
5249:
5241:
5230:
5224:
5218:
5211:
5195:
5189:
5182:
5175:
5169:
5162:
5155:
5149:
5141:
5132:
5125:
5117:
5097:
5089:
5081:
5073:
5066:
5059:
5052:
5015:
5009:
4985:
4979:
4971:
4965:
4959:
4953:
4947:
4924:
4918:
4912:
4905:
4897:
4890:
4882:
4876:
4870:
4864:
4858:
4852:
4846:
4840:
4830:
4819:
4812:
4805:
4798:
4780:
4769:
4761:
4749:
4726:
4718:
4671:
4661:
4571:
4558:
4549:
4524:
4499:
4489:
4483:
4477:
4471:
4465:
4456:
4450:
4444:
4438:
4428:
4412:
4385:
4379:
4373:
4367:
4361:
4355:
4333:
4327:
4309:
4272:
4254:
4247:
4240:
4226:
4219:
4201:
4194:
4187:
4180:
4173:
4159:
4152:
4145:
4138:
4120:
4113:
4106:
4099:
4093:
4080:
4073:
4066:
4060:
4038:
4025:
4017:
4002:
3995:
3982:
3974:
3962:
3948:
3936:
3922:
3896:
3890:
3862:
3854:
3845:
3830:
3822:
3815:
3809:
3801:
3789:
3783:
3776:
3752:
3745:
3739:
3738:attested to in the 3rd century in Britain:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3713:
3703:
3693:
3687:
3681:
3663:
3637:
3606:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3580:
3573:
3557:
3548:
3534:
3526:
3512:
3504:
3494:
3483:
3435:
3429:
3422:
3416:were designed to counter Parthian (and, in
3410:
3401:
3377:
3369:
3364:
3331:
3310:) were generally filled by cohort cavalry.
3305:
3298:
3290:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3260:
3253:
3245:
3238:
3229:
3222:
3214:
3203:
3196:
3188:
3177:
3167:
3160:
3137:
3128:
3120:
3112:
3103:
3096:
3077:
3066:
3058:
3039:
3005:
2994:
2987:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2953:
2945:
2934:
2926:
2900:
2891:
2881:
2874:
2864:
2852:
2824:
2815:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2779:
2755:
2746:
2734:
2724:
2702:
2684:
2674:
2645:
2636:
2629:
2619:
2591:
2581:
2572:
2562:
2500:
2492:
2485:
2469:
2460:
2459:armies. For example, many of the new-style
2454:
2448:
2442:
2435:
2427:
2420:
2405:
2397:
2391:
2374:
2366:
2359:
2315:
2308:
2301:
2286:
2279:
2241:
2234:
2221:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2165:
2031:Estimated size of Roman army 24β305 AD
2001:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1969:
1961:
1878:
1870:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1797:
1789:
1722:
1715:
1693:
1687:
1615:
1591:, the general in command of the legions in
1531:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1494:
1487:
1481:
1471:
1437:
1426:
1374:
1309:
1303:
1277:
1255:
1221:
1170:
1059:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1018:
1010:
1003:
996:
990:
958:
448:
439:
422:
410:
383:
375:
368:
307:
297:
291:
280:. This was Rome's defence system until the
188:
175:Reliance on the various contingents of non-
167:
147:
138:
120:
92:
76:
55:
8692:
8678:
7198:raised in the late 2nd/early 3rd centuries
3770:
3234:was in effect a self-contained mini-army.
3044:. The shield of the auxiliaries was oval.
1546:, clearly a Latin name adopted on gaining
936:
922:
8582:
8395:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
8319:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
7921:
7919:
5194:(standard-bearer for the whole unit) and
4290:(ranker) of the Alpine infantry regiment
3767:. Little else is known about such units.
2475:, which they appear to closely resemble.
1701:
208:
119:from 27 BC. By the 2nd century, the
46:, on a pontoon bridge during the emperor
8505:Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army
8409:
8365:Money and government in the Roman empire
8345:Structure and scale in the Roman economy
8333:
8295:
6212:Structural history of the Roman military
6140:
4997:
4281:
3657:
3348:
3329:(right) flee for their lives from Roman
3317:
2334:
1844:and annexed it as the Roman province of
1705:
1419:
1341:
217:
37:
8699:
8619:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
8559:
8483:
7074:
7072:
3911:Auxilia ranks and pay (mid-1st century)
3678:strong indigenous tradition of slinging
1668:had to fight two difficult battles, at
14:
10629:
8538:
8529:
8520:
8511:
8502:
8314:
8286:
7916:
7904:RMD Vol V Appendix 4 e.g. RMD 127, 128
7577:
7531:
6381:The Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army
5466:were bracelets worn on the wrist; and
3288:Nevertheless, non-combat roles of the
1631:mutinied and joined him, defeating at
1058:Auxiliary regiments were now led by a
8673:
8632:
8623:
8614:
8605:
8460:
8390:
6682:Military Diplomas Online Introduction
4269:
3175:
2975:in the Republican cavalry and in the
2505:
2013:Auxilia deployment in the 2nd century
1436:province, Neth. Their chief town was
1338:Later Julio-Claudians (14β68 AD)
214:Background: Roman Republic (to 30 BC)
86:
7240:Hassall (2000) 320 estimates 380,000
7069:
2214:
1410:Revolt of the Batavi (69β70 AD)
8617:Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars
7308:Constitutio Antoniniana de Civitate
7288:Holder (2006) 985; Roxan (2003) 672
5321:
3536:ala I Ulpia dromedariorum milliaria
3337:(auxiliary cavalrymen), during the
2993:was 512 strong. This would make an
2390:, elite units normally part of the
137:) and more specialised troops. The
66:carried by legionaries. Panel from
24:
8660:List of auxiliary units in Britain
8564:Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire
8150:from the original on 19 April 2018
7963:List of auxiliary units in Britain
7826:, pp44, Book Club Associates, 1982
7559:Goldsworthy (2003), pp. 52β53
5174:('deputy'), who may have been the
5050:The limited evidence on auxiliary
4993:
4851:. These were, in ascending order:
3732:'to scout'). Two examples include
3094:(30 BC β AD 284), the all-mounted
2412:, lower-grade border troops. (See
1091:), and from the Balkan provinces (
1049:with a cavalry contingent of four
25:
10658:
8643:
5448:) for valour to its legionaries.
5148:(who had an officer staff of six
4984:(keeper of the armoury), and the
4498:The remuneration of an auxiliary
32:List of Roman auxiliary regiments
8655:Batavian auxiliaries re-enactors
8542:The Augustan empire, 43 BCβAD 69
8298:The crisis of empire, AD 193β337
8192:
8183:
8162:
8132:
8123:
8102:
8066:
8045:
8036:
8015:
8006:
7997:
7988:
7946:
7928:
7907:
7898:
7886:
7877:
7868:
7847:
7838:
7829:
7816:
7807:
7794:
7782:
7773:
7764:
7751:
7738:
7729:
7708:
7685:
7676:
7667:
7658:
7649:
7646:Holder (2003), pp. 135, 133
7640:
7631:
7622:
7613:
7604:
7571:
7553:
7525:
7516:
7507:
7492:
7469:
7460:
7446:
7437:
7428:
7419:
7410:
7391:
7382:
6186:
4615:Less: Equipment etc. deductions
3711:
3443:
3394:models, they were also known as
3296:differed significantly from the
905:
465:
115:after his reorganisation of the
7802:Imperial Roman Navy, 31BC-AD324
7705:Goldsworthy (2003), p. 137
7637:Goldsworthy (2000), p. 140
7628:Davies (1988), pp. 141β143
7610:Goldsworthy (2003), p. 168
7358:
7345:
7336:
7300:
7291:
7282:
7269:
7260:
7243:
7234:
7222:
7201:
7176:
7167:
7154:
7145:
7132:
7123:
7102:
7081:
7048:
7039:
7030:
7018:
7005:
6996:
6983:
6970:
6957:
6945:
6932:
6919:
6906:
6893:
6880:
6867:
6854:
6845:
6832:
6819:
6806:
6793:
6780:
6767:
6755:
6738:
6729:
6711:
6686:
6665:
6638:
6629:
6620:
6611:
6602:
6581:
6572:
6563:
6554:
6545:
6536:
6527:
6518:
6493:
6476:
6467:
6458:
6449:
6440:
6431:
6422:
6395:
6386:
6373:
6358:
6349:
6340:
6331:
4929:('one-and-a-half-pay men') and
3726:('reconnaissance troops', from
3520:
3032:. This spear might have been a
1736:, (i.e. member of the Thracian
1580:exactly a century earlier: the
1031:was under the command of three
152:were mainly recruited from the
8650:Roman Military Diplomas Online
8368:. Cambridge University Press.
8362:Duncan-Jones, Richard (1994).
8347:. Cambridge University Press.
8343:Duncan-Jones, Richard (1990).
7568:Goldsworthy (2000), p. 52
7108:Goldsworthy (2000) 152 (map):
6308:
6299:
6262:
6253:
6244:
6228:
5949:Syria/Leb/Palest/Jordan/Israel
5437:
4407:). In the Julio-Claudian era,
3618:Roman army of the mid-Republic
2330:
13:
1:
8393:Frontiers of the Roman empire
8204:
7582:Boudicca's Rebellion AD 60β61
5514:Deployment in the 2nd century
5361:ala I Pannoniorum et Gallorum
5317:Names, titles and decorations
5203:
3202:are specifically attested as
2228:(Antonine decree) of emperor
1560:governor of Germania Inferior
1171:Illyrian revolt (6β9 AD)
800:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
9264:Frontiers and fortifications
8452:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003).
8443:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000).
7953:http://www.roman-britain.org
7398:http://www.roman-britain.org
7257:(1979) 454 estimates 438,000
7129:25 legions of 5,000 men each
6672:http://www.romanlegions.info
6222:
6207:Roman auxiliaries in Britain
5014:(common cavalryman) through
3796:
1746:(originally raised from the
1101:Cantabrian and Asturian Wars
714:Frontiers and fortifications
278:Roman military confederation
7:
9323:Decorations and punishments
8410:Gauthier, François (2019).
7673:Sidnell (2006), p. 172
7251:How Big was the Roman Army?
7045:Roxan (2003); Holder (2006)
6179:
3653:
3314:Auxiliary specialised units
3003:
2252:Crisis of the Third Century
1983:. Spaul accepts only those
1780:RΓΆmisch-Germanisches Museum
1740:tribe), he belonged to the
1702:Flavian era (69β96 AD)
1605:, who in turn won over the
1387:units that legions lacked.
1308:of auxiliary regiments and
526:Decorations and punishments
296:, commanded by three Roman
10:
10663:
10230:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
8805:historiography of the fall
8626:Roman Military Diplomas IV
8583:Mattingly, David (2007) .
8416:Journal of Ancient History
8209:
7779:Rossi (1971), p. 104.
7691:Holder (2003), p. 140
7578:Fields, Nic (2011-04-19).
7099:Holder (2003), p. 119
5757:W Hungary/Slovenia/Croatia
5344:('3rd Cohort of Batavi');
4857:('officer of the watch'),
4164:(deputy cohort commander)
3903:, or honorable discharge.
3880:Recruitment, ranks and pay
3542:
3127:). The elite status of an
2396:(imperial escort armies);
1621:defected to his side. The
1413:
1260:('of Roman citizens'), or
1174:
986:(mixed cavalry/infantry).
336:'s major victories at the
29:
10611:External wars and battles
10478:
10372:
10185:
9777:
9770:
9692:
9604:
9509:
9384:
9336:
9214:
9164:
9103:
9094:
8976:
8928:
8848:
8765:
8735:
8726:
8708:
8665:Vindolanda Tablets Online
8591:. London: Penguin Books.
8532:Roman Military Diplomas V
8514:The Roman Army in Britain
8317:Service in the Roman army
8279:
7892:Military Diplomas Online
7853:Goldsworthy (2003) 78, 80
7813:Gardiner 2000, p. 80
7746:The Roman Army in Britain
7726:Rossi (1971), p. 102
7664:Rossi (1971), p. 104
7112:II and III Italica under
5944:Syria (inc Judaea/Arabia)
5381:
4875:(centurion's deputy) and
4863:(standard-bearer for the
4085:(cohort standard-bearer)
3800:, Greek for 'allies') or
3476:. They were known as the
2613:
2556:
1991:specifically attested as
1832:Later Principate (97β284)
1582:Year of the Four Emperors
10637:Military of ancient Rome
8624:Roxan, Margaret (2003).
8606:Jones, A. H. M. (1964).
8560:Luttwak, Edward (1976).
8374:10.1017/cbo9780511552632
8287:Birley, Anthony (2002).
7770:Grant (1985), p. 72
7190:(2000) 523β7 identify 4
6644:Goldsworthy (2000) 165β6
5860:Dacia (Inf/Sup/Poroliss)
4724:(discharge bonus: 3,000
4022:'one-and-half-pay men')
3553:, or archer-units (from
3365:Heavily-armoured lancers
3237:The traditional view of
3050:Battle of Watling Street
2501:Unit types and structure
2350:, Sicily, 4th century AD
2323:, a key document on the
1695:auxilium Batavi seniores
1640:, including the Tungri,
1509:Germani corpore custodes
829:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
814:DanubeβIllerβRhine Limes
484:Military of ancient Rome
18:Ala (Roman cavalry unit)
10606:RomanβIranian relations
9081:Optimates and populares
8461:Grant, Michael (1985).
8168:Holder (1980) Chapter 2
8120:Goldsworthy (2003) 65β6
8074:Introduction: Personnel
7761:, pp40, Quercus (2010).
6851:Tacitus Historiae IV.13
6717:Tacitus Historiae IV.12
6314:Goldsworthy (2000) 78β9
6305:Goldsworthy (2000) 74β5
6217:Veteran (Roman history)
6030:Tunisia/Algeria/Morocco
6025:Mauretania (inc Africa)
5454:was a miniature spear;
4695:Total disposable income
3771:Irregular allied forces
3676:, which had nurtured a
3454:Mauretania Caesariensis
3431:ala I Ulpia contariorum
3075:
2348:Villa Romana del Casale
2224:constitutio Antoniniana
2023:'s rule (211 AD).
1689:equites Batavi seniores
1364:Roman military diplomas
1272:deployed by their king
1147:. Their light cavalry (
912:Ancient Rome portal
10616:Civil wars and revolts
9882:Sextus Pompeius Festus
9529:Conflict of the Orders
8888:Legislative assemblies
8608:The Later Roman Empire
8315:Davies, Roy W (1989).
8129:Goldsworthy (2000) 165
8051:Duncan-Jones (1994) 36
8042:Duncan-Jones (1994) 40
8012:Duncan-Jones (1994) 34
7522:Goldsworthy (2003) 136
7466:Goldsworthy (2000) 174
7434:Goldsworthy (2003) 206
7351:D. Ch. Stathakopoulos
7342:Goldsworthy (2000) 162
7306:The Roman Law Library
7066:Mattingly (2006) 168β9
6524:Goldsworthy (2000) 119
6437:Goldsworthy (2000) 214
6419:Goldsworthy (2000) 127
6337:Goldsworthy (2000) 107
6328:Goldsworthy (2000) 126
6146:
5831:N Bulgaria/coastal Rom
5551:
5536:
5506:
5500:
5498:(awarded a torque) or
5494:
5484:
5478:
5472:
5462:
5456:
5450:
5444:
5434:'dutiful and loyal').
5426:
5415:
5408:
5402:
5392:
5372:
5366:
5360:
5353:
5346:
5340:
5329:
5309:
5302:
5294:
5282:
5275:
5265:
5258:
5250:
5242:
5231:
5225:
5219:
5212:
5196:
5190:
5183:
5176:
5170:
5163:
5156:
5150:
5142:
5133:
5126:
5118:
5098:
5090:
5082:
5074:
5067:
5060:
5053:
5047:
5016:
5010:
4986:
4980:
4972:
4966:
4960:
4954:
4948:
4925:
4919:
4913:
4906:
4898:
4891:
4883:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4859:
4853:
4847:
4841:
4831:
4820:
4813:
4806:
4799:
4781:
4770:
4762:
4750:
4727:
4719:
4672:
4662:
4572:
4559:
4550:
4525:
4500:
4490:
4484:
4478:
4472:
4466:
4457:
4451:
4445:
4439:
4429:
4413:
4386:
4380:
4374:
4368:
4362:
4356:
4328:
4323:
4310:
4273:
4255:
4248:
4241:
4227:
4220:
4202:
4195:
4188:
4181:
4174:
4160:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4121:
4114:
4107:
4100:
4094:
4081:
4074:
4067:
4061:
4039:
4026:
4018:
4003:
3996:
3983:
3975:
3963:
3949:
3937:
3923:
3919:(as multiple of basic)
3897:
3891:
3863:
3855:
3846:
3831:
3823:
3816:
3810:
3808:('treaty troops' from
3802:
3790:
3784:
3777:
3753:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3714:
3704:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3669:
3664:
3648:recurved composite bow
3638:
3607:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3549:
3535:
3527:
3513:
3505:
3495:
3484:
3436:
3430:
3423:
3411:
3402:
3378:
3372:Equites cataphractarii
3370:
3354:
3346:
3332:
3306:
3299:
3291:
3281:
3274:
3267:
3261:
3254:
3246:
3239:
3230:
3223:
3215:
3204:
3197:
3189:
3178:
3168:
3161:
3138:
3129:
3121:
3113:
3104:
3097:
3078:
3067:
3059:
3040:
3006:
2995:
2988:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2954:
2946:
2935:
2927:
2901:
2892:
2882:
2875:
2865:
2853:
2825:
2816:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2780:
2756:
2747:
2735:
2725:
2703:
2685:
2675:
2646:
2637:
2630:
2620:
2592:
2582:
2573:
2563:
2493:
2486:
2470:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2436:
2428:
2421:
2406:
2398:
2393:exercitus praesentales
2392:
2375:
2367:
2360:
2351:
2316:
2309:
2302:
2287:
2280:
2242:
2235:
2222:
2209:
2202:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2166:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1978:
1970:
1962:
1879:
1871:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1798:
1790:
1783:
1723:
1716:
1694:
1688:
1616:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1495:
1488:
1482:
1472:
1466:), in the Rhine river
1451:
1438:
1427:
1375:
1351:
1310:
1304:
1278:
1256:
1222:
1115:(annexed 15 BC),
1099:). By 19 BC, the
1060:
1051:
1045:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1019:
1011:
1004:
997:
991:
959:
449:
440:
423:
411:
384:
376:
369:
308:
298:
292:
244:
209:Historical development
189:
168:
148:
139:
121:
77:
71:
56:
10325:Simplicius of Cilicia
10077:Quintus Curtius Rufus
9306:Siege in Ancient Rome
8915:Executive magistrates
8530:Holder, Paul (2006).
8521:Holder, Paul (2003).
8512:Holder, Paul (1982).
8503:Holder, Paul (1980).
8428:10.1515/jah-2018-0037
8180:Goldsworthy (2003) 97
8144:www.armedforces.co.uk
8099:Goldsworthy (2003) 72
8087:Goldsworthy (2003) 73
8033:Goldsworthy (2003) 96
7994:Goldsworthy (2003) 95
7976:Goldsworthy (2003) 94
7874:Goldsworthy (2003) 76
7321:Goldsworthy (2003) 74
6608:Goldsworthy (2003) 64
6499:Goldsworthy (2003) 51
6446:Goldsworthy (2003) 27
6268:Goldsworthy (2000) 49
6259:Goldsworthy (2000) 51
6250:Goldsworthy (2000) 44
6144:
5226:centurio primus pilus
5046:(Austria) to the East
5001:
4970:(regimental doctor),
4598:Less: Food deduction
4405:second-class citizens
4285:
3661:
3352:
3321:
2951:in Batavi and Tungri
2338:
1709:
1423:
1348:Witcham Gravel helmet
1345:
1320:Constantine the Great
1177:Great Illyrian Revolt
951:Julio-Claudian period
795:Neckar-Odenwald Limes
610:Technological history
221:
88:[auΜ―kΛsΜ Ιͺlia]
41:
10335:Stephanus Byzantinus
10240:Eusebius of Caesaria
10102:Sidonius Apollinaris
9792:Ammianus Marcellinus
9131:Tribune of the plebs
8633:Spaul, John (2000).
8391:Elton, Hugh (1996).
8266:(end of 1st century)
8257:(end of 1st century)
8248:(end of 1st century)
7943:Mattingly (2006) 223
7913:Mattingly (2006) 190
7735:Mattingly, 2006, 223
7379:MacMullen (1979) 455
7078:Hassall (2000) 332β4
7036:Mattingly (2006) 132
6383:(Oxford, 1914), 8β9.
5752:Pannonia (Inf + Sup)
5341:cohors III Batavorum
5188:were the regiment's
5157:praefectus castrorum
5035:Legio XV Apollinaris
4495:origin of the unit.
4078:(centurion's deputy)
3955:(in ascending order)
3929:(in ascending order)
3243:(the cavalry arm of
3119:) and a dagger (the
2264:Claudius II Gothicus
1926:P. A. Holder (2003)
1813:cohors/ala milliaria
1730:Titus Flavius Bassus
1470:, then known as the
1416:Revolt of the Batavi
1376:tribunus laticlavius
785:Lower Germanic Limes
684:Strategy and tactics
619:Military engineering
521:Unit types and ranks
409:on a regular basis:
10511:Distinguished women
10162:Velleius Paterculus
10002:Nicolaus Damascenus
9982:Marcellus Empiricus
9371:Republican currency
8454:Complete Roman Army
8239:(early 2nd century)
8221:(early 2nd century)
8219:Acies contra Alanos
8108:Dewijver (1992) 120
7759:The Legions of Rome
7539:. p. 114-118.
7535:(22 January 2016).
7333:Elton (1996) 148β52
7297:Campbell (2005) 212
7228:Implied by Tacitus
6473:Holder (1982) 110β3
6202:Imperial Roman army
6194:Ancient Rome portal
5912:Central/East Turkey
5717:S Ger/Switz/Austria
5639:S Neth/NW Rhineland
5522:
4511:
4360:(foot soldier in a
4293:Cohors I Montanorum
4231:(cohort commander)
4111:(decurion's deputy)
3913:
3735:numeri exploratorum
3598:) could be denoted
2955:cohortes milliariae
2861:cavalry contingent
2788:cavalry contingent
2518:
2033:
1862:
1732:, son of Mucala. A
780:Lauter Valley Limes
381:abolished, and the
117:Imperial Roman army
10285:Phlegon of Tralles
10092:Seneca the Younger
9566:Naming conventions
9296:Personal equipment
8829:Later Roman Empire
8615:Rossi, L. (1971).
8465:The Roman Emperors
8275:(late 4th century)
8198:Goldsworthy (2000)
7985:Hassall (2000) 336
7958:2003-12-17 at the
7934:Heather (2005) 119
7925:Holder (1980) 86β8
7513:Hassall (2000) 339
7454:Notitia Dignitatum
7403:2003-12-17 at the
7186:(1996) 257β60 and
7025:Notitia Dignitatum
6677:2014-01-05 at the
6296:Hassall (2000) 320
6147:
6065:Internal provinces
5518:
5347:cohors I Brittonum
5048:
5005:cohors I Alpinorum
4899:cohortes equitatae
4637:Net disposable pay
4507:
4324:
4057:'double-pay men')
3909:
3670:
3514:Notitia Dignitatum
3355:
3347:
3292:equites cohortales
3255:equites cohortales
3247:cohortes equitatae
3240:equites cohortales
3179:Cohortes equitatae
3169:cohortes equitatae
2915:(800 inf/240 cav)
2839:(480 inf/120 cav)
2514:
2506:Regular unit types
2422:Notitia Dignitatum
2352:
2318:Notitia Dignitatum
2061:3rd-century crisis
2029:
1858:
1784:
1782:, Cologne, Germany
1762:and his two sons,
1666:Petillius Cerialis
1541:Julius the Citizen
1452:
1352:
1188:The German leader
1072:rank, or a senior
1040:Cohortes equitatae
1009:were divided into
881:Limes Tripolitanus
502:Structural history
299:praefecti sociorum
245:
72:
10642:Roman auxiliaries
10624:
10623:
10586:Pontifices maximi
10368:
10367:
10225:Diogenes LaΓ«rtius
10047:Pliny the Younger
9802:Asconius Pedianus
9762:Romance languages
9634:Civil engineering
9376:Imperial currency
9249:Political control
9210:
9209:
8844:
8843:
8598:978-0-14-014822-0
8575:978-0-8018-1863-9
8495:978-1-139-05439-3
8476:978-0-684-18388-6
8402:978-0-253-33111-3
8383:978-0-521-64829-5
8354:978-0-521-35477-6
8326:978-0-85224-495-1
8307:978-1-139-05392-1
8230:(mid-3rd century)
7883:Holder (1980) 138
7865:Holder (1980) 123
7844:Davies (1988) 148
7597:978-1-84908-313-3
7546:978-1-326-54109-5
7173:Holder (2003) 120
7118:Septimius Severus
7054:Keppie (1996) 394
6735:Scheidel (2006) 9
6692:Keppie (1996) 390
6662:Keppie (1996) 391
6533:Holder (1982) 145
6515:Keppie (1996) 396
6464:Keppie (1996) 382
6401:Keppie (1996) 379
6392:Keppie (1996) 373
6346:Keppie (1996) 372
6284:Holder (2003) 145
6240:978-1-84603-380-3
6139:
6138:
5668:Germania Superior
5634:Germania Inferior
5338:plural case e.g.
4829:Junior officers (
4787:subsistence level
4744:
4743:
4458:numerus Hnaufridi
4372:(cavalryman in a
4298:Roman citizenship
4267:
4266:
4157:(chief centurion)
4154:centurio princeps
4126:standard-bearer)
3359:Balearic slingers
3021:lorica segmentata
3000:
2959:
2932:in original c.R.
2919:
2918:
2260:Plague of Cyprian
2178:
2160:
2159:
2113:Praetorian Guard
2021:Septimius Severus
1956:
1952:
1951:
1894:Total effectives
1710:Tombstone of the
1624:Classis Germanica
1548:Roman citizenship
1478:Germania Inferior
1384:Section 2.1 below
1358:(41β54 AD).
1223:Bellum Pannonicum
1131:(25 BC) and
1089:Germania Superior
1085:Germania Inferior
977:cohors (peditata)
946:
945:
897:
896:
888:Limes Mauretaniae
743:Limes Britannicus
704:
703:
668:Political history
658:
657:
578:
577:
454:militia legions.
364:(58β51 BC).
356:provided by king
166:, members of the
160:Roman citizenship
16:(Redirected from
10654:
10576:Magistri equitum
10491:Cities and towns
10484:
10410:Constantinopolis
10220:Diodorus Siculus
10152:Valerius Maximus
10087:Seneca the Elder
10007:Nonius Marcellus
9775:
9774:
9328:Hippika gymnasia
9291:Infantry tactics
9197:Consular tribune
9187:Magister equitum
9136:Military tribune
9101:
9100:
9061:Pontifex maximus
9056:Princeps senatus
9046:Magister militum
8812:Byzantine Empire
8733:
8732:
8694:
8687:
8680:
8671:
8670:
8638:
8629:
8620:
8611:
8602:
8590:
8579:
8567:
8556:
8535:
8526:
8517:
8508:
8499:
8480:
8468:
8457:
8448:
8439:
8406:
8387:
8358:
8339:
8330:
8311:
8292:
8237:De vita Caesarum
8199:
8196:
8190:
8187:
8181:
8178:
8169:
8166:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8155:
8136:
8130:
8127:
8121:
8118:
8109:
8106:
8100:
8097:
8088:
8085:
8076:
8070:
8064:
8063:Birley (2002) 47
8061:
8052:
8049:
8043:
8040:
8034:
8031:
8022:
8021:Jones (1964) 647
8019:
8013:
8010:
8004:
8001:
7995:
7992:
7986:
7983:
7977:
7974:
7965:
7950:
7944:
7941:
7935:
7932:
7926:
7923:
7914:
7911:
7905:
7902:
7896:
7890:
7884:
7881:
7875:
7872:
7866:
7863:
7854:
7851:
7845:
7842:
7836:
7833:
7827:
7820:
7814:
7811:
7805:
7798:
7792:
7786:
7780:
7777:
7771:
7768:
7762:
7755:
7749:
7742:
7736:
7733:
7727:
7724:
7715:
7712:
7706:
7703:
7692:
7689:
7683:
7680:
7674:
7671:
7665:
7662:
7656:
7653:
7647:
7644:
7638:
7635:
7629:
7626:
7620:
7617:
7611:
7608:
7602:
7601:
7585:
7575:
7569:
7566:
7560:
7557:
7551:
7550:
7529:
7523:
7520:
7514:
7511:
7505:
7496:
7490:
7489:Birley (2002) 46
7487:
7476:
7473:
7467:
7464:
7458:
7450:
7444:
7443:Jones (1964) 610
7441:
7435:
7432:
7426:
7425:Jones (1964) 620
7423:
7417:
7414:
7408:
7395:
7389:
7386:
7380:
7377:
7371:
7362:
7356:
7349:
7343:
7340:
7334:
7331:
7322:
7319:
7310:
7304:
7298:
7295:
7289:
7286:
7280:
7273:
7267:
7264:
7258:
7247:
7241:
7238:
7232:
7226:
7220:
7217:
7208:
7205:
7199:
7180:
7174:
7171:
7165:
7158:
7152:
7149:
7143:
7136:
7130:
7127:
7121:
7106:
7100:
7097:
7088:
7087:Spaul (2000) 526
7085:
7079:
7076:
7067:
7064:
7055:
7052:
7046:
7043:
7037:
7034:
7028:
7022:
7016:
7009:
7003:
7002:Birley (2002) 44
7000:
6994:
6987:
6981:
6974:
6968:
6961:
6955:
6949:
6943:
6936:
6930:
6923:
6917:
6910:
6904:
6897:
6891:
6884:
6878:
6871:
6865:
6858:
6852:
6849:
6843:
6836:
6830:
6823:
6817:
6810:
6804:
6797:
6791:
6784:
6778:
6771:
6765:
6759:
6753:
6742:
6736:
6733:
6727:
6726:Birley (2002) 43
6724:
6718:
6715:
6709:
6702:
6693:
6690:
6684:
6669:
6663:
6660:
6645:
6642:
6636:
6635:Suetonius III.17
6633:
6627:
6624:
6618:
6615:
6609:
6606:
6600:
6599:Suetonius III.16
6597:
6588:
6585:
6579:
6576:
6570:
6567:
6561:
6558:
6552:
6549:
6543:
6540:
6534:
6531:
6525:
6522:
6516:
6513:
6500:
6497:
6491:
6480:
6474:
6471:
6465:
6462:
6456:
6453:
6447:
6444:
6438:
6435:
6429:
6426:
6420:
6417:
6402:
6399:
6393:
6390:
6384:
6377:
6371:
6362:
6356:
6355:Keppie (196) 375
6353:
6347:
6344:
6338:
6335:
6329:
6326:
6315:
6312:
6306:
6303:
6297:
6294:
6285:
6282:
6269:
6266:
6260:
6257:
6251:
6248:
6242:
6232:
6196:
6191:
6190:
6189:
5900:Eastern Frontier
5554:
5539:
5523:
5517:
5509:
5503:
5497:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5465:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5429:
5418:
5411:
5405:
5395:
5393:civium Romanorum
5377:
5369:
5363:
5356:
5349:
5343:
5332:
5322:Regimental names
5312:
5305:
5297:
5285:
5278:
5268:
5261:
5253:
5251:tribunus militum
5245:
5234:
5228:
5222:
5215:
5199:
5193:
5186:
5179:
5173:
5166:
5160:), an auxiliary
5159:
5153:
5147:
5144:legatus legionis
5136:
5129:
5121:
5105:warrant officers
5101:
5093:
5085:
5077:
5070:
5063:
5056:
5021:
5013:
4989:
4983:
4977:
4969:
4963:
4961:milities immunes
4957:
4951:
4928:
4922:
4916:
4909:
4901:
4894:
4888:
4880:
4874:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4834:
4823:
4816:
4809:
4802:
4784:
4773:
4765:
4753:
4730:
4722:
4675:
4665:
4575:
4562:
4553:
4528:
4512:
4506:
4503:
4501:pedes cohortalis
4493:
4487:
4485:eques cohortalis
4481:
4475:
4469:
4460:
4454:
4452:cuneus Frisiorum
4448:
4446:Ala I Sarmatarum
4442:
4432:
4416:
4389:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4365:
4359:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4313:
4308:flowers, called
4276:
4258:
4251:
4244:
4230:
4223:
4205:
4198:
4192:(chief decurion)
4191:
4189:decurio princeps
4184:
4177:
4163:
4156:
4149:
4142:
4124:
4117:
4110:
4104:standard-bearer)
4103:
4097:
4084:
4077:
4071:standard-bearer)
4070:
4064:
4042:
4029:
4021:
4006:
3999:
3986:
3978:
3966:
3952:
3940:
3926:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3894:
3874:Marcomannic Wars
3866:
3858:
3849:
3834:
3826:
3819:
3813:
3807:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3780:
3756:
3749:
3743:
3737:
3731:
3725:
3717:
3707:
3697:
3691:
3685:
3674:Balearic Islands
3667:
3641:
3632:and, above all,
3613:employing bows.
3610:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3552:
3538:
3532:
3516:
3510:
3507:equites Dalmatae
3498:
3490:Numidian cavalry
3487:
3479:equites Maurorum
3460:), who were the
3439:
3433:
3426:
3414:
3407:
3381:
3375:
3335:
3309:
3302:
3294:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3264:
3257:
3249:
3242:
3233:
3226:
3218:
3207:
3200:
3192:
3181:
3171:
3164:
3141:
3132:
3126:
3118:
3109:
3100:
3081:
3070:
3062:
3043:
3009:
2998:
2991:
2980:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2957:
2949:
2938:
2930:
2928:tribunus militum
2921:
2904:
2895:
2885:
2878:
2868:
2866:tribunus militum
2856:
2828:
2819:
2809:
2802:
2795:
2783:
2759:
2750:
2740:
2737:tribunus militum
2728:
2706:
2688:
2678:
2649:
2640:
2633:
2623:
2595:
2587:
2578:
2566:
2519:
2513:
2496:
2489:
2473:
2466:
2463:auxilia palatina
2458:
2452:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2424:
2411:
2403:
2395:
2378:
2370:
2363:
2321:
2312:
2305:
2290:
2288:ala I Sarmatarum
2283:
2245:
2238:
2227:
2212:
2205:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2171:
2162:
2130:Total Roman Army
2034:
2028:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1965:
1954:
1899:J. Spaul (2000)
1882:
1874:
1863:
1857:
1827:
1825:cohors milliaria
1821:
1815:
1801:
1793:
1726:
1719:
1697:
1691:
1619:
1578:Battle of Actium
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1498:
1491:
1485:
1475:
1473:Insula Batavorum
1441:
1430:
1428:Insula Batavorum
1378:
1313:
1307:
1281:
1259:
1257:civium Romanorum
1225:
1195:Teutoberg Forest
1149:equites Maurorum
1123:(9 BC) and
1063:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1016:
1007:
1000:
994:
962:
938:
931:
924:
910:
909:
908:
769:Limes Germanicus
719:
718:
696:Infantry tactics
689:
688:
645:Triumphal arches
615:
614:
596:Wars and battles
588:Campaign history
507:
506:
469:
468:
462:
461:
452:
445:
426:
416:
387:
379:
372:
362:Conquest of Gaul
354:Numidian cavalry
330:Second Punic War
311:
301:
295:
268:senatorial order
264:equestrian order
192:
171:
151:
142:
124:
106:
103:
100:
97:
94:
90:
85:
80:
59:
21:
10662:
10661:
10657:
10656:
10655:
10653:
10652:
10651:
10627:
10626:
10625:
10620:
10482:
10480:
10474:
10364:
10200:AΓ«tius of Amida
10181:
10167:Verrius Flaccus
10147:Valerius Antias
10107:Silius Italicus
10042:Pliny the Elder
9987:Marcus Aurelius
9862:Cornelius Nepos
9812:Aurelius Victor
9766:
9688:
9600:
9534:Secessio plebis
9505:
9380:
9332:
9206:
9160:
9090:
8972:
8924:
8840:
8761:
8722:
8704:
8698:
8646:
8641:
8599:
8576:
8553:
8496:
8486:The high empire
8477:
8403:
8384:
8355:
8327:
8308:
8282:
8212:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8193:
8188:
8184:
8179:
8172:
8167:
8163:
8153:
8151:
8138:
8137:
8133:
8128:
8124:
8119:
8112:
8107:
8103:
8098:
8091:
8086:
8079:
8071:
8067:
8062:
8055:
8050:
8046:
8041:
8037:
8032:
8025:
8020:
8016:
8011:
8007:
8002:
7998:
7993:
7989:
7984:
7980:
7975:
7968:
7960:Wayback Machine
7951:
7947:
7942:
7938:
7933:
7929:
7924:
7917:
7912:
7908:
7903:
7899:
7891:
7887:
7882:
7878:
7873:
7869:
7864:
7857:
7852:
7848:
7843:
7839:
7834:
7830:
7821:
7817:
7812:
7808:
7804:Westport, 1975.
7799:
7795:
7787:
7783:
7778:
7774:
7769:
7765:
7757:Dando-Collins,
7756:
7752:
7748:Batsford, 1982.
7743:
7739:
7734:
7730:
7725:
7718:
7713:
7709:
7704:
7695:
7690:
7686:
7681:
7677:
7672:
7668:
7663:
7659:
7654:
7650:
7645:
7641:
7636:
7632:
7627:
7623:
7619:Cheesman (1914)
7618:
7614:
7609:
7605:
7598:
7576:
7572:
7567:
7563:
7558:
7554:
7547:
7530:
7526:
7521:
7517:
7512:
7508:
7497:
7493:
7488:
7479:
7474:
7470:
7465:
7461:
7451:
7447:
7442:
7438:
7433:
7429:
7424:
7420:
7415:
7411:
7405:Wayback Machine
7396:
7392:
7387:
7383:
7378:
7374:
7363:
7359:
7350:
7346:
7341:
7337:
7332:
7325:
7320:
7313:
7305:
7301:
7296:
7292:
7287:
7283:
7274:
7270:
7265:
7261:
7248:
7244:
7239:
7235:
7227:
7223:
7219:Rankov (1994) 8
7218:
7211:
7206:
7202:
7181:
7177:
7172:
7168:
7159:
7155:
7150:
7146:
7137:
7133:
7128:
7124:
7114:Marcus Aurelius
7107:
7103:
7098:
7091:
7086:
7082:
7077:
7070:
7065:
7058:
7053:
7049:
7044:
7040:
7035:
7031:
7027:Titles IV and V
7023:
7019:
7010:
7006:
7001:
6997:
6988:
6984:
6975:
6971:
6962:
6958:
6950:
6946:
6937:
6933:
6924:
6920:
6911:
6907:
6898:
6894:
6885:
6881:
6872:
6868:
6859:
6855:
6850:
6846:
6837:
6833:
6824:
6820:
6811:
6807:
6798:
6794:
6785:
6781:
6772:
6768:
6760:
6756:
6743:
6739:
6734:
6730:
6725:
6721:
6716:
6712:
6703:
6696:
6691:
6687:
6679:Wayback Machine
6670:
6666:
6661:
6648:
6643:
6639:
6634:
6630:
6625:
6621:
6616:
6612:
6607:
6603:
6598:
6591:
6586:
6582:
6577:
6573:
6568:
6564:
6559:
6555:
6550:
6546:
6541:
6537:
6532:
6528:
6523:
6519:
6514:
6503:
6498:
6494:
6481:
6477:
6472:
6468:
6463:
6459:
6455:Holder (1980) 9
6454:
6450:
6445:
6441:
6436:
6432:
6428:Holder (1980) 7
6427:
6423:
6418:
6405:
6400:
6396:
6391:
6387:
6379:G.L. Cheesman,
6378:
6374:
6368:Ab Urbe Condita
6363:
6359:
6354:
6350:
6345:
6341:
6336:
6332:
6327:
6318:
6313:
6309:
6304:
6300:
6295:
6288:
6283:
6272:
6267:
6263:
6258:
6254:
6249:
6245:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6192:
6187:
6185:
6182:
5826:Moesia Inferior
5792:Moesia Superior
5705:Danube Frontier
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5556:
5541:
5530:
5516:
5440:
5384:
5324:
5319:
5206:
5200:(horn-blower).
5151:tribuni militum
5109:sergeants major
4996:
4994:Senior officers
4837:
4677:every 3 years)
4668:
4577:(gross salary)
4564:
4556:
4539:
4531:
4517:
4375:cohors equitata
4345:
4342:
4339:
4336:
4280:
4193:
4186:
4158:
4151:
4112:
4105:
4079:
4072:
4040:sesquiplicarius
3959:
3954:
3933:
3928:
3918:
3882:
3870:Marcus Aurelius
3773:
3719:
3656:
3595:cohors equitata
3569:
3566:
3563:
3560:
3545:
3523:
3446:
3367:
3343:Trajan's Column
3316:
3231:cohors equitata
3184:
3084:
3026:Trajan's Column
3012:
2978:cohors equitata
2940:
2914:
2909:
2897:
2880:
2860:
2851:
2847:Cohors equitata
2838:
2833:
2821:
2804:
2787:
2778:
2774:Cohors equitata
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2508:
2503:
2425:lists about 70
2414:Late Roman army
2333:
2325:late Roman army
2297:Marcus Aurelius
2268:Antonine Plague
2215:Irregular units
2069:
2062:
2055:
2048:
2041:
1885:Total no. units
1834:
1704:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1418:
1412:
1370:tribuni militum
1340:
1328:Moesia Superior
1311:tribuni militum
1282:(puppet king).
1206:Illyrian revolt
1183:Cantabrian Wars
1179:
1173:
1159:(ruled 41β54).
983:cohors equitata
980:(infantry) and
942:
906:
904:
899:
898:
893:
865:Limes Sarmatiae
859:Anastasian Wall
837:Pannonian Limes
716:
706:
705:
700:
686:
676:
675:
674:
670:
660:
659:
654:
640:
612:
602:
601:
600:
590:
580:
579:
574:
549:
535:
504:
494:
466:
460:
417:(archers) from
216:
211:
104:
101:
98:
95:
83:
68:Trajan's Column
34:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10660:
10650:
10649:
10644:
10639:
10622:
10621:
10619:
10618:
10613:
10608:
10603:
10598:
10593:
10588:
10583:
10578:
10573:
10568:
10563:
10558:
10553:
10548:
10543:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10523:
10518:
10513:
10508:
10503:
10498:
10493:
10487:
10485:
10476:
10475:
10473:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10452:
10447:
10442:
10437:
10432:
10427:
10422:
10417:
10412:
10407:
10402:
10397:
10392:
10387:
10382:
10376:
10374:
10370:
10369:
10366:
10365:
10363:
10362:
10357:
10352:
10347:
10342:
10337:
10332:
10327:
10322:
10317:
10312:
10307:
10302:
10297:
10292:
10287:
10282:
10277:
10272:
10267:
10262:
10257:
10252:
10247:
10242:
10237:
10232:
10227:
10222:
10217:
10212:
10207:
10202:
10197:
10191:
10189:
10183:
10182:
10180:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10134:
10129:
10124:
10119:
10114:
10109:
10104:
10099:
10094:
10089:
10084:
10079:
10074:
10069:
10064:
10059:
10054:
10052:Pomponius Mela
10049:
10044:
10039:
10034:
10029:
10024:
10019:
10014:
10009:
10004:
9999:
9994:
9989:
9984:
9979:
9974:
9969:
9964:
9959:
9954:
9949:
9944:
9939:
9934:
9929:
9924:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9904:
9899:
9894:
9889:
9884:
9879:
9874:
9869:
9864:
9859:
9854:
9849:
9844:
9839:
9834:
9829:
9824:
9819:
9814:
9809:
9804:
9799:
9794:
9789:
9787:Aelius Donatus
9783:
9781:
9772:
9768:
9767:
9765:
9764:
9759:
9758:
9757:
9755:Ecclesiastical
9752:
9747:
9742:
9737:
9732:
9727:
9722:
9717:
9709:
9704:
9698:
9696:
9690:
9689:
9687:
9686:
9681:
9676:
9671:
9666:
9661:
9656:
9651:
9646:
9641:
9636:
9631:
9626:
9621:
9616:
9610:
9608:
9602:
9601:
9599:
9598:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9578:
9573:
9568:
9563:
9558:
9557:
9556:
9546:
9541:
9536:
9531:
9526:
9521:
9515:
9513:
9507:
9506:
9504:
9503:
9498:
9496:Toys and games
9493:
9488:
9483:
9478:
9473:
9468:
9467:
9466:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9436:
9431:
9426:
9421:
9416:
9411:
9406:
9401:
9396:
9390:
9388:
9382:
9381:
9379:
9378:
9373:
9368:
9363:
9358:
9353:
9348:
9342:
9340:
9334:
9333:
9331:
9330:
9325:
9320:
9315:
9310:
9309:
9308:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9288:
9278:
9273:
9272:
9271:
9261:
9256:
9251:
9246:
9241:
9236:
9231:
9226:
9220:
9218:
9212:
9211:
9208:
9207:
9205:
9204:
9199:
9194:
9189:
9184:
9179:
9174:
9168:
9166:
9162:
9161:
9159:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9143:
9138:
9133:
9128:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9107:
9105:
9098:
9092:
9091:
9089:
9088:
9083:
9078:
9073:
9068:
9063:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9043:
9038:
9036:Vigintisexviri
9033:
9028:
9023:
9018:
9013:
9008:
9003:
8998:
8996:Cursus honorum
8993:
8988:
8982:
8980:
8974:
8973:
8971:
8970:
8965:
8960:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8940:
8934:
8932:
8926:
8925:
8923:
8922:
8917:
8912:
8911:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8885:
8880:
8875:
8870:
8865:
8860:
8854:
8852:
8846:
8845:
8842:
8841:
8839:
8838:
8837:
8836:
8826:
8825:
8824:
8819:
8809:
8808:
8807:
8802:
8795:Western Empire
8792:
8787:
8782:
8777:
8771:
8769:
8763:
8762:
8760:
8759:
8754:
8753:
8752:
8742:
8736:
8730:
8724:
8723:
8721:
8720:
8715:
8709:
8706:
8705:
8697:
8696:
8689:
8682:
8674:
8668:
8667:
8662:
8657:
8652:
8645:
8644:External links
8642:
8640:
8639:
8630:
8621:
8612:
8603:
8597:
8580:
8574:
8557:
8551:
8536:
8527:
8518:
8509:
8500:
8494:
8481:
8475:
8458:
8449:
8440:
8422:(2): 251β268.
8407:
8401:
8388:
8382:
8359:
8353:
8340:
8331:
8325:
8312:
8306:
8293:
8283:
8281:
8278:
8277:
8276:
8273:De re militari
8267:
8258:
8249:
8240:
8231:
8222:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8200:
8191:
8182:
8170:
8161:
8131:
8122:
8110:
8101:
8089:
8077:
8065:
8053:
8044:
8035:
8023:
8014:
8005:
7996:
7987:
7978:
7966:
7945:
7936:
7927:
7915:
7906:
7897:
7885:
7876:
7867:
7855:
7846:
7837:
7828:
7815:
7806:
7793:
7781:
7772:
7763:
7750:
7737:
7728:
7716:
7707:
7693:
7684:
7675:
7666:
7657:
7648:
7639:
7630:
7621:
7612:
7603:
7596:
7570:
7561:
7552:
7545:
7524:
7515:
7506:
7491:
7477:
7475:Vegetius III.3
7468:
7459:
7445:
7436:
7427:
7418:
7409:
7390:
7388:Lee (1997) 223
7381:
7372:
7357:
7344:
7335:
7323:
7311:
7299:
7290:
7281:
7268:
7259:
7242:
7233:
7221:
7209:
7200:
7175:
7166:
7153:
7144:
7131:
7122:
7101:
7089:
7080:
7068:
7056:
7047:
7038:
7029:
7017:
7004:
6995:
6982:
6969:
6956:
6944:
6931:
6918:
6905:
6892:
6879:
6866:
6853:
6844:
6831:
6818:
6805:
6792:
6779:
6766:
6754:
6737:
6728:
6719:
6710:
6694:
6685:
6664:
6646:
6637:
6628:
6619:
6610:
6601:
6589:
6580:
6571:
6562:
6553:
6544:
6535:
6526:
6517:
6501:
6492:
6475:
6466:
6457:
6448:
6439:
6430:
6421:
6403:
6394:
6385:
6372:
6357:
6348:
6339:
6330:
6316:
6307:
6298:
6286:
6270:
6261:
6252:
6243:
6226:
6224:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6198:
6197:
6181:
6178:
6177:
6176:
6173:
6170:
6166:
6137:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6108:
6100:
6098:
6092:
6091:
6086:
6083:
6080:
6075:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6061:
6060:
6055:
6052:
6049:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6027:
6021:
6020:
6015:
6012:
6009:
6004:
6001:
5998:
5993:
5987:
5986:
5980:
5979:
5974:
5971:
5968:
5963:
5957:
5951:
5946:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5931:
5928:
5923:
5917:
5914:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5896:
5895:
5890:
5887:
5884:
5879:
5873:
5867:
5862:
5856:
5855:
5850:
5847:
5844:
5839:
5836:
5833:
5828:
5822:
5821:
5816:
5813:
5810:
5805:
5802:
5799:
5794:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5779:
5776:
5771:
5765:
5759:
5754:
5748:
5747:
5742:
5739:
5736:
5731:
5725:
5719:
5714:
5712:Raetia/Noricum
5708:
5707:
5701:
5700:
5695:
5692:
5689:
5684:
5678:
5675:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5658:
5655:
5652:
5647:
5644:
5641:
5636:
5630:
5629:
5627:Rhine Frontier
5623:
5622:
5617:
5614:
5611:
5606:
5600:
5594:
5589:
5583:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5547:
5532:
5529:Approx. modern
5527:
5515:
5512:
5485:corona muralis
5439:
5436:
5383:
5380:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5205:
5202:
5008:, rising from
4995:
4992:
4981:custos armorum
4949:sesquiplicarii
4943:respectively.
4926:sesquiplicarii
4836:
4827:
4742:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4714:
4713:
4710:
4709:
4704:
4702:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4687:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4656:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4646:
4644:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4621:
4616:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4604:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4583:
4578:
4567:
4566:
4544:
4541:
4520:
4279:
4268:
4265:
4264:
4261:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4216:
4212:
4211:
4208:
4196:beneficiarius?
4170:
4168:
4165:
4161:beneficiarius?
4135:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4058:
4048:
4047:
4044:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4023:
4019:sesquiplicarii
4013:
4012:
4009:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3987:(infantryman)
3980:
3970:
3969:
3956:
3946:
3943:
3930:
3920:
3899:honesta missio
3881:
3878:
3772:
3769:
3718:
3710:
3655:
3652:
3544:
3541:
3522:
3519:
3445:
3442:
3424:cataphractarii
3412:cataphractarii
3379:cataphractarii
3366:
3363:
3315:
3312:
3262:equites alares
3259:did not match
3220:were probably
3183:
3174:
3090:period of the
3083:
3074:
3016:light infantry
3011:
3002:
2999:32 men strong.
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2887:
2872:
2862:
2857:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2811:
2796:
2789:
2784:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2751:
2744:
2732:
2729:
2714:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2699:
2692:
2682:
2679:
2664:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2641:
2634:
2627:
2624:
2609:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2588:
2579:
2570:
2567:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2523:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2332:
2329:
2293:Hadrian's Wall
2274:(r. 284β305).
2187:('group') and
2158:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2066:
2064:c. 270 AD
2059:
2052:
2050:c. 130 AD
2045:
2038:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1891:Total infantry
1889:
1886:
1883:
1875:
1867:
1833:
1830:
1822:and 800 for a
1703:
1700:
1692:(cavalry) and
1638:Gallia Belgica
1552:Roman invasion
1528:Julius Civilis
1414:Main article:
1411:
1408:
1339:
1336:
1274:Rhoemetalces I
1175:Main article:
1172:
1169:
1119:(16 BC),
1081:Gallia Belgica
1043:were infantry
944:
943:
941:
940:
933:
926:
918:
915:
914:
901:
900:
895:
894:
892:
891:
884:
877:
874:Limes Arabicus
869:
868:
861:
856:
851:
846:
844:Limes Alutanus
840:
839:
833:
832:
824:
823:
817:
816:
810:
809:
808:
807:
805:Wetterau Limes
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
764:
763:
762:
761:
756:
754:Hadrian's Wall
751:
738:
737:
736:
735:
722:
717:
712:
711:
708:
707:
702:
701:
699:
698:
692:
687:
682:
681:
678:
677:
672:
671:
666:
665:
662:
661:
656:
655:
653:
652:
647:
641:
639:
638:
633:
625:
622:
621:
613:
608:
607:
604:
603:
599:
598:
592:
591:
586:
585:
582:
581:
576:
575:
573:
572:
567:
561:
558:
557:
551:
550:
548:
547:
542:
536:
534:
533:
528:
523:
517:
514:
513:
505:
500:
499:
496:
495:
486:
480:
479:
471:
470:
459:
456:
433:Balearic Isles
256:heavy infantry
215:
212:
210:
207:
185:Julio-Claudian
181:Roman Republic
164:Roman citizens
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10659:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10638:
10635:
10634:
10632:
10617:
10614:
10612:
10609:
10607:
10604:
10602:
10599:
10597:
10594:
10592:
10589:
10587:
10584:
10582:
10579:
10577:
10574:
10572:
10569:
10567:
10564:
10562:
10559:
10557:
10554:
10552:
10549:
10547:
10544:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10512:
10509:
10507:
10504:
10502:
10499:
10497:
10494:
10492:
10489:
10488:
10486:
10477:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10451:
10448:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10438:
10436:
10433:
10431:
10428:
10426:
10423:
10421:
10418:
10416:
10413:
10411:
10408:
10406:
10403:
10401:
10398:
10396:
10393:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10381:
10378:
10377:
10375:
10371:
10361:
10358:
10356:
10353:
10351:
10348:
10346:
10343:
10341:
10338:
10336:
10333:
10331:
10328:
10326:
10323:
10321:
10318:
10316:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10306:
10303:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10293:
10291:
10288:
10286:
10283:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10251:
10248:
10246:
10243:
10241:
10238:
10236:
10233:
10231:
10228:
10226:
10223:
10221:
10218:
10216:
10213:
10211:
10208:
10206:
10203:
10201:
10198:
10196:
10193:
10192:
10190:
10188:
10184:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10118:
10115:
10113:
10110:
10108:
10105:
10103:
10100:
10098:
10095:
10093:
10090:
10088:
10085:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10060:
10058:
10055:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10013:
10010:
10008:
10005:
10003:
10000:
9998:
9995:
9993:
9990:
9988:
9985:
9983:
9980:
9978:
9975:
9973:
9970:
9968:
9965:
9963:
9960:
9958:
9955:
9953:
9950:
9948:
9945:
9943:
9942:Julius Paulus
9940:
9938:
9935:
9933:
9930:
9928:
9925:
9923:
9920:
9918:
9915:
9913:
9910:
9908:
9905:
9903:
9900:
9898:
9895:
9893:
9890:
9888:
9885:
9883:
9880:
9878:
9877:Fabius Pictor
9875:
9873:
9870:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9855:
9853:
9850:
9848:
9845:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9835:
9833:
9830:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9818:
9815:
9813:
9810:
9808:
9805:
9803:
9800:
9798:
9795:
9793:
9790:
9788:
9785:
9784:
9782:
9780:
9776:
9773:
9769:
9763:
9760:
9756:
9753:
9751:
9748:
9746:
9743:
9741:
9738:
9736:
9733:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9712:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9699:
9697:
9695:
9691:
9685:
9682:
9680:
9677:
9675:
9672:
9670:
9667:
9665:
9662:
9660:
9657:
9655:
9652:
9650:
9647:
9645:
9642:
9640:
9637:
9635:
9632:
9630:
9627:
9625:
9622:
9620:
9617:
9615:
9614:Amphitheatres
9612:
9611:
9609:
9607:
9603:
9597:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9574:
9572:
9569:
9567:
9564:
9562:
9559:
9555:
9552:
9551:
9550:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9537:
9535:
9532:
9530:
9527:
9525:
9522:
9520:
9517:
9516:
9514:
9512:
9508:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9482:
9479:
9477:
9474:
9472:
9469:
9465:
9462:
9461:
9460:
9457:
9455:
9452:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9440:
9437:
9435:
9432:
9430:
9427:
9425:
9422:
9420:
9417:
9415:
9412:
9410:
9407:
9405:
9402:
9400:
9397:
9395:
9392:
9391:
9389:
9387:
9383:
9377:
9374:
9372:
9369:
9367:
9364:
9362:
9359:
9357:
9354:
9352:
9351:Deforestation
9349:
9347:
9344:
9343:
9341:
9339:
9335:
9329:
9326:
9324:
9321:
9319:
9316:
9314:
9311:
9307:
9304:
9302:
9301:Siege engines
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9287:
9284:
9283:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9270:
9267:
9266:
9265:
9262:
9260:
9257:
9255:
9252:
9250:
9247:
9245:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9234:Establishment
9232:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9221:
9219:
9217:
9213:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9169:
9167:
9165:Extraordinary
9163:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9151:Promagistrate
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9108:
9106:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9093:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9052:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9014:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9002:
8999:
8997:
8994:
8992:
8989:
8987:
8984:
8983:
8981:
8979:
8975:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8938:Twelve Tables
8936:
8935:
8933:
8931:
8927:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8890:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8874:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8864:
8861:
8859:
8856:
8855:
8853:
8851:
8847:
8835:
8832:
8831:
8830:
8827:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8814:
8813:
8810:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8797:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8772:
8770:
8768:
8764:
8758:
8755:
8751:
8748:
8747:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8737:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8725:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8710:
8707:
8702:
8695:
8690:
8688:
8683:
8681:
8676:
8675:
8672:
8666:
8663:
8661:
8658:
8656:
8653:
8651:
8648:
8647:
8636:
8631:
8627:
8622:
8618:
8613:
8609:
8604:
8600:
8594:
8589:
8588:
8581:
8577:
8571:
8566:
8565:
8558:
8554:
8552:0-521-26430-8
8548:
8544:
8543:
8537:
8533:
8528:
8524:
8519:
8515:
8510:
8506:
8501:
8497:
8491:
8487:
8482:
8478:
8472:
8467:
8466:
8459:
8455:
8450:
8446:
8445:Roman Warfare
8441:
8437:
8433:
8429:
8425:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8408:
8404:
8398:
8394:
8389:
8385:
8379:
8375:
8371:
8367:
8366:
8360:
8356:
8350:
8346:
8341:
8337:
8332:
8328:
8322:
8318:
8313:
8309:
8303:
8299:
8294:
8290:
8285:
8284:
8274:
8271:
8268:
8265:
8262:
8259:
8256:
8253:
8250:
8247:
8244:
8241:
8238:
8235:
8232:
8229:
8228:Roman History
8226:
8223:
8220:
8217:
8214:
8213:
8195:
8186:
8177:
8175:
8165:
8149:
8145:
8141:
8135:
8126:
8117:
8115:
8105:
8096:
8094:
8084:
8082:
8075:
8069:
8060:
8058:
8048:
8039:
8030:
8028:
8018:
8009:
8000:
7991:
7982:
7973:
7971:
7964:
7961:
7957:
7954:
7949:
7940:
7931:
7922:
7920:
7910:
7901:
7895:
7889:
7880:
7871:
7862:
7860:
7850:
7841:
7832:
7825:
7819:
7810:
7803:
7797:
7790:
7785:
7776:
7767:
7760:
7754:
7747:
7741:
7732:
7723:
7721:
7714:Holder (2003)
7711:
7702:
7700:
7698:
7688:
7679:
7670:
7661:
7652:
7643:
7634:
7625:
7616:
7607:
7599:
7593:
7589:
7584:
7583:
7574:
7565:
7556:
7548:
7542:
7538:
7534:
7528:
7519:
7510:
7503:
7500:
7495:
7486:
7484:
7482:
7472:
7463:
7456:
7455:
7449:
7440:
7431:
7422:
7413:
7406:
7402:
7399:
7394:
7385:
7376:
7369:
7366:
7361:
7354:
7348:
7339:
7330:
7328:
7318:
7316:
7309:
7303:
7294:
7285:
7278:
7272:
7263:
7256:
7252:
7246:
7237:
7231:
7225:
7216:
7214:
7204:
7197:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7179:
7170:
7163:
7157:
7148:
7141:
7135:
7126:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7105:
7096:
7094:
7084:
7075:
7073:
7063:
7061:
7051:
7042:
7033:
7026:
7021:
7014:
7008:
6999:
6992:
6986:
6979:
6973:
6966:
6960:
6954:
6948:
6942:IV.33, 66, 67
6941:
6935:
6928:
6922:
6915:
6909:
6902:
6896:
6889:
6883:
6876:
6870:
6863:
6857:
6848:
6841:
6835:
6828:
6822:
6815:
6809:
6802:
6796:
6789:
6783:
6776:
6770:
6763:
6758:
6751:
6747:
6741:
6732:
6723:
6714:
6707:
6701:
6699:
6689:
6683:
6680:
6676:
6673:
6668:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6641:
6632:
6623:
6614:
6605:
6596:
6594:
6584:
6575:
6566:
6557:
6548:
6539:
6530:
6521:
6512:
6510:
6508:
6506:
6496:
6489:
6488:
6484:
6479:
6470:
6461:
6452:
6443:
6434:
6425:
6416:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6398:
6389:
6382:
6376:
6369:
6366:
6361:
6352:
6343:
6334:
6325:
6323:
6321:
6311:
6302:
6293:
6291:
6281:
6279:
6277:
6275:
6265:
6256:
6247:
6241:
6237:
6231:
6227:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6199:
6195:
6184:
6174:
6171:
6167:
6164:
6163:
6162:
6161:
6157:
6156:
6152:
6143:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6093:
6090:
6087:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6062:
6059:
6056:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6039:
6037:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6019:
6016:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5988:
5985:
5982:
5981:
5978:
5975:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5958:
5956:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5941:
5938:
5935:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5904:
5901:
5898:
5897:
5894:
5891:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5857:
5854:
5851:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5820:
5817:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5789:
5786:
5783:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5766:
5764:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5749:
5746:
5743:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5726:
5724:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5709:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5699:
5696:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5662:
5659:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5628:
5625:
5624:
5621:
5618:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5601:
5599:
5595:
5593:
5592:England/Wales
5590:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5560:
5555:
5553:
5548:
5545:
5540:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5521:
5511:
5508:
5502:
5496:
5489:
5486:
5480:
5479:corona civica
5474:
5469:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5435:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5419:
5417:
5410:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5368:
5362:
5357:
5355:
5348:
5342:
5337:
5333:
5331:
5314:
5311:
5306:
5304:
5298:
5296:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5277:
5272:The pay of a
5270:
5267:
5266:ala milliaria
5262:
5260:
5254:
5252:
5246:
5244:
5236:
5233:
5227:
5221:
5216:
5214:
5201:
5198:
5192:
5187:
5185:
5178:
5172:
5171:beneficiarius
5167:
5165:
5158:
5152:
5146:
5145:
5138:
5135:
5130:
5128:
5122:
5120:
5113:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5100:
5094:
5092:
5086:
5084:
5078:
5076:
5069:
5062:
5057:
5055:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5036:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5020:
5019:
5012:
5007:
5006:
5000:
4991:
4988:
4987:cornicularius
4982:
4976:
4975:
4968:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4944:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4927:
4921:
4915:
4910:
4908:
4902:
4900:
4893:
4887:
4886:
4879:
4873:
4867:
4861:
4855:
4849:
4843:
4833:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4815:
4808:
4803:
4801:
4795:
4790:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4774:
4772:
4766:
4764:
4758:
4754:
4752:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4723:
4721:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4689:
4688:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4669:(average: 75
4666:
4664:
4658:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4631:
4630:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4569:
4568:
4565:(annualised)
4561:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4545:
4542:
4540:(annualised)
4537:
4536:
4529:
4527:
4521:
4519:
4514:
4513:
4510:
4505:
4502:
4496:
4492:
4486:
4480:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4459:
4453:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4401:
4395:
4391:
4390:cavalryman).
4388:
4382:
4376:
4370:
4364:
4358:
4353:
4352:
4330:
4321:
4317:
4312:
4311:stella Alpina
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4277:
4275:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4250:
4245:
4243:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4222:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4197:
4190:
4183:
4178:
4176:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4162:
4155:
4148:
4144:(centurion =
4143:
4141:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4116:
4109:
4102:
4096:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4069:
4063:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4014:
4010:
4007:
4005:
3998:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3972:
3971:
3967:
3965:
3957:
3951:
3947:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3931:
3927:infantry rank
3925:
3921:
3916:
3915:
3912:
3907:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3893:
3888:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3865:
3859:
3857:
3850:
3848:
3841:
3839:
3838:light cavalry
3835:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3779:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3755:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3716:
3709:
3706:
3699:
3696:
3690:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3666:
3660:
3651:
3649:
3643:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3608:sagittariorum
3602:
3601:sagittariorum
3596:
3590:
3585:
3583:
3576:
3556:
3551:
3550:sagittariorum
3540:
3537:
3531:
3530:
3518:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3491:
3488:('Moorish or
3486:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3466:Berber people
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:Light cavalry
3441:
3438:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3419:
3415:
3413:
3406:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3362:
3360:
3351:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3320:
3311:
3308:
3303:
3301:
3295:
3293:
3286:
3283:
3278:
3276:
3269:
3263:
3258:
3256:
3250:
3248:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3227:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3199:
3193:
3191:
3182:
3180:
3173:
3172:(see below).
3170:
3165:
3163:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3117:
3116:
3108:
3107:
3101:
3099:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3080:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3063:
3061:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3042:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3010:
3008:
3001:
2997:
2992:
2990:
2984:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2950:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2937:
2931:
2929:
2924:
2912:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2896:
2894:
2888:
2884:
2877:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:infantry plus
2858:
2855:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2843:
2842:
2836:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2820:
2818:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2786:infantry plus
2785:
2782:
2777:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2553:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2498:
2495:
2490:
2488:
2481:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2465:
2464:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2423:
2417:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2401:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2382:Constantine I
2379:
2377:
2371:
2369:
2362:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2340:Roman cavalry
2337:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2311:
2306:
2304:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2237:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2053:
2051:
2046:
2044:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1998:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1982:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1966:
1964:
1957:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1888:Total cavalry
1887:
1884:
1881:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1849:
1847:
1846:Dacia Traiana
1843:
1839:
1829:
1826:
1820:
1819:ala milliaria
1814:
1808:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1781:
1777:
1776:Thracian Hero
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1756:Titus Flavius
1753:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1743:Ala Noricorum
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1685:
1684:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1657:XV Primigenia
1653:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1490:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1429:
1422:
1417:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1349:
1344:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1184:
1178:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1145:Berber people
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1015:
1014:
1008:
1006:
999:
993:
987:
985:
984:
979:
978:
973:
972:
967:
963:
961:
954:
952:
939:
934:
932:
927:
925:
920:
919:
917:
916:
913:
903:
902:
890:
889:
885:
883:
882:
878:
876:
875:
871:
870:
867:
866:
862:
860:
857:
855:
854:Trajan's Wall
852:
850:
849:Limes Moesiae
847:
845:
842:
841:
838:
835:
834:
831:
830:
826:
825:
822:
821:Norican Limes
819:
818:
815:
812:
811:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
772:
771:
770:
766:
765:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
749:Antonine Wall
747:
746:
745:
744:
740:
739:
734:
731:
730:
729:
728:
724:
723:
721:
720:
715:
710:
709:
697:
694:
693:
691:
690:
685:
680:
679:
669:
664:
663:
651:
648:
646:
643:
642:
637:
636:Siege engines
634:
632:
631:
627:
626:
624:
623:
620:
617:
616:
611:
606:
605:
597:
594:
593:
589:
584:
583:
571:
568:
566:
563:
562:
560:
559:
556:
553:
552:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
518:
516:
515:
512:
509:
508:
503:
498:
497:
493:
489:
485:
482:
481:
477:
473:
472:
464:
463:
455:
453:
451:
444:
443:
436:
434:
430:
425:
420:
415:
414:
408:
404:
400:
395:
393:
388:
386:
380:
378:
371:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
326:Carthaginians
323:
317:
315:
310:
305:
300:
294:
289:
288:
283:
279:
275:
274:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:
242:
239:
235:
231:
227:
224:
220:
206:
204:
199:
196:
191:
186:
182:
178:
173:
170:
165:
161:
157:
156:
150:
144:
141:
136:
132:
131:light cavalry
128:
123:
118:
114:
110:
89:
81:
79:
69:
65:
64:
58:
53:
49:
45:
40:
36:
33:
19:
10556:Institutions
10420:Leptis Magna
10373:Major cities
10280:Philostratus
10067:Quadrigarius
9887:Rufus Festus
9750:Contemporary
9471:Romanization
9394:Architecture
9317:
9001:Collegiality
8850:Constitution
8701:Ancient Rome
8634:
8625:
8616:
8607:
8586:
8563:
8541:
8531:
8522:
8513:
8504:
8485:
8464:
8453:
8444:
8419:
8415:
8392:
8364:
8344:
8335:
8316:
8297:
8288:
8272:
8263:
8254:
8245:
8236:
8227:
8218:
8194:
8185:
8164:
8152:. Retrieved
8143:
8134:
8125:
8104:
8073:
8068:
8047:
8038:
8017:
8008:
7999:
7990:
7981:
7962:
7948:
7939:
7930:
7909:
7900:
7894:Introduction
7893:
7888:
7879:
7870:
7849:
7840:
7831:
7823:
7818:
7809:
7801:
7796:
7784:
7775:
7766:
7758:
7753:
7745:
7740:
7731:
7710:
7687:
7678:
7669:
7660:
7655:Livy XXXV.12
7651:
7642:
7633:
7624:
7615:
7606:
7581:
7573:
7564:
7555:
7536:
7533:Barker, Phil
7527:
7518:
7509:
7501:
7494:
7471:
7462:
7452:
7448:
7439:
7430:
7421:
7412:
7407:list of alae
7393:
7384:
7375:
7367:
7360:
7352:
7347:
7338:
7307:
7302:
7293:
7284:
7276:
7271:
7262:
7254:
7250:
7245:
7236:
7229:
7224:
7203:
7195:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7182:J. C. Spaul
7178:
7169:
7161:
7156:
7147:
7134:
7125:
7120:(r. 197β211)
7109:
7104:
7083:
7050:
7041:
7032:
7024:
7020:
7012:
7007:
6998:
6990:
6985:
6977:
6972:
6964:
6959:
6952:
6947:
6939:
6934:
6926:
6921:
6913:
6908:
6900:
6895:
6887:
6882:
6874:
6869:
6861:
6856:
6847:
6839:
6834:
6826:
6821:
6813:
6808:
6800:
6795:
6787:
6782:
6774:
6769:
6757:
6749:
6745:
6740:
6731:
6722:
6713:
6705:
6688:
6681:
6667:
6640:
6631:
6622:
6613:
6604:
6583:
6574:
6565:
6556:
6547:
6538:
6529:
6520:
6495:
6485:
6478:
6469:
6460:
6451:
6442:
6433:
6424:
6397:
6388:
6380:
6375:
6367:
6360:
6351:
6342:
6333:
6310:
6301:
6264:
6255:
6246:
6230:
6159:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6148:
6133:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6110:
6105:
6102:
6096:Total Empire
6095:
6088:
6077:
6064:
6057:
6046:
6041:
6035:
6029:
6024:
6017:
6006:
5995:
5990:
5984:North Africa
5983:
5976:
5965:
5960:
5954:
5948:
5943:
5936:
5925:
5920:
5911:
5906:
5899:
5892:
5881:
5876:
5870:
5864:
5859:
5852:
5841:
5830:
5825:
5818:
5807:
5796:
5791:
5784:
5773:
5768:
5762:
5756:
5751:
5744:
5733:
5728:
5722:
5716:
5711:
5704:
5697:
5686:
5681:
5673:Pfalz/Alsace
5672:
5667:
5660:
5649:
5638:
5633:
5626:
5619:
5608:
5603:
5597:
5591:
5586:
5558:
5549:
5543:
5534:
5519:
5490:
5441:
5431:
5413:
5397:
5387:
5385:
5367:ala Sulpicia
5351:
5327:
5325:
5300:
5292:
5273:
5271:
5256:
5248:
5240:
5237:
5210:
5207:
5181:
5161:
5139:
5124:
5116:
5114:
5096:
5088:
5080:
5072:
5051:
5049:
5039:
5033:
5024:
5003:
4974:veterinarius
4945:
4930:
4904:
4896:
4838:
4818:
4797:
4791:
4768:
4760:
4748:
4745:
4740:none proven
4725:
4717:
4706:
4699:
4694:
4685:none proven
4670:
4660:
4648:
4641:
4636:
4625:
4618:
4608:
4601:
4587:
4580:
4570:
4548:
4546:
4533:
4522:
4516:Remuneration
4515:
4508:
4497:
4467:eques alaris
4463:
4461:in Britain.
4436:
4427:
4424:
4420:
4409:conscription
4398:
4396:
4392:
4349:
4325:
4315:
4301:
4291:
4287:
4271:
4253:
4239:
4218:
4200:
4179:(decurion =
4172:
4137:
4119:
4052:
4008:cavalryman)
4001:
3961:
3935:
3910:
3905:
3883:
3861:
3853:
3844:
3842:
3829:
3821:
3791:symmachiarii
3788:('allies'),
3774:
3751:
3723:Exploratores
3720:
3700:
3671:
3644:
3636:. Of the 32
3615:
3605:
3579:
3554:
3546:
3524:
3521:Camel troops
3502:
3493:
3477:
3457:
3447:
3421:
3409:
3395:
3376:, or simply
3368:
3356:
3330:
3297:
3289:
3287:
3272:
3252:
3244:
3236:
3221:
3213:
3209:
3195:
3187:
3185:
3176:
3159:
3135:
3095:
3092:Roman Empire
3085:
3076:
3065:
3064:, the Latin
3057:
3046:
3033:
3019:
3013:
3004:
2986:
2961:
2952:
2944:
2941:
2933:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2899:
2890:
2869:
2846:
2844:
2823:
2814:
2773:
2771:
2754:
2741:
2719:
2717:
2695:
2689:
2669:
2667:
2660:
2654:
2644:
2614:
2612:
2605:
2599:
2557:
2555:
2515:
2509:
2494:comitatenses
2484:
2477:
2468:
2456:comitatenses
2450:praesentales
2434:
2426:
2418:
2400:comitatenses
2385:
2373:
2365:
2353:
2314:
2300:
2276:
2249:
2233:
2220:In 212, the
2219:
2200:
2180:
2164:
2161:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2030:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2000:
1992:
1984:
1976:
1968:
1960:
1958:
1953:
1946:
1935:
1919:
1908:
1859:
1850:
1835:
1809:
1805:
1796:
1788:
1785:
1771:
1755:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1728:cavalryman)
1721:
1717:eques alaris
1698:(infantry).
1681:
1678:
1662:
1655:
1649:
1628:
1622:
1614:
1596:
1586:
1575:
1568:
1556:
1526:
1493:
1453:
1425:
1389:
1381:
1368:
1360:
1353:
1346:The cavalry
1300:
1284:
1265:
1261:
1248:
1203:
1187:
1180:
1161:
1148:
1078:
1057:
1002:
988:
981:
975:
969:
957:
955:
947:
886:
879:
872:
863:
827:
767:
741:
725:
628:
539:
447:
437:
396:
382:
374:
366:
318:
285:
271:
260:Samnite Wars
246:
234:two warriors
226:funerary urn
203:Romanization
200:
193:from motley
174:
153:
145:
129:(especially
75:
73:
61:
35:
10551:Geographers
10235:Dioscorides
10215:Cassius Dio
9837:Cassiodorus
9740:Renaissance
9346:Agriculture
9318:Auxiliaries
9259:Engineering
9096:Magistrates
8948:Citizenship
8943:Mos maiorum
8878:Late Empire
8225:Dio Cassius
7789:Dio Cassius
7682:CAH XII 212
7502:Ars Tactica
7368:New History
7277:De Mensibus
7275:John Lydus
6829:I.64, II.66
6762:Dio Cassius
6626:Dio LV.30.5
6617:Dio LV.30.6
6587:Dio LV.31.1
6578:Dio LV.30.1
6569:Dio LV.29.4
6560:Dio LV.29.3
6551:Dio LV.29.2
6542:Dio LV.29.1
6169:Mauretania.
5438:Decorations
5427:pia fidelis
5232:primuspilus
5191:vexillarius
5119:centuriones
5091:centuriones
5068:centuriones
5054:centuriones
4920:principales
4878:vexillarius
4854:tesserarius
4842:principales
4832:principales
4260:commander)
4207:commander)
4115:vexillarius
4082:vexillarius
4043:(corporal)
4030:(corporal)
4027:tesserarius
3979:'rankers')
3386:. Based on
3339:Dacian Wars
3327:cataphracts
3186:These were
3086:During the
2781:quingenaria
2676:quingenaria
2564:quingenaria
2331:4th century
2295:by emperor
2057:211 AD
1840:kingdom of
1738:Dentheletae
1686:, e.g. the
1603:Cananefates
1521:validissimi
1464:Netherlands
974:(cavalry),
759:Saxon Shore
431:) from the
407:mercenaries
243:, c. 150 BC
102:auxiliaries
52:Dacian Wars
10631:Categories
10440:Mediolanum
10380:Alexandria
10345:Themistius
10310:Porphyrius
10137:Tertullian
10072:Quintilian
10062:Propertius
9957:Lactantius
9907:Fulgentius
9842:Censorinus
9664:Sanitation
9649:Metallurgy
9606:Technology
9571:Demography
9519:Patricians
9486:Spectacles
9444:Literature
9439:Hairstyles
9276:Technology
9026:Praefectus
8978:Government
8968:Litigation
8953:Auctoritas
8898:Centuriate
8785:Principate
8780:Pax Romana
8740:Foundation
8205:References
7586:. p.
7370:26, 37, 46
7249:MacMullen
7194:and 20β30
7142:(r. 81β96)
5907:Cappadocia
5566:aux. units
5531:equivalent
5451:Hasta pura
5310:peregrinus
5303:praefectus
5295:praefectus
5276:praefectus
5204:Commanders
5184:praefectus
5177:praefectus
5164:praefectus
5127:decuriones
5099:decuriones
5075:decuriones
5061:decuriones
4955:duplicarii
4932:duplicarii
4889:). In the
4573:Stipendium
4547:auxiliary
4523:legionary
4343:sandal men
4242:praefectus
4221:praefectus
4185:commander)
4150:commander)
4054:duplicarii
3761:Sarmatians
3689:funditores
3665:funditores
3662:Slingers (
3639:sagittarii
3539:in Syria.
3529:dromedarii
3525:A unit of
3468:of modern
3404:clibanarii
3384:Roman army
3088:Principate
2947:praefectus
2793:praefectus
2686:praefectus
2631:praefectus
2575:praefectus
2356:Diocletian
2272:Diocletian
2217:, below).
2190:vexillatio
2177:effectives
2175:Roman navy
2068:Diocletian
2054:S. Severus
2043:24 AD
2037:Army corps
2015:, below).
1629:XIV Gemina
1598:II Augusta
1570:XIV Gemina
1515:fortissimi
1500:and eight
1460:Gelderland
1439:Noviomagus
1434:Gelderland
1396:Mauretania
1316:Diocletian
1292:Punic Wars
1276:, a Roman
1252:Germanicus
1153:Mauretania
1061:praefectus
1055:attached.
1034:decuriones
790:Main Limes
424:funditores
413:sagittarii
358:Massinissa
314:Principate
282:Social War
241:terracotta
238:polychrome
236:fighting,
30:See also:
10596:Quaestors
10526:Empresses
10516:Dynasties
10506:Dictators
10481:and other
10470:Volubilis
10465:Vindobona
10425:Londinium
10350:Theodoret
10320:Procopius
10300:Polyaenus
10275:Pausanias
10177:Vitruvius
10122:Symmachus
10117:Suetonius
10027:Petronius
10012:Obsequens
9977:Macrobius
9972:Lucretius
9897:Frontinus
9872:Eutropius
9857:Columella
9807:Augustine
9797:Appuleius
9745:Neo-Latin
9720:Classical
9711:Versions
9619:Aqueducts
9561:Patronage
9481:Sexuality
9454:Mythology
9429:Education
9419:Cosmetics
9244:Campaigns
9239:Structure
9192:Decemviri
9051:Imperator
8750:overthrow
8436:2324-8114
8264:Historiae
8234:Suetonius
7824:Londinium
7355:(2007) 95
6991:Historiae
6978:Historiae
6965:Historiae
6953:Historiae
6940:Historiae
6929:IV.21, 28
6927:Historiae
6914:Historiae
6901:Historiae
6888:Historiae
6877:IV.24, 27
6875:Historiae
6862:Historiae
6840:Historiae
6827:Historiae
6814:Historiae
6801:Historiae
6775:Historiae
6750:Historiae
6748:29.1 and
6706:Historiae
6223:Citations
6155:equitatae
5587:Britannia
5574:Auxiliary
5569:Auxiliary
5501:armillata
5354:peregrini
5330:peregrini
5140:Unlike a
5083:peregrini
5044:Carnuntum
5030:centurion
4794:donativum
4782:capitatio
4667:(bonuses)
4488:225, and
4430:peregrini
4414:peregrini
4400:peregrini
4348:from the
4322:, Austria
4320:Carinthia
4318:68. From
4306:edelweiss
4270:Rankers (
3917:Pay scale
3864:foederati
3856:foederati
3847:foederati
3832:foederati
3817:foederati
3804:foederati
3797:symmachoi
3741:Habitanco
3729:explorare
3567:arrow-men
3496:foederati
3485:Numidarum
3462:ancestors
3388:Sarmatian
3324:Sarmatian
3307:dispositi
3224:equitatae
3205:equitatae
3156:Thracians
2996:ala turma
2966:ala turma
2893:centuriae
2854:milliaria
2817:centuriae
2757:centuriae
2731:infantry
2726:milliaria
2704:centuriae
2681:infantry
2621:milliaria
2550:strength
2540:sub-units
2535:commander
2530:commander
2522:Unit type
2487:limitanei
2444:limitanei
2408:limitanei
2310:foederati
2236:peregrini
2230:Caracalla
2168:foederati
1995:equitatae
1979:equitatae
1842:Decebalus
1795:and four
1760:Vespasian
1750:tribe of
1651:V Alaudae
1589:Vespasian
1489:peregrini
1398:(44) and
1392:Britannia
1305:praefecti
1288:Suetonius
1109:Lusitania
1097:Illyricum
1074:centurion
998:centuriae
775:Alb Limes
346:Numidians
249:manipular
155:peregrini
10601:Tribunes
10591:Praetors
10541:Generals
10521:Emperors
10430:Lugdunum
10415:Eboracum
10405:Carthage
10390:Aquileia
10305:Polybius
10295:Plutarch
10265:Libanius
10255:Josephus
10250:Herodian
10142:Tibullus
10057:Priscian
10032:Phaedrus
9992:Manilius
9937:Jordanes
9922:Hydatius
9852:Claudian
9832:Catullus
9822:BoΓ«thius
9817:Ausonius
9735:Medieval
9707:Alphabet
9679:Theatres
9654:Numerals
9639:Concrete
9629:Circuses
9596:Bagaudae
9586:Adoption
9581:Marriage
9554:Assembly
9459:Religion
9434:Folklore
9414:Clothing
9409:Calendar
9366:Currency
9356:Commerce
9254:Strategy
9216:Military
9202:Triumvir
9182:Dictator
9177:Interrex
9156:Governor
9141:Quaestor
9104:Ordinary
9086:Province
9076:Tetrarch
9066:Augustus
9031:Vicarius
9021:Officium
8958:Imperium
8908:Plebeian
8868:Republic
8790:Dominate
8757:Republic
8718:Timeline
8270:Vegetius
8246:Agricola
8148:Archived
7956:Archived
7822:Morris,
7744:Holder,
7416:Dio LXXI
7401:Archived
7196:cohortes
7188:COHORS 2
7160:Tacitus
7140:Domitian
7110:Legiones
7013:Agricola
7011:Tacitus
6989:Tacitus
6976:Tacitus
6963:Tacitus
6951:Tacitus
6938:Tacitus
6925:Tacitus
6912:Tacitus
6899:Tacitus
6886:Tacitus
6873:Tacitus
6860:Tacitus
6838:Tacitus
6825:Tacitus
6812:Tacitus
6799:Tacitus
6786:Tacitus
6773:Tacitus
6764:LXIX.9.6
6746:Germania
6744:Tacitus
6704:Tacitus
6675:Archived
6180:See also
6160:Analysis
6151:cohortes
5991:Aegyptus
5581:auxilia
5576:cavalry*
5571:infantry
5552:Cohortes
5526:Province
5495:torquata
5463:armillae
5457:phalerae
5420:name of
5336:genitive
5197:cornucen
5154:and one
5107:such as
5025:decurion
4941:sergeant
4937:corporal
4903:(and of
4885:vexillum
4866:centuria
4860:signifer
4848:centuria
4807:donativa
4777:poll tax
4757:Domitian
4663:Donativa
4557:amount (
4532:amount (
4473:gregalis
4381:gregalis
4329:caligati
4302:Montanus
4274:caligati
4249:tribunus
4228:tribunus
4210:1,315 +
4199:(deputy
4147:centuria
4140:centurio
4108:curator?
4095:signifer
4068:centuria
4062:signifer
3997:gregalis
3976:caligati
3892:viaticum
3887:Commodus
3840:above).
3763:and the
3747:Bremenio
3683:Baleares
3654:Slingers
3630:Anatolia
3418:Pannonia
3397:contarii
3392:Parthian
3216:cohortes
3210:equitata
3198:cohortes
3190:cohortes
3152:Iberians
3060:cohortes
3054:Boudicca
3030:javelins
3007:Cohortes
2985:that an
2936:cohortes
2876:centurio
2800:centurio
2748:centurio
2696:centurio
2626:cavalry
2569:cavalry
2545:strength
2543:Sub-unit
2533:Sub-unit
2480:Vegetius
2471:cohortes
2437:cohortes
2387:palatini
2376:cohortes
2361:legiones
2281:palatini
2256:smallpox
2203:cohortes
2150:290,000?
2122:~15,000
2119:~~8,000
2116:~~5,000
2104:250,000
2101:218,000
2098:125,000
2095:Auxilia
2086:182,000
2083:155,000
2080:125,000
2077:Legions
2040:Tiberius
2003:cohortes
1987:cohortes
1971:cohortes
1963:cohortes
1943:143,200
1916:124,640
1880:cohortes
1799:cohortes
1768:Domitian
1748:Taurisci
1683:palatini
1642:Lingones
1503:cohortes
1483:tributum
1448:X Gemina
1444:Nijmegen
1356:Claudius
1332:Pannonia
1324:Dalmatia
1232:Tiberius
1228:Dalmatae
1214:Pannonii
1190:Arminius
1157:Claudius
1121:Pannonia
1105:Hispania
1093:Dalmatia
1070:knightly
1066:Arminius
1046:cohortes
992:Cohortes
570:Admirals
545:Generals
476:a series
474:Part of
429:slingers
403:Syracuse
392:Augustus
334:Hannibal
324:and the
304:consular
232:showing
223:Etruscan
113:Augustus
10571:Legions
10531:Fiction
10501:Consuls
10496:Climate
10450:Ravenna
10445:Pompeii
10435:Lutetia
10400:Bononia
10395:Berytus
10385:Antioch
10360:Zosimus
10355:Zonaras
10330:Sozomen
10315:Priscus
10290:Photius
10132:Terence
10127:Tacitus
10112:Statius
10097:Servius
10082:Sallust
10037:Plautus
10017:Orosius
9997:Martial
9952:Juvenal
9927:Hyginus
9912:Gellius
9771:Writers
9702:History
9684:Thermae
9674:Temples
9624:Bridges
9591:Slavery
9539:Equites
9511:Society
9491:Theatre
9464:Deities
9424:Cuisine
9404:Bathing
9386:Culture
9361:Finance
9338:Economy
9229:Borders
9224:History
9126:Tribune
9121:Praetor
9011:Legatus
9006:Emperor
8893:Curiate
8863:Kingdom
8858:History
8834:History
8817:decline
8775:History
8745:Kingdom
8728:History
8713:Outline
8635:COHORS2
8261:Tacitus
8255:Annales
8252:Tacitus
8243:Tacitus
8210:Ancient
7800:Starr,
7791:LXXI.16
7365:Zosimus
7230:Annales
7162:Annales
6890:IV.15β6
6788:Annales
6487:Annales
6483:Tacitus
6370:XXII.37
6134:223,728
6124:152,260
6051:14,720
5973:10,240
5970:21,600
5886:17,920
5865:Romania
5778:11,360
5738:11,220
5691:10,880
5616:10,688
5613:25,520
5473:coronae
5468:torques
5288:colonel
5213:denarii
4967:medicus
4914:curator
4821:denarii
4814:praemia
4800:denarii
4771:denarii
4763:denarii
4751:denarii
4728:denarii
4720:Praemia
4673:denarii
4560:denarii
4535:denarii
4479:denarii
4440:barbari
4351:caligae
4337:
4263:13,150
4175:decurio
4134:Over 5
3964:denarii
3938:denarii
3778:barbari
3765:Germans
3712:Scouts/
3705:glandes
3692:, from
3575:sagitta
3572:, from
3561:
3543:Archers
3500:units.
3474:Morocco
3470:Algeria
3464:of the
3322:Routed
3148:Germans
3139:auxilia
2883:decurio
2807:decurio
2638:decurio
2584:decurio
2525:Service
2346:of the
2342:from a
2303:barbari
2243:barbari
2184:numerus
2155:390,000
2145:447,000
2140:381,000
2135:255,000
2071:284β305
2047:Hadrian
1947:217,624
1940:74,624
1920:180,800
1913:56,160
1853:Hadrian
1774:of the
1752:Noricum
1734:Dansala
1712:Flavian
1646:Treviri
1535:
1400:Thracia
1210:Bosnian
1164:Tacitus
1141:Numidia
1129:Galatia
1117:Noricum
1021:decurio
966:cohorts
540:Auxilia
531:Legions
340:and at
190:Auxilia
169:Auxilia
149:Auxilia
140:auxilia
135:archers
127:cavalry
122:Auxilia
109:legions
96:
78:auxilia
57:clipeus
10581:Nomina
10566:Legacy
10546:Gentes
10483:topics
10479:Lists
10460:Smyrna
10340:Strabo
10270:Lucian
10260:Julian
10210:Arrian
10205:Appian
10195:Aelian
10172:Vergil
9947:Justin
9932:Jerome
9917:Horace
9902:Fronto
9892:Florus
9867:Ennius
9847:Cicero
9827:Caesar
9725:Vulgar
9549:Tribes
9476:Romans
9286:Legion
9269:castra
9146:Aedile
9116:Censor
9111:Consul
9071:Caesar
9041:Lictor
8963:Status
8903:Tribal
8883:Senate
8873:Empire
8767:Empire
8703:topics
8595:
8572:
8549:
8492:
8473:
8434:
8399:
8380:
8351:
8323:
8304:
8280:Modern
8216:Arrian
7594:
7543:
7499:Arrian
7457:passim
6238:
6129:71,468
6085:2,224
6082:7,200
6058:22,516
6054:7,796
6014:3,008
6011:5,280
5977:31,840
5937:11,208
5933:3,368
5930:7,840
5893:25,248
5889:7,328
5849:3,520
5846:5,760
5815:1,864
5812:4,800
5797:Serbia
5785:19,664
5781:8,304
5745:16,500
5741:5,280
5698:14,216
5694:3,336
5661:12,672
5657:4,512
5654:8,160
5620:36,208
5422:Trajan
5412:: the
5382:Titles
5307:and a
5243:cohors
5220:alaris
4892:turmae
4659:Plus:
4491:cohors
4476:) 263
4378:) and
4363:cohors
4234:9,400
4167:940 +
3958:Amount
3932:Amount
3924:Cohors
3824:numeri
3811:foedus
3794:(from
3754:numeri
3715:numeri
3626:Thrace
3589:cohors
3450:Africa
3345:, Rome
3333:alares
3300:alares
3282:alares
3275:alares
3130:alaris
3115:spatha
3106:alares
3041:lancea
3035:lancea
2983:Arrian
2902:turmae
2886:(cav)
2826:turmae
2810:(cav)
2720:Cohors
2670:Cohors
2647:turmae
2593:turmae
2344:mosaic
2258:: the
2210:numeri
2173:, and
1866:Author
1838:Dacian
1674:Xanten
1611:Tungri
1607:Frisii
1456:Batavi
1279:amicus
1270:Thrace
1244:Salona
1240:Moesia
1236:Breuci
1218:Danube
1139:, and
1137:Cyrene
1133:Judaea
1125:Moesia
1113:Raetia
1052:turmae
1013:turmae
673:
630:Castra
565:Fleets
492:AD 476
488:753 BC
478:on the
421:, and
342:Cannae
338:Trebia
252:legion
230:relief
195:levies
177:Italic
84:Latin:
70:, Rome
63:scutum
48:Trajan
44:Danube
10245:Galen
10187:Greek
10157:Varro
9967:Lucan
9779:Latin
9694:Latin
9669:Ships
9659:Roads
9644:Domes
9576:Women
9524:Plebs
9449:Music
8991:Forum
8986:Curia
8154:9 May
6967:IV.68
6916:IV.20
6903:IV.16
6864:IV.54
6842:IV.14
6803:IV.13
6790:IV.12
6777:IV.12
6752:II.28
6708:IV.18
6153:were
6089:9,424
6018:8,288
5996:Egypt
5853:9,280
5819:6,664
5579:Total
5564:Total
5559:mill.
5557:(no.
5544:mill.
5542:(no.
5409:Ulpia
5283:miles
5134:miles
5018:optio
5011:eques
4872:optio
4551:pedes
4526:pedes
4369:eques
4357:pedes
4288:miles
4182:turma
4101:turma
4075:optio
4016:1.5 (
3984:pedes
3785:socii
3695:funda
3634:Syria
3622:Crete
3458:Moors
3144:Gauls
3142:were
3123:pugio
2972:turma
2913:1,040
2879:(inf)
2803:(inf)
2661:(768)
2606:(512)
2538:No of
1975:were
1772:motif
1764:Titus
1714:-era
1670:Trier
1593:Syria
1565:Galba
1468:delta
1296:Varus
1028:turma
733:Walls
727:Limes
650:Roads
450:socii
442:amici
419:Crete
399:Hiero
385:socii
370:socii
322:Gauls
273:socii
10561:Laws
10536:Film
10455:Roma
10022:Ovid
9962:Livy
9730:Late
9544:Gens
9501:Wine
9313:Navy
9281:Army
8920:SPQR
8822:fall
8800:fall
8593:ISBN
8570:ISBN
8547:ISBN
8490:ISBN
8471:ISBN
8432:ISSN
8397:ISBN
8378:ISBN
8349:ISBN
8321:ISBN
8302:ISBN
8156:2018
7592:ISBN
7541:ISBN
7504:17.3
7279:I.47
7255:KLIO
7192:alae
7164:IV.5
7015:35β8
6993:V.26
6816:II.5
6490:IV.5
6365:Livy
6236:ISBN
6114:(30)
5537:Alae
5445:dona
5432:p.f.
5416:gens
5403:gens
5388:c.R.
5374:gens
5123:and
5095:and
5071:and
5058:and
5040:ante
4939:and
4907:alae
4735:120
4543:XXX
4518:item
4455:and
4334:lit.
4316:ante
4129:526
4088:376
4046:395
4033:282
4011:263
3990:188
3953:rank
3843:The
3744:and
3592:and
3558:lit.
3472:and
3452:and
3434:and
3400:and
3390:and
3162:alae
3154:and
3098:Alae
3079:Alae
3068:alae
2834:30.
2766:800
2712:480
2659:720
2655:(32)
2604:480
2600:(32)
2548:Unit
2528:Unit
2491:and
2453:and
2433:and
2429:alae
2372:and
2368:alae
2199:and
2196:alae
1932:279
1905:247
1877:No.
1872:alae
1869:No.
1766:and
1672:and
1654:and
1644:and
1633:Bonn
1532:lit.
1454:The
1404:Nero
1330:and
1318:and
1266:c.R.
1262:c.R.
1199:Elbe
1107:and
1095:and
1087:and
1005:Alae
960:alae
555:Navy
511:Army
377:alae
350:Zama
309:alae
287:alae
254:, a
146:The
133:and
93:lit.
74:The
9715:Old
9399:Art
9172:Rex
9016:Dux
8930:Law
8424:doi
8370:doi
7253:in
7184:ALA
6119:381
6111:293
6106:(7)
6074:15
6042:(1)
6040:30
6036:(1)
6034:10
6003:11
5961:(3)
5959:43
5955:(1)
5953:12
5921:(2)
5919:15
5877:(8)
5875:32
5871:(1)
5869:11
5838:12
5804:10
5769:(4)
5767:21
5763:(2)
5761:11
5729:(5)
5727:20
5723:(1)
5682:(1)
5680:22
5646:17
5604:(6)
5602:45
5598:(1)
5596:11
5398:c.R
5259:ala
5032:in
5022:to
4952:or
4895:of
4869:),
4700:140
4680:25
4642:115
4588:188
4581:225
4411:of
4387:ala
4366:),
4256:ala
4246:or
4225:or
4215:50
4203:ala
4122:ala
4051:2 (
4004:ala
3973:1 (
3950:Ala
3945:XXX
3708:).
3582:ala
3482:or
3268:ala
2989:ala
2910:30
2889:10
2837:600
2763:80
2753:10
2709:80
2653:30
2643:24
2615:Ala
2598:30
2590:16
2558:Ala
2416:).
1936:367
1929:88
1909:327
1902:80
1791:ala
1724:ala
1660:).
1617:ala
1496:ala
971:ala
401:of
394:).
293:ala
111:by
50:'s
10633::
8430:.
8418:.
8414:.
8376:.
8173:^
8146:.
8142:.
8113:^
8092:^
8080:^
8056:^
8026:^
7969:^
7918:^
7858:^
7719:^
7696:^
7590:.
7588:38
7480:^
7326:^
7314:^
7212:^
7092:^
7071:^
7059:^
6697:^
6649:^
6592:^
6504:^
6406:^
6319:^
6289:^
6273:^
6103:88
6078:17
6071:2
6047:40
6007:15
6000:4
5966:55
5926:19
5916:4
5882:43
5842:17
5835:5
5808:12
5801:2
5774:32
5734:27
5721:7
5687:25
5677:3
5650:23
5643:6
5609:56
5510:.
5247:,
5235:.
5137:.
4732:)
4707:78
4649:78
4626:50
4619:50
4609:60
4602:60
4482:,
4449:,
3968:)
3876:.
3628:,
3586:,
3517:.
3285:.
3150:,
3146:,
2942:**
2908:80
2898:8
2870:**
2832:80
2822:4
2813:6
2742:**
2701:6
2364:,
1518:,
1326:,
1076:.
1037:.
490:β
91:;
8693:e
8686:t
8679:v
8637:.
8628:.
8610:.
8601:.
8578:.
8555:.
8534:.
8525:.
8516:.
8507:.
8498:.
8479:.
8456:.
8447:.
8438:.
8426::
8420:7
8405:.
8386:.
8372::
8357:.
8329:.
8310:.
8291:.
8158:.
7600:.
7549:.
6980:V
5561:)
5546:)
5430:(
5390:(
4835:)
4811:(
4779:(
4563:)
4538:)
4530::
4470:(
4403:(
4384:(
4346:'
4340:'
4332:(
4278:)
4252:(
4118:(
4098:(
4065:(
4000:(
3960:(
3942:)
3934:(
3702:(
3570:'
3564:'
3555:]
3265:(
2923:*
2690:*
2307:(
1720:(
1544:'
1538:'
1530:(
1462:(
1442:(
937:e
930:t
923:v
427:(
105:'
99:'
82:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
